CHAPTER 35 AN INTRODUCTION TO FLOWERING PLANTS

Prepared by

Brenda Leady, University of Toledo

Copyright (c) The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Overview of Plant Structure

1. Two major regions of flowering plants a) Root system anchor plants in the ground absorb water and minerals store excess sugar transport water, minerals, sugar, hormones produce hormones b) Shoot system - consists of stems, leaves, buds, flowers, fruits for photosynthesis transport of materials between leaves, flowers, fruits, and roots reproduction hormone synthesis 2. Two groups of flowering plants a) Monocot - grasses, lilies, orchids b) Dicot - deciduous trees and bushes

Alternation of generations

Gametophyte (haploid)
Microscopic

in flowering plants Produce gametes by mitosis

Sporophyte (diploid)
Large

plant in flowering plants Produces spores by meiosis

 Plant

embryo is a sporophyte that lies dormant within a seed with a supply of stored food and a seed coat May lay dormant for long periods until conditions are favorable Embryo grows into seedling and then mature plant
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Growth increase in size or weight Development increase in number or organs, accompanied by differentiation Meristem region of undifferentiated cells producing new tissues by cell division Basic plant organs roots, stems, and leaves contain several types of tissues

Roots provide anchorage in the soil and foster efficient uptake of water and minerals Stem produce leaves and branches and bear the reproductive structures Leaves foliage leaves specialized for photosynthesis

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Radicle, embryonic root, first organ to emerge from germinating seed

Provides

water and minerals for growth

Hypocotyl produces cotyledons

2 seed leaves Monocots 1 seed leaf
Eudicots

Endosperm provides food for early embryo growth

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Plant Growth and Development

1. Two categories of cells a) meristem cells - embryonic, undifferentiated, capable of cell division b) differentiated cells - are specialized in structure and function, and usually dont divide Meristem cells: apical meristems - located at the ends of roots and shoots lateral meristems or cambia - form cylinders that run parallel to the long axis of roots and stems 2. Two forms of plant growth a) Primary growth - occurs through mitotic cell division of apical meristem cells by differentiation of the resulting daughter cells; increase in length b) Secondary growth - occurs through mitotic cell division of lateral meristem cells, and differentiation of their daughter cells; increase in diameter

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Development

Shoot apical meristem (SAM)

Rapidly dividing cells at Produces shoot system

shoot apices

Stems, leaves and other organ systems

Root apical meristem (RAM)

Also rapidly dividing cells Produces root system

Roots and root branches

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Vegetative growth
Production of tissues by SAM and RAM and growth of mature plant Plant shoots produce vegetative buds miniature shoots having a dormant SAM Under favorable conditions, buds produce new stems and leaves Indeterminate growth SAMs continuously produce new stem tissue and leaves as long as conditions are favorable

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Reproductive development
Mature plants produce flowers, seeds and fruits Flowers produced by determinate growth growth of limited duration Flower tissues enclose and protect tiny male and female gametophytes Fruits enclose seeds and function in seed dispersal

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Seed-to-seed lifetime
Annuals plants that die after producing seeds during their first year of life; e.g. corn Biennials plants that do not reproduce the first year but may the following year Perennials plants that live for more than 2 years, often producing seed each year after maturity

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1) Distinctive architecture

2 features
1.

Upper, apical pole and a lower, basal pole

SAM at upper pole, RAM at basal pole Apical-basal polarity Originates during embryo development

2.

Radial symmetry

Stem and root cylindrical Leaves and flower parts in whorls or spirals
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2) Primary meristems
SAM and RAM produce additional meristematic tissue that increases plant length and produces new organs Primary meristems produce primary tissues and organs of diverse types

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SAM and RAM both produce

generates dermal tissue Procambium produces vascular tissues Ground meristem produces ground tissues defined by location
Protoderm

Plant cell specialization and tissue development do not depend much on the lineage of a cell or tissue Chemical influences are much more important

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Plant Tissues and Cell Types

1. Three tissue systems

a) dermal tissue - covers the outer surface of the plant body b) ground tissue system - consists of all the non-dermal and nonvascular tissues c) vascular tissue - transports water, minerals, sugars, and plant hormones a. Dermal tissue system Two types: a) epidermis - outermost layer cuticle - cells secreted by epidermal cells that reduces evaporation of water from the plant b) periderm - replaces the epidermal tissue on the roots and stems of woody plants as they age; composed of cork cells (form the protective outer layer of the bark of trees, and woody shrubs, and the woody covering of their roots).

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b. Ground tissue system - makes up the bulk of a young plant a) Parenchyma - thin-walled cells that typically carry most of the metabolic products of plants; for photosynthesis; storage of sugars and starches, and secretion of hormones b) Collenchyma - consists of elongated, polygonal cells; alive at maturity but cannot divide c) Sclerenchyma - consists of cells with thick, hardened secondary walls, reinforced with a stiffening substance called lignin; support and strengthen the plant body

Parenchyma cells Layer of epidermal cells showing the stomata

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Collenchyma cells

Sclerenchyma cells

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c. Vascular tissue system a) Xylem b) Phloem

Xylem - conducts water and minerals from roots to shoots in tubes that are made from one of 2 types of cells: tracheids and vessel elements

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Phloem - transports sugars, amino acids, and hormones

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Stem development and structure

New primary stem tissues arise by the cell division activities of primary meristems located near the bases of SAMs Epidermis develops at the stem surface
Produces

a waxy cuticle (reduces water loss)

Cortex composed of parenchyma tissue

Composed

of only one cell type, parenchyma cells Stores starch in plastids

Stem parenchyma also has the ability to undergo cell division (meristematic capacity) to heal damage
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Stems also contain

Collenchyma

tissue composed of collenchyma cells Sclerechyma tissue composed of fibers and sclerids Vascular tissue made of xylem and phloem arranged in vascular bundles
Ring in eudicots Scattered in monocots

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X-section of a dicot stem

X-section of a monocot stem

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Leaf development and structure

Young leaves produced at the side of SAMs in leaf primordia Flattening expands surface area for light collection Being thin helps shed excess heat Bilaterally symmetrical Upper adaxial (stem facing) side

Pallisade parenchyma absorbs sunlight efficiently

Lower abaxial (away from stem) side

More stomata Spongy parenchyma has air spaces to foster gas exchange

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Root development and structure

Eudicots taproot system with a main root that produces branch roots Monocots fibrous root system with multiple roots Adventitious roots produced on the surface of stems of monocots and eudicots

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3) Ever-young stem cells

Plant meristems include stem cells Term stem cell used for plant meristem cells that remain undifferentiated but can produce new tissues Plant stem cell divides to produce one cell that remains unspecialized and another cell that is capable of differentiating into various types of specialized cells

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Plant Shoot Apical Meristem Size Is Genetically Controlled

Normal Arabidopsis SAM consists of several hundred stem cells organized into at least three distinct cell regions having different functions Central zone consists of stem cells that divide but remain undifferentiated Normal growth depends on maintaining normal size of central zone and SAM Central zone cells make CLAVATA3 that controls the size of the zone Loss of CLAVATA3 causes peripheral zone cells to become central zone cells

Shoot system

Includes all of a plants stems, branches and leaves Also produces flowers and fruits Phytomere shoot module
Stem node leaves emerge 2. Internode between adjacent nodes 3. Leaf 4. Axillary meristem generate axillary buds for lateral shoots
1.
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Hormones
Molecules that influence development at a site distinct for production Auxin controls production of leaf primordia

Accumulates

in particular apical region increasing expansion gene expression

Gibberellic acid produced by leaf primordia not producing KNOX

Stimulates

cell division and cell enlargement so young leaves grow larger

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Leaf adaptations

Leaf form
leaves only one blade, advantageous in shade by providing maximal light absorption Complex or compound leaves dissected into leaflets, common in hot environments for heat dissipation
Simple

Leaf venation
Eudicot leaves have pinnate or palmate venation Netted veins provide more support to the leaf Monocot

leaves have parallel venation

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Leaf surface features

Cuticle

on epidermis helps avoid desiccation

Filter UV radiation, reduce microbe and animal attack, and self-cleaning

Guard

cells regulate stomatal opening and closing Trichomes offer protection from excessive light, ultraviolet radiation, extreme air temperature, or attack by herbivores
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Elle and Associates Investigated the Cost to Datura wrightii of Producing Sticky Leaf Trichomes

Some plants sticky have glandular trichomes Others velvety with similar nonglandular trichomes Sticky dominant to velvety Sticky trichomes may deter certain herbivores but may be costly when herbivores not present Hypothesized that sticky plants might produce fewer seeds than velvety plants, because plant photosynthetic products are diverted from reproduction Data supported the initial hypothesis

Modified leaves
Most leaves function primarily in photosynthesis Can be modified for other roles Tendrils Tough scales that protect buds Poinsetta petals Cactus spines

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Stem vascular tissue

Herbaceous plants produce mostly primary vascular tissues Woody plants produce primary and secondary vascular tissue

Woody

plants begin as herbaceous seedling with only primary vascular systems

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Primary vascular tissue Primary xylem

Unspecialized parenchyma cells Stiff fibers for structural support Tracheids and vessel elements conduct

water

and dissolved minerals (not living cells)

Primary phloem
Transports

organic compounds and certain

minerals Sieve elements (living cells) Companion cells aid seive element metabolism Parenchyma cells Supportive fibers
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Secondary vascular tissue Secondary xylem wood Secondary phloem inner bark Bark has both outer bark (mostly dead cork cells) and inner bark (secondary phloem) Secondary vascular tissues produced by two types of secondary

Vascular

cambium Cork cambium

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Vascular cambium
Produces

secondary xylem and secondary

phloem Secondary xylem conducts most of a woody plants water and minerals may function several years Usually only the current years production of secondary phloem is active in food transport

Cork cambium
Produces

cork Cork cells dead when mature and layered with lignin and suberin
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Modified stems
Rhizomes- underground stems Potato tubers store food Grass stems grow as rhizomes or stolons

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Modified Stems
1. Bulbs - consists of fleshy leaves attached to a small knoblike stem; e.g. onions, lilies, tulips 2. Corms - resembles bulbs but reveals no fleshy leaves; have a stem with a few papery, brown nonfunctional leaves, and adventitious roots below; e.g. gladioluses 3. Rhizomes - horizontal stems that grow underground, often close to the surface; e.g. perennial grasses, ferns 4. Runners and stolons - horizontal stems that grow along the surface of the ground; e.g. strawberry plants 5. Tubers - swollen tip of stolon due to accumulation of carbohydrates; e.g. potato 6. Tendrils - twine around supports and aid in climbing; e.g.peas, pumpkins 7. Cladophylls - flattened photosynthetic stems that resemble leaves; e.g. cacti
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Root system adaptations

Eudicots have taproots Monocots have fibrous roots Other types of roots

Prop

roots Buttress roots Pneumatophores Fleshy storage roots carrots, sugar beets
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Modified Roots
Taproot system - consists of a single large root with smaller branch roots Fibrous root system - composed of many smaller roots 1. Aerial roots - exhibited by plants that have roots extended out into the air (orchids); have epidermis that is several cells thick to reduce water loss; some maybe photosynthetic (vanilla orchid); prop roots grow down to the ground and brace the plants against wind (corn); some plants (ivy) produce roots from their stems to anchor the stems to tree trunks or brick wall

2. Pneumatophores - some plants growing in swamps produce spongy outgrowths called pneumatophores from their roots; these facilitate the oxygen supply to the roots beneath
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3. Contractile roots - roots of some plants contract by spiraling to pull the plant a little deeper into the soil each year until they reach an area of relatively stable temperatures e.g. lilies, dandelions 4. Parasitic roots - certain plants (Cuscuta) that lack chlorophyll have stems that produce peglike roots called haustoria that penetrate the host plants around which they are twined; the haustoria establish contact with the conducting tissues and parasitize their their host 5. Food storage roots - some plants have roots that accumulate large quantities of carbohydrates; potatoes, carrots, beets, radishes, turnips 6. Water storage roots - some plants (Cucurbitaceae) produce water-storage roots 7. Buttress roots - certain species of fig and other tropical trees produce huge buttress roots toward the base of the trunk, which provide considerable stability

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Root growth

15 distinct regions of cellular specialization 3 major zones

Apical meristem producing root and root cap 2. Zone of elongation 3. Zone of maturation with specialized cells
1.

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Root meristem and root cap

RAM

contains stem cells, protoderm (epidermal tissues), ground meristem (ground tissue), and procambium (makes vascular tissue) Also produces protective root cap Root tips embedded in lubricating mucigel

Zone of elongation
Cells

extend by water uptake

Zone of maturation
Root

cell differentiation and tissue specialization Identified by presence of root hairs (water and mineral uptake) absent from older regions
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Epidermis of mature roots encloses region of ground parenchyma root cortex Root cortex cells often rich in starch (food storage site) Primary vascular system includes xylem enclosed by phloem Pericycle encloses root vascular tissue

Produces

lateral (branch) roots

Woody roots produce primary vascular tissues followed by secondary vascular tissues

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