ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Lecture # 4

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Fuel Heating Value

When a mixture of fuel and air is burned,

the

temperature

of

the

combustion

products formed is much higher than that of the fuelair mixture. Heat may be transferred from the hot combustion products to a colder fluid; for

example, in a steam boiler- this heat

causes the water to warm and then boil to steam.

Fuel Heating Value/2

The amount of heat available for this

purpose is called the fuel heating value

and is usually expressed in energy units

per unit mass of fuel.

Fuel Heating Value/3

The Heating value or Calorific value of

a fuel, is the amount of heat released

during the combustion of a specified

amount.
It is measured in units of energy per unit

of the substance, such as: kcal/kg, kJ/kg,

J/mol, Btu/m.

Lower Heating Value, LHV

Fuel Heating Value (FHV) at 25 C and

one atmosphere of pressure, assuming

that the H2O formed in the product is in the vapor phase.

Lower Heating Value, LHV/2

In virtually all combustion systems, the

water

molecules

in

the

products

of

combustion leaving the device are in the form of vapor, not liquid, because the

effluent temperature is high enough and

the concentration of water molecules is

low enough to prevent the formation of

liquid droplets.

Higher Heating Value (HHV)

Sometimes a higher heating value (HHV) or Gross Calorific Value (GCV) is used in the sale of fuel, based upon the assumption that

the water product is in the liquid form.

Higher Heating Value (HHV)/2

HHV is determined by bringing all the

products of combustion back to the original pre-combustion temperature and in particular

condensing any vapor produced.

Lower Heating Value, LHV

Lower heating value (LHV) (or net calorific

value) is determined by subtracting the heat

of vaporization of the water vapor from the

higher heating value. This treats any H2O

formed as a vapor. The energy (heat)

required to vaporize the water is not available

for partial conversion to work and is not realized.

Higher (HHV) and Lower (LHV) Heating values ( some common fuels)
Fuel Methane Ethane Butane Propane Natural Gas Gasoline Diesel Hydrogen Kerosene Coal (Lignite) Coal (Anthracite) Wood HHV MJ/Kg 55.50 51.90 49.50 50.35 42.50 47.30 44.80 141.80 46.20 15.00 27.00 15.00 BTU/lb 23,900 22,400 20,900 21,700 18,271 20,400 19,300 61,000 19,861 8,000 14,000 6,500 MJ/Kg 50.00 47.80 45.75 46.35 38.10 44.40 43.00 121.00 43.00 14-18 21.00 LHV BTU/lb 21,495 20,550 19,668 19,926 16,380 19,088 18,486 52,018 18,486 6,019-7,738 9,028

32-34 13,757-14,617

Distinction Between Higher And Lower Heating Value

Primarily a matter of convention. Sellers of fuel like to quote their price in terms of dollars per million Btu of higher heating value, a lower price than that per million Btu of lower heating value.

Distinction Between Higher And Lower Heating Value

Users of fuel who generate electricity prefer to rate their plant efficiency in terms of electrical energy produced per unit of fuel lower heating value consumed, leading to higher efficiencies.

Fuel (Thermal) Efficiency

Converting fuel energy to mechanical form is

an essential ingredient that has important

economic and environmental consequences.

A measure of the influence upon these

consequences is the efficiency with which

the fuel energy is converted to mechanical

form.

Fuel efficiency (f) or Thermal Efficiency

Fuel efficiency is the ratio of the work produced to the heating value of the fuel consumed.

P f f LHV m
The ratio of fuel consumption rate mf to engine power P is called the Specific Fuel Consumption.

Synthetic Fuels
A synthetic fuel is manufactured from another fuel so as to enhance its usefulness while retaining as much of the original heating value as possible.

Synthetic Fuels/2
Typical examples are oil produced from coal, oil shale, or tar sands; gas from coal, oil, or biomass; alcohols from natural gas or biomass; and hydrogen from coal, oil, or natural gas.

Synthetic Fuels/3
Some liquid fuels, such as gasoline, are

partially synthetic as the synthesized

components from petroleum constituents produced during refining process are added to the natural fractions of petroleum that ordinarily comprise the liquid fuel.

Major Advantages of Synthetic Fuels

1. The removal of base fuel constituents such as sulfur, nitrogen, and ash that lead to harmful air pollutants 2. The ability to burn the fuel in special devices such as gas turbines and fuel cells.

Major Disadvantage
Major disadvantage is the cost of

synthesizing the fuel and the loss of its

heating value, both of which raise the

cost of synthetic fuel heat.

This cost factor has been the major

obstacle to widespread production and

use of synthetic fuels.

Synthetic Fuels - Manufacture

Synthetic fuels are formed in steady flow
reactors supplied with fuel and other

reactants, usually at elevated pressures

and temperatures.

The chemical reactions that generate the

synthetic fuels are aided by the use of

catalysts that enhance the reaction rates

to economically practical levels.

Synthetic Fuels - Manufacture

Where the synthesizing reactions are endothermic, heat must be added to maintain the reactor temperature.

Synthetic Fuels - Manufacture

Most conversion processes require high

process

temperatures

and

pressures,

need catalytic support to improve the production rate, and consume mechanical power to provide and for the heat requisite transfer pressurization

processing.

Synthetic Fuels - Manufacture

The economic and energy costs of

synthetic fuel production can only be

justified when there are compensating gains attending the use of synthetic fuels, such as the suitability for use in fuel cells or convenience of storage and transport.

Synthetic Fuels Efficiency

Reforming of natural fossil fuels to synthetic

form will result in a loss of fuel heating value

and an increase of carbon emissions per unit

of synthetic fuel heating value.

Thermal Efficiencies of Synthetic Fuels

Fuel
Coal
Coal Coal Coal Oil Methane Coal, Oil or Gas Oil Shale Methanol Wood

Product
Synthesis gas
Methane Methanol Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen (Electrolytic) Oil & Gas Oil & Gas Gas

Efficiency (%)
7287
6178 5159 62 77 70-79 20-30 56-72 86 90

Hydrogen Economy
The hydrogen economy is a proposed

system
hydrogen.

of

delivering

energy

using

A hydrogen economy is proposed to solve

some of the negative effects of using

hydrocarbon fuels where the carbon is

released to the atmosphere.

Hydrogen Economy/2
Proponents of a world-scale hydrogen

economy argue that hydrogen can be an

environmentally cleaner source of energy

to end-users, particularly in transportation

applications, without release of pollutants

(such as particulate matter) or carbon

dioxide at the point of end use.

Hydrogen Economy/3
Hydrogen has a high energy density by
weight. An Otto cycle internal combustion

engine running on hydrogen is said to have

a maximum efficiency of about 38%, 8% higher than gasoline internal combustion engine.

Hydrogen Economy/4
The combination of the fuel cell and electric motor is 2-3 times more efficient than an

internal combustion engine. However, the

high capital cost of fuel cell, about

$5,500/kW, is the major obstacle of its

development. It means that the fuel cell is only technically, but not economically, more efficient than an internal combustion engine.

Advantages - Hydrogen Economy

1. The elimination of pollution caused by fossil fuels - When hydrogen is used in a fuel cell to create power, it is a completely clean technology. The only byproduct is water. There are also no environmental

dangers like oil spills to worry about with

hydrogen.

Advantages - Hydrogen Economy

2. The elimination of greenhouse gases - If
the hydrogen comes from the electrolysis of

water, then hydrogen adds no greenhouse

gases to the environment. There is a

perfect

cycle

--

electrolysis

produces

hydrogen from water, and the hydrogen recombines with oxygen to create water and power in a fuel cell.

Advantages - Hydrogen Economy

3. The elimination of economic

dependence - The elimination of oil

means no dependence on the Middle

East and its oil reserves.

Advantages - Hydrogen Economy

4. Distributed production - Hydrogen can

be produced anywhere that you have

electricity and water. People can even

produce it in their homes with relatively

simple technology.

Some Thermodynamics
The principle of energy conservation
The first law of thermodynamics implies that the work of an engine cannot exceed

the energy available.

The second law of thermodynamics

explains why, and by how much, there is a

work shortfall.

Heat Interaction
Processes whereby substances are warmed or cooled (cooking or refrigerating food) requires increasing or decreasing its temperature by bringing it into contact with a warmer or cooler environment.

A temperature difference between a system and its environment is required for a heat interaction to transpire.

Heat Interaction
If a system warmer than the environment is brought into contact with it and the environment undergoes a temperature increase, a heat interaction has taken place. The incremental amount of the heat interaction dQ (energy transfer from the system to the environment), is equal to the product of the heat capacity Cen of the environment and its temperature increase dTen. But by convention the energy transferred to a system in a heat interaction is regarded as a positive quantity so that in this case the energy transfer is negative. Consequently

dQ Cen dTen

First Law Of Thermodynamics

It states that the increment in system energy dE equals the increment in heat dQ transferred to the system minus the work dW done by the system on the environment,

dE dQ dW
It is an energy conservation principle that the sum of the system energy change dE, the work dW, and the heat dQ added to the environment is zero.

First Law Of Thermodynamics

If many successive incremental changes are added to accomplish a finite change in the system energy E from an initial state i to a final state f , the first law may be expressed in integral form as,

Ef Ei dQ dW
i i

In this form, the first law expresses the finite change in energy of the system as equal to the sum of the heat transferred to the system minus the work done by the system on the environment during the process that brought about the change from the initial to the final state.

Second Law Of Thermodynamics

States that it is not possible to devise a cyclic process in which heat supplied from a single source is converted entirely to work. Instead, only some of the heat may be converted to work; the remainder must be rejected to a heat sink at a lower temperature than the heat source. The net of the heat added and subtracted in the cycle equals the work done, as the first law requires.

Fossil-fueled Power Plants

Fossil-fueled power plants are major contributors to the anthropogenic (effects,
processes or materials that are derived from human activities) emissions of:

CO2 and other pollutants, such as SO2 & NOx, Products of incomplete combustion, and particulate matter (PM).

Thermal Efficiencies Power Plants

The best steam cycle power plants can achieve a thermal efficiency above 40%; the U.S. average is 36% and the worldwide average is about 33%. Gas turbine power plants achieve a thermal efficiency in the 2530% range. Combined cycle power plants can achieve an efficiency of about 45%.

The relatively low thermal efficiency of power plants is due to two factors.
The first is a consequence of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, whereby in a heat engine cycle, after performing useful work, the residual of the fuel heat needs to be rejected to a cold reservoir, usually a surface water (river, lake or ocean) or the atmosphere via a cooling tower. The second factor is due to heat losses through walls and pipes, frictional losses, and residual heat escaping with the flue gas into the atmosphere.

Unfortunate Fact
Power plants use only about 2550%of the
input chemical energy of fossil fuels to generate electricity; the rest is wasted; that is, it goes down the river, up in the air and so on.

Sea Level Rise

Heat Rejection into Environment

Steam turbine electric power plants reject between 1.5 and 3 times as much heat into the environment as the plant produces work in the form of electricity. A 1000-MW electric power plant working at 25% efficiency rejects 3000 MW of heat to the environment, whereas one working at 40% efficiency rejects 1500 MW.

Heat Rejection into Environment

In the past, most power plants were located near a river, lake, or ocean. In those plants the hot water from the condenser is directly discharged to the surface water by means of a diffuser or indirectly into a canal that leads to the surface water. The discharge of warm water into the surface water can cause thermal pollution and possible harm to aquatic organisms. Also, contaminants that leach into the discharge water from pipes and ducts pollute the surface waters.

Coal Power Station. Arizona, USA

Emission Control
Power plants can emit quantities of air pollutants that cause ambient pollutant levels to exceed standards designed to protect human health and the environment.

In Coal fired plant the mineral contents exits the smoke stack as particles (fly ash) and the sulfur exits as sulfur dioxide SO2. The plant would emit plentiful quantities of nitrogen oxides, products of incomplete combustion (PIC), carbon monoxide and volatile trace metals.

Rate of sea level rise

Emission Control Devices

Emission control devices contribute significantly to the capital and operating cost of the plant, and reduce to some degree the thermal efficiency, because the devices syphon off some of the power output of the plant. The control devices also produce a stream of waste, because what is not emitted into the atmosphere usually winds up as a solid or liquid waste stream.

Control of PIC and CO

PIC (Products of incomplete combustion) and CO (Carbon Monoxide) emissions do occur occasionally, especially during start-ups and component breakdowns, when the flame temperature and fuelair mixture is not optimal. Under those conditions a visible black smoke emanates from the smoke stack.

If the fuel and air are well-mixed and the fuel is burnt in excess air, the flue gas will contain very little, if any, PIC and CO.

Control of PIC and CO

It is in the interest of power plants to achieve a well-mixed, fuel-lean (air rich) flame, not only for reducing the emission of pollutants but also for complete burn-out of the fuel, which increases the thermal efficiency of the plant.

Particulate Matter
Particulate matter is the term used for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Coarse particles (larger than 2.5 micrometers) come from a variety of sources including windblown dust and grinding operations. Fine particles (less than 2.5 micrometers) often come from fuel combustion, power plants, and diesel buses and trucks.

Particulate Matter
Particulate matter (PM), is the predominant pollutant emanating from power plants if not controlled at the source. Coal, and even oil, contains a significant fraction by weight of incombustible mineral matter. In modern pulverized coal-fired plants the majority ( 90%) of the mineral matter is blown out from the boiler as fly ash.

Particulate Matter
The fly ash contains:
a. A host of toxic metals, such as arsenic, selenium, cadmium, manganese, chromium, lead, and mercury. b. Nonvolatile organic matter (soot), including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); these would pose a public health and environmental risk if emitted into the atmosphere.

Particulate Matter Health Concerns

They easily reach the deepest recesses of the lungs. Particulate matter, especially fine particles (alone or in combination with other air pollutants), pose a series of significant health problems.

Particulate Matter Health Concerns

Effects related to short-term exposure:

Lung inflammatory reactions. Respiratory symptoms.

Adverse effects on the cardiovascular system.

Increase in medication usage.

Increase in hospital admissions.

Increase in mortality.

Particulate Matter Health Concerns

Effects related to long-term exposure:
Increase in lower respiratory symptoms.
Reduction in lung function in children. Increase in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Reduction in lung function in adults. Reduction in life expectancy, owing mainly to cardiopulmonary mortality and probably to lung cancer.

Thank You