Analog Electronics

Using Operational Amplifiers

Agenda
Operational amplifier basics Specifications Typical applications
Some content based on information in Operational Amplifiers Design and Applications, edited by Tobey, Graeme and Huelsman, Burr-Brown Research Corp., published by Mc GrawHill, 1971. Recommended reference is Op Amps For Everyone, Ron Mancini, Editor, Texas Instruments, 2000. TI Lit. # SLOD006

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Operational Amplifiers

Operational Amplifier Basics

Differential input, single output amplifier High differential gain ~ 106 Low common mode gain ~ 1 High input impedance 106 to 1015 ohms Single pole frequency response

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Operational Amplifiers

Operational Amplifier Frequency Response

+V 120 100 Gain 80 |Gain| dB 60 40 Phase 20 0 .0001 Hz .01Hz 1Hz Frequency 100Hz 10KHz -90 -180 1MHz - V SUPPLY 0
SUPPLY

IN

OUT

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Operational Amplifiers

Basic Operational Amplifier Connection

Positive input grounded
ZFB Z

E IN

IN

E DIFF

E OUT

OUT

=-(Z

FB

/Z

IN

)xE

IN

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Operational Amplifiers

Inverting configurations
Negative input held at ground by high gain. Input impedance equals Z in. Output impedance is near zero - limited by output current. Multiple inputs can be summed:

E1

Z FB

E2

E OUT E3 Z
3

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Operational Amplifiers

Historical Roots
Originally designed for use in analog computers. These amplifiers allowed simple implementation of transfer functions. A resistor input and a capacitor feedback makes an operational amplifier into an integrator. These can be combined with adders and inverters to solve differential equations.

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Operational Amplifiers

Basic Op Amp Integrator

C

EIN

R EOUT

EOUT/EIN = -1/SCR = -1/S

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Operational Amplifiers

Analog Computers
Solve the differential equation for the highest order derivative. Use successive integrators to create lower order terms. Compute the terms on the right side of the equation and sum them into the first integrator. The challenge is in the scaling of the problem to get measurable signal levels.
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1/3 e(t) 1 +4 V 1 2 e(t) 1 1 - e(t) 1 1

This arrangement solves the equation e(t) = 3 e(t) + 2 e(t) + 4 for e(t).

Operational Amplifiers

Typical Operational Amplifier

Operates with inputs and outputs between the supply voltages. Differential input stage. Constant current sink allows inputs to track over a wide range without changing the output. After intermediate amplification, the output is driven through a half-bridge or totem pole output stage.

+Vs

-Vs

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Specifications
Performance specified for certain supply voltages. Input voltage and current offsets Input impedance - parallel R, C. Output voltage and current capacity Short circuit output current Gain x Bandwidth product Output slew rate Supply current and more
Operational Amplifiers 11

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Operational Amplifier Usage

The simplicity of use has displaced transistor circuits in low power applications. Fewer components Ideal response Low cost For limited frequency circuits.

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Non-Inverting Configurations
EIN

Unity Gain

Input is to positive input terminal. Feedback is to negative input terminal. Very high input impedance. Makes an excellent buffer. Added current gain inside the feedback provides higher output current.
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E OUT

E IN

Gain = (Z FB + Z IN )/Z IN
ZIN Z FB

E OUT

EIN

High Current

E OUT

ZIN

ZF
B

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Design Considerations
Input offset voltage and bias currents are amplified by the amplifier itself. Input signal voltages usually can not go within a few volts of the supply rails. If the negative supply rail is zero volts, then the signals need to be referenced to something between the rails. If you use 0 and 5 volts for the supply voltages, then the signals should be referenced to something like 2.5 volts. Output signal voltage usually can not go all the way from rail to rail. Output current is limited. Usually in the 5 to 25 mA range. Slew rates are the maximum dV/dt on the outputs. For a sine wave, E sin wt, this is wE (Volts/usec). Bandwidth is limited to the unity gain bandwidth divided by the stage gain.

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Typical Circuits
Many references show circuits like those which follow. Some show design equations and design sequences to follow. Some will be exact and others will be approximations which require tuning. Circuits which follow include:
High pass circuits, low pass circuits, and band pass circuits, Oscillators, Synchronous demodulator, Voltage to frequency and frequency to voltage converters, Phase locked loop, and Digital to analog converter.

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High Pass Filters

High Pass
log Gain A

Fc

log Freq.

VCVS

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More Filters
Low Pass

Band Pass

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Oscillators
Wein Bridge
Feedback is in phase when R = 1/jwC Negative feedback through the limiter prevents saturation and clipping.
R >2R C R C R

Quadrature Oscillator
Uses two integrators to solve sine wave equation e(t) = -e(t). Both sine and cosine terms are generated. Amplitude control is required here also.

-SIN

COS

SIN

LIMITER

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More Oscillators
Phase Shift Oscillator
Multistage 180 phase shifter is used. Harmonics are not in phase, which helps purity, Limiter helps control distortion also.

>12R

LIMITER

Square Wave Integrator

Successive integratons of a square wave approximates a sine wave with only a few percent of harmonic content. The amplitude falls off as the inverse square of frequency, so an amplitude control loop will be required.

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Demodulator and V/F Converters

Synchronous Demodulator
This cirduit can extract a signal of known frequency and phase from a high noise background. It is used most frequently in AC parameter measurements where the signal source is available.
E ref

Analog Switch

Voltage to Frequency Converter

The integrator ramps at a rate proportional to the input voltage. When the output reaches the reference (negative) level in the second Op Amp, the integrator is quickly reset. Dividing the output with a flip-flop gives a square wave.

+V in

-15V

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Frequency to Voltage Converter

Each negative half cycle of the Op Amp output charges C1 as shown. On each positive half cycle, this charge is transferred to C2.

C1

C2

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Phase Locked Loop

The input signal crossovers are used to generate a rectangular wave. The JK flip-flop generates a square wave. When this is exclusive ORed with the output of a voltage controlled oscillator, the result is a voltage proportional to the phase difference between the two signals. This can be used to control the oscillator. +V in JK A Low Pass B

JK Phase: VCO N A: B: 0 2.5 5 0 90 180

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Some DAC Configurations

R FB

Binary Weighted (Linear)

EO
2N R 2N-1 R 2N-2 R R

LSB

MSB

E o = 2EREF RFB BF EREF R

0

N-1

N-2

R FB

EO
R MAX R MIN

Non-Linear
EREF
0 1 2 2 N -1

One of 2N Decoder
N N-1 N-2 0

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R, 2R DAC
R FB
2R R R R

EO
2R 2R 2R 2R

LSB

MSB

E REF
R 2R 2R R R R 2R R R 2R

0 R FB

EO
2R 2R 2R 2R

E REF EO EO
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E REF

R FB
2R

E REF

R FB
8R

EO

E REF

R FB
4R

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Conclusions
This presentation has only touched on some of the Op Amp circuits most relevant to the needs of senior design projects. There are a large number of other circuits to be found for applications requiring generation, amplification, detection and measurement of analog signals.

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