Electromagnetism

Physics 15b
Lecture #23 Magnetism in Matter

Purcell Chapter 11

What We Did Last Time

Electric susceptibility of a dielectric P =
!!

If P is not uniform, bound charge !bound = " div P appears 4!"free div E = 4! ( "free + "bound ) = for linear, isotropic dielectric #

At boundaries of dielectrics, E|| is continuous, but E may not be

! eE =

" #1 E 4$

4# $ %E In such a medium, Maxwells !"B = J+ equation is modified as: c c %t

!! !!

Wave solutions propagate with a reduced speed c ! Frequency dependence of ! makes the solutions more complex

Todays Goals
Discuss magnetism of matter
!! !!

Its complicated will be mostly qualitative Ferromagnetism, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism

Introduce magnetic dipole moment

Its generated by a current loop !! Electrons moving inside atoms !! Electrons spinning around itself
!!

Lenzs Law " diamagnetism Electron spin " paramagnetism and ferromagnetism

Magnetism of Matter
Some material (e.g. iron) stick to magnets Most dont
!!

Most material are non-magnetic

In fact, there are three types of magnetism in matter:

Ferromagnetism: strongly attracted by magnets !! Fe, Fe3O4 (magnetite), Ni !! Paramagnetism: weakly attracted by magnets !! Na, Al, Mg, Ti, liquid O2 !! Diamagnetism: weakly repelled by magnets !! H2O, C (graphite, diamond), Cu, NaCl, liquid N2
!!

It seems much more complex than dielectrics But much of this can be understood from the magnetic dipole moments due to the electrons

Small Current Loop

No magnetic monopole " All magnetism is caused by electric current z Consider a small current loop I ds !! Vector potential is A = ! # c r ! r"
!! !!

Due to symmetry, only the y component is non-zero For a << r, we can approximate

" r! I a x

r ! r " = r ! a sin # cos $ + !

Ay ! ! I c

&

2%

a cos " d" r # a sin $ cos " ' * a I% a 2 1 + sin $ cos " cos " d " = sin $ ) , r ( + cr 2

Ia cr

&

2%

Magnetic Dipole Moment

Define the magnetic dipole moment as

m!
!!

I " (area of loop) z c

Ay !
z

I" a 2 sin # cr 2

Vector potential is

A!
!!

m sin # m"r = $ r2 r2

r " r! x

Magnetic field due to the dipole is

I B=!"A 1 $ 1 $ & a = ( A% sin # )r (rA% )# r sin # $# r $r 2m cos # m sin # Same as E due to electric + = r # 3 3 dipole except m " p r r

Magnetic vs. Electric Dipole

Magnetic dipole

I m= a c A=

a = area vector I

Electric dipole

+Q s #Q

p = qs

m!r r2 2m cos ! m sin ! + B= r ! 3 r r3

!=

p "r r2 2p cos ! p sin ! + E= r ! 3 r r3

!! !!

Same field at large distance Near fields look different (see textbook p. 410, Figure 11.8)

They also feel torque and (if the field is non-uniform) force from external B/E field

Torque and Force

Lorentz force on a current loop in B field generates a torque N = m ! B
!! !!

m B I F

For an electric dipole, we had N = p # E Torque rotates m to align parallel to B

If B is not uniform, a net force F appears

If m is parallel to B, F points toward stronger field !! If m is anti-parallel to B, F points toward weaker field
!!

stronger B

stronger B

weaker B

weaker B

Current Loops in Atoms

Inside atoms, electrons rotate and spin " Current loops
!!

Protons do move, but their effects are much smaller It makes a full turn every 2$r/v seconds

An electron in a circular orbit is a loop current

!!

I=
!! !!

ev 2! r

m=

evr 2c

r v $e

Angular momentum of this electron is Take the ratio:

!!

m !e = L 2me c

L = mevr

This is gyromagnetic ratio

This ratio is always Q/2Mc for uniformly-charged rotating object

In any material, many electrons are rotating in random directions " magnetic moments cancel out

Diamagnetism
Suppose we apply magnetic field to two electrons orbiting clockwise and counter-clockwise
!!

B increases from 0 One electron accelerates, the other decelerates m increases for one electron, decreases for another

Faradays Law " emf around the orbit

!! !!

Lenzs Law says that the velocity change should produce B field pointing down inside the loops
!!

This creates a net m anti-parallel to B

This is diamagnetism
Induction affects electrons orbital velocities so that the material becomes magnetized opposite to external field !! This happens to any material
!!

Electron Spin
Enter quantum mechanics An electron itself has a spin = angular momentum
!!

Magnitude is L =

It also has a magnetic dipole moment: m =

!!

h where h = 6.6 " 10 #27 g $ cm2 /s 4!

The gyromagnetic ratio is

m e , i.e. 2x classical value = L me c

eh 4! me c

Electrons in atoms or molecules are often paired

!! !!

Two electrons in each pair have opposite spin Total magnetic dipole moment is zero They are randomly oriented, so the total dipole moment for a large number of such atoms is still zero

An atom or a molecule with unpaired electrons have m % 0

!!

Paramagnetism
Apply B to any material
Electrons dipole moment receives torque N = m # B !! Unpaired electrons turn so that their m is parallel to B !! Paired electrons cannot turn because their spins must always be opposite # Paulis exclusion principle
!!

$ Net magnetization appears only if the material contains unpaired electrons This is paramagnetism Strength of paramagnetism is determined by the balance between the torque N = m # B and the thermal fluctuation
In terms of energy, its a competition between mB and kBT !! Effect is proportional to B, and to 1/T
!!

Uniformly Magnetized Cylinder

A small volume dV is filled with magnetic dipoles !! Total dipole moment is NdVm = MdV
!!

da dz

We can also see this as a current flowing around the cylinders side surface:

Ida Jdzda = c c !! Comparing the two expressions: J = Mc = Nmc Stack the small volume to form a thin cylinder, then bundle them to form a thick cylinder
!! !!

Current inside cancel between neighbors We get the same J = Mc flowing on the surface

A uniformly magnetized cylinder is equivalent to a solenoid

Magnetized vs. Polarized

Magnetized cylinder Polarized cylinder +% M

J = Mc
#%

! =P

B/E field outside look identical B/E field inside are very different
!!

Magnetized cylinder: B is parallel to M

!!

For a thin-and-long cylinder, Binside =

!!

Polarized cylinder: E is anti-parallel to P = !4" P !! For a thick-and-flat cylinder, Einside = !4"# z

4! J = 4! M z c

Note the sign!

Ferromagnetism
In a dielectric, E! = "4# P = "4#$ eE decreases the field
!!

Polarization cannot exist without external E field

In a paramagnetic material, magnetization M increases B

!! !!

It is possible for M to create B and sustain itself by B = 4! M For this to happen, we need high density of unpaired electrons

This is ferromagnetism
Unpaired electrons align with each other spontaneously because of magnetic interactions between them !! Direction of magnetization is arbitrary, and can be modified by applying strong external field !! Ferromagnetism vanishes above a certain temperature (Curie point) because thermal fluctuation destroys the order
!!

Summary
Current loops create magnetic dipole moment
m= I a c
A= m!r 2 r

B=

2m cos ! m sin ! + r ! 3 r r3

a = area vector I

Magnetism in matter is caused by magnetic dipole moment of the electrons

!! !!

Orbital motion affected by induction " Diamagnetism Spin rotated by torque due to B " Paramagnetism

Uniformly magnetized cylinder & solenoid

External field similar to polarized dielectric !! Internal field is different: B = 4$M !! The positive sign allows self-sustaining magnetization " Ferromagnetism
!!

J = Mc