UCK215E: Aerospace Materials

A
B
C

T(ºC)
1600

1500 L (liquid)
1400
dus
ui a
1300 liq
L +lidus
1200 so a

1100
(FCC solid
solution)
1000
0 20 40 60 80 100 Assoc. Prof. Hülya Cebeci
1
Time: Group-1: Monday, 09.30-13.30, 12114
Group-2: Tuesday, 08.30-12.30

Location: Group-1: D216

Group-2: D213
Lecturer: Assoc. Prof. Hülya Cebeci, hulya.cebeci@itu.edu.tr
TA: Yunus Emre Bozkurt, bozkurt.yun@gmail.com
Melisa Dinçer, melisadnc.md@gmail.com

All class notes @ Ninova

All announcements from Ninova

2
Course Objective...
Introduce fundamental
concepts in Materials Science
You will learn about:
• materials structure
• how structure controls properties
• how processing can change structure
• how these steps affect performance
This course will help you to:
• use materials properly
• realize new design opportunities
with materials 3
 COURSE MATERIALS
W.D. Callister and D.G. Rethwisch, "Materials Science and Engineering", Wiley
A. P. Mouritz, “Introdcuction to Aerospace Materials “, Woodhead Publication, 2012

D. Askeland "Science and Engineering of Materials". Thomson.

J.F. Shackelford "Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers" Pearson.
M. Erdogan (Trans.from D. Askeland) "Malzeme Bilimi ve Mühendislik Malzemeleri 1-2" Nobel.

https://ninova.itu.edu.tr/Ders/10720/Sinif/72728

• Grades
• Syllabus
• Lecture notes

4
 Hoşgeldiniz, Hüly

GRADING
NİNOVA KAMPÜS DERSLER YARDIM HAKKI

Neredeyim: Ninova / Kampüs / UCK 215E / Ders Bilgileri

Kampüse dön Yar

Derse dön Değişiklikleriniz başarıyla kaydedilmiştir. Ders
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tanıt

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Kriterleri
Yöntem
Method
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Percentage (%)
İşlem
Say
Course Evaluation
is Not Mandatory!!! Criteria Yıliçi sınavı 2 25
erişe
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Ge
Kısa sınav 3 15 tan
Quiz
det

Ödev - - Pro
Homework
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der
Proje - - gös
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Eriş
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1 60
Final Exam ziya

Ders Kredisinin Yöntem Yüzdesi (%)

Bölünmesi (%) Method Percentage (%)
Division of Course
Credit Matematik ve Temel Bilimler
(%) Mathematics and Basic Science
- 5
 1 04.10.2021 --- General Intro

11.10.2021 --- Atomic Structure, Interatomic Bonding and

2
Structure of Crystalline Solids, Imperfections in Solids

3 18.10.2021 --- Mechanical,Thermal &Physical Properties of Materials

4 25.10.2021 --- Mechanical, Thermal &Physical Properties of Materials (cont’d) – Q1

5 01.11.2021 --- Dislocations, Strengthening Mechanisms and Failure

CONTENTS

08.11.2021 ---Metal Alloys: Microstructure Engineering, Phase Diagrams and

6
Transformations, Introduction to Ceramics

7 15.11.2021 --- Recitaiton Class & MIDTERM-1

8 22.11.2021 --- BREAK

9 29.11.2021 --- Polymers for Aerospace Applications

10 06.12.2021 --- Polymeric Composites for Aerospace Materials - Q2

11 13.12.2021 --- Mechanics of Polymer Composites

12 20.12.2021 --- Testing and Characterization of Materials

13 27.12.2021--- Materials Selection & Design – Q3

14 03.01.2022 --- Materials Selection & Design (cont’d)

6
15 10.01.2022 --- Recitation Class &MIDTERM-2
 Materials science is an interdisciplinary field applying the
properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering.
This scientific field investigates the relationship between the structure
of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic
properties.

It incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry.

materials
science
tetrahedron

The tetrahedron illustrates how a material's properties, processing,

performance, and structure are interrelated. Materials science also deals with
fundamental properties and characteristics of materials.
8
• What is materials science?
• Why should we know about it?

• Materials drive our society

– Stone Age
– Bronze Age
– Iron Age
– Now?
• Silicon Age?
• Polymer Age?

9
 The evolution of engineering materials with time

Kerpiç

The evolution of engineering materials with time. Note the highly nonlinear scale.
(From M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, 10
Oxford, 1999.)
Straw brick

Material is anything made of matter, constituted of one or

more substance.
 The Materials Selection Process
1. Pick Application Determine required Properties
Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical, etc.

2. Properties Identify candidate Material(s)

Material: structure, composition.

3. Material Identify required Processing

Processing: changes structure and overall shape
ex: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping
forming, joining, annealing.

12
Structure, Processing, & Properties
Properties depend on structure
ex: hardness vs structure of steel
(d)
600
Hardness (BHN)

30 µm
500 (c)
400 (b)
(a)
4 µm
300
30 µm
200 30 µm
Data obtained from Figs. 10.30(a)
100 and 10.32 with 4 wt% C composition,
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 and from Fig. 11.14 and associated
discussion, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Cooling Rate (ºC/s) Micrographs adapted from (a) Fig.
10.19; (b) Fig. 9.30;(c) Fig. 10.33;
• Processing can change structure and (d) Fig. 10.21, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
ex: structure vs cooling rate of steel
13
14
15
16
17
Materials can be divided into different typologies
in relation to their composition
The traditional classifications are:

• Metals
• Ceramics (and glasses, which are usually made up of the
same elements but with a different atomic arrangement)
• Polymers (or plastics, to use the more common name)
• Composites (which combine several materials to achieve
unique or economical combinations of properties)
 Metals

Materials in this group are composed of one or more

metallic elements (such as iron, aluminum, copper,
titanium, gold, nickel, brass, NiAl, so on), and
often also nonmetallic elements (for example, carbon,
nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts.

• Strong
• Ductile ó (Sünek)
• High thermal & electrical
conductivity
• Opaque
• Reflective

Bar-chart of room-temperature density values for various metals,

ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.
 Ceramics

Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides.

For example, some of the common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide (or
alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride
(Si3N4), and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics—those
composed of clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement, and glass.

Bar-chart of room-temperature resistance to fracture (i.e., ionic bonding (refractory)

fracture toughness) for various metals, ceramics, polymers, Non-conducting (insulators)
and composite materials.
 Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic
compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic
elements (viz. O, N, and Si).

They have very large molecular structures, often chain-like in nature that have a
backbone of carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are
polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC),
polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber.

Covalent bonding ð sharing of e’s

Soft, ductile, low strength, low density
Thermal & electrical insulators
Bar-chart of room-temperature electrical conductivity ranges for Optically translucent or transparent.
metals, ceramics, polymers, and semiconducting materials
 Composites

A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the
categories discussed above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers.

The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not

displayed by any single material, and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of
the component materials.

One of the most common and familiar

composites is fiberglass

Glass fiber + polymeric material

Small glass fibers are embedded within a

polymeric material (normally an epoxy or
polyester).

The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff

(but also brittle),

Whereas the polymer is ductile (but also weak

and flexible).

Thus, the resulting fiberglass is relatively stiff,

strong, flexible, and ductile. In addition, it has a
low density.
The outside of the Space Shuttle as it heats up to over 1,500 °C during re-
entry into the Earth's atmosphere
Thermal Protection System (TPS)

Reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC), used in the nose

cap and wing leading edges. Used where reentry
temperature exceeds 1260 °C
High-temperature reusable surface insulation (HRSI) tiles,
used on the orbiter underside. Made of coated LI-900 Silica
ceramics. Used where reentry temperature is below 1260 °C.

Fibrous refractory composite insulation (FRCI) tiles,

used to provide improved strength, durability, resistance
to coating cracking and weight reduction. Some HRSI
tiles were replaced by this type.

Flexible Insulation Blankets (FIB), a quilted, flexible

blanket-like surface insulation. Used where reentry
temperature is below 649 °C .
Felt reusable surface insulation (FRSI). White Nomex felt blankets on the upper payload bay doors, portions
of the midfuselage and aft fuselage sides, portions of the upper wing surface and a portion of the OMS/RCS
pods. Used where temperatures stay below 371 °C (700 °F).
 ADVANCED MATERIALS

Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes
termed advanced materials.

By high technology we mean a device or product that operates or functions using

relatively intricate and sophisticated principles;

electronic equipments (camcorders, CD/DVD players, etc.), computers

(integrated circuits, magnetic information storages, LCDs), fiber-optic
systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry so on…

They may be of all material types (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers),

and are normally expensive.
Semiconductors

Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical
conductors (viz. metals and metal alloys) and insulators (viz. ceramics and polymers)

Semiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally
revolutionized the electronics and computer industries over the past three decades.

Silicon is used to create most semiconductors

commercially. Dozens of other materials are used,
including germanium, gallium arsenide, and silicon
carbide.
Biomaterials
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted
into the human body for replacement of diseased or Hip Implant
damaged body parts.

All of the above materials -metals, ceramics, polymers,

composites, and semiconductors- may be used as
biomaterials. Ball

Acetabular
Cup and Liner

Femoral
Stem

27
Nanomaterials
The nanomaterials field includes subfields which
develop or study materials having unique properties
arising from their nanoscale dimensions.

Nanotechnology (sometimes shortened to "nanotech")

is the study of manipulating matter on an atomic and
Transmission electron microscope images
molecular scale. Generally, nanotechnology deals with of nanosheets (Science Magazine)
structures sized between 1 to 100 nanometer in at
least one dimension, and involves developing
materials or devices within that size.

nanometer =10-9 m

Nanomaterials
• Nanoparticles
• Nanostructured Materials
• Nanoclays and Nanocomposites
• Nanocomposite Coatings
• Nanotubes
• Nanocatalysts
• Nanofilters
Atomic Structure & Interatomic
Bonding
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What promotes bonding?

• What types of bonds are there?

• What properties are inferred from bonding?

29
 Atomic Structure
• atom – electrons – 9.11 x 10-31 kg Protons have a
protons
neutrons } 1.67 x 10-27 kg
positive charge and
a mass 1,836 times
that of the electron

• atomic number = # of protons in nucleus of atom

= # of electrons of neutral species
The atomic mass (A) of
a specific atom may be
expressed as the sum
of the masses of protons
and neutrons within the
nucleus.

• u [=] atomic mass unit = amu = Da= 1/12 mass of 12C amu=Da is a unit that is used
for indicating mass on an
Atomic wt = wt of 6.022 x 1023 molecules or atoms atomic or molecular scale.

1 amu/atom = 1g/mol
1 Da is approximately equal to the mass of
C 12.011 1 proton or 1 neutron.
H 1.008 etc.
30
 Electronic Structure
• Electrons have wavelike and particulate properties.
– This means that electrons are in orbitals defined by a
probability.
– Each orbital at discrete energy level is determined by
quantum numbers.

Quantum # Designation
n = principal (energy level-shell) K, L, M, N, O (1, 2, 3, etc.)
l = subsidiary (orbitals) s, p, d, f (0, 1, 2, 3,…, n-1)
ml = magnetic 1, 3, 5, 7 (-l to +l)
ms = spin ½, -½

31
 Electron Energy States
Electrons...
• have discrete energy states
• tend to occupy lowest available energy state.

4d
4p N-shell n = 4

3d
4s Adapted from Fig. 1.2,
Shackelford 8e.
Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s

2p L-shell n = 2
2s

1s K-shell n = 1
Adapted from Fig. 2.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
•
SURVEY OF ELEMENTS
Most elements: Electron configuration not stable.
Element Atomic # Electron configuration
Hydrogen 1 1s 1
Helium 2 1s 2 (stable)
Lithium 3 1s 2 2s 1
Beryllium 4 1s 2 2s 2
Boron 5 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1 Adapted from Table 2.2,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Carbon 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2
... ...
Neon 10 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 (stable)
Sodium 11 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1
Magnesium 12 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2
Aluminum 13 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1
... ...
Argon 18 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 (stable)
... ... ...
Krypton 36 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 6 (stable)

34
 Electron Configurations
• Valence electrons – those in unfilled shells
• Filled shells more stable
• Valence electrons are most available for bonding
and tend to control the chemical properties

– example: C (atomic number = 6)

1s2 2s2 2p2

valence electrons

35
 Atomic Structure
• Valence electrons determine all of the
following properties
1) Chemical
2) Electrical
3) Thermal
4) Optical

36
 Electronic Configurations
ex: Fe - atomic # = 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 6 4s2

4d
4p N-shell n = 4 valence
electrons
3d
4s

Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s
Adapted from Fig. 2.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
2p L-shell n = 2
2s

1s K-shell n = 1

37
The Periodic Table
•
The Periodic Table
Columns: Similar Valence Structure

inert gases
give up 1e-
give up 2e-

accept 2e-
accept 1e-
give up 3e-

H He
Li Be O F Ne
Adapted from
Na Mg S Cl Ar Fig. 2.6,
Callister &
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr
Rethwisch 8e.
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Cs Ba Po At Rn
Fr Ra

Electropositive elements: Electronegative elements:

Readily give up electrons Readily acquire electrons
to become + ions. to become - ions.
39
 Electronegativity
• Ranges from 0.7 to 4.0,
• Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.

Smaller electronegativity Larger electronegativity

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the
Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the quantitative description of an atom's desire to gain or lose an electron.
40
It is a function of the number of electrons in an atom's valence shell
Bond Types
The different bond types are characterized by how electrons are shared which
controls the geometry of the atom packing, and by the relative strength of the
bond (revealed in the temperature needed to melt the material and break the
bonds).

• The Covalent bond: valence electrons shared between two atoms.

• The Ionic bond: valence electrons transferred between two atoms.
• The Metallic bond: shared valence electrons forming a highly mobile
electron sea.
• Secondary bond/ Van der Waals bond: polarization due to bond structure
causes attractive and repulsive force between molecules.
 Ionic bond – metal + nonmetal

donates accepts
electrons electrons

Dissimilar electronegativities

ex: MgO Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 O 1s2 2s2 2p4

[Ne] 3s2

Mg2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6

[Ne] [Ne]

42
 Ionic Bonding
• Occurs between + and - ions.
• Requires electron transfer.
• Large difference in electronegativity required.
• Example: NaCl

Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron

Na (cation) + - Cl (anion)
stable Coulombic stable
Attraction

43
44
 NaCl
• Notice that when sodium loses its one valence electron it gets smaller
in size, while chlorine grows larger when it gains an additional valance
electron. After the reaction takes place, the charged Na+ and Cl- ions
are held together by electrostatic forces, thus forming an ionic bond.
46
BONDING FORCES AND ENERGIES

(a) The dependence of repulsive,

attractive, and net forces on
interatomic separation for two isolated
atoms. (b) The dependence of repulsive,
attractive, and net potential energies on
interatomic separation for two isolated
atoms.
BONDING FORCE
•
Examples: Ionic Bonding
Predominant bonding in Ceramics
NaCl
MgO
CaF 2
CsCl

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the
Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.

49
Ionic Bonding
 Covalent Bonding
• similar electronegativity \ share electrons
• bonds determined by valence – s & p orbitals
dominate bonding
• Example: CH4
C: has 4 valence e-,
needs 4 more
H: has 1 valence e-, shared electrons
H
from carbon atom
needs 1 more CH 4

H C H

Electronegativities shared electrons

from hydrogen
are comparable. H
atoms
52
Three-dimensional structure of bonding in the
covalent solid, carbon (diamond). Each carbon atom
(C) has four covalent bonds to four other carbon
atoms.

53
Covalent Bonding
Metallic bond

Shared valence electrons forming a highly mobile

electron sea.

Metallic bonding is the

bonding between atoms
within metals. It involves
the sharing of free
electrons among a lattice
of metal atoms

Metallic Bonding
Claymation Animation
A. Outermost electrons wander freely through metal. Metal consists of cations held
together by negatively-charged electron "glue."
B. Free electrons can move rapidly in response to electric fields, hence metals are a
good conductor of electricity.
C. Free electrons can transmit kinetic energy rapidly, hence metals are good
conductors of heat.
D. The layers of atoms in metal are hard to pull apart because of the electrons holding
them together, hence metals are tough. But individual atoms are not held to any other
specific atoms, hence atoms slip easily past one another. Thus metals are ductile.
SECONDARY BONDING OR VAN DER WAALS BONDING

is the sum of the attractive or repulsive forces

between molecules

Secondary, van der Waals, or physical bonds are

weak in comparison to the primary or chemical
ones; bonding energies are typically on the
order of only 10 kJ/mol (0.1 eV/atom).

Secondary bonding exists between virtually all

atoms or molecules, but its presence may be
obscured if any of the three primary bonding
types is present.

Secondary bonding forces arise from

atomic or molecular dipoles. In essence, an
electric dipole exists whenever there is
some separation of positive and
negative portions of an atom or molecule.
A pair of electric charges or magnetic
poles, of equal magnitude but of opposite
sign or polarity, separated by a small
distance.

59
• Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds

All atoms are experiencing constant

vibrational motion that can cause
instantaneous and short-lived distortions of
this electrical symmetry for some of the
atoms or molecules, and the creation of
small electric dipoles.

Schematic representations of
(a) an electrically symmetric atom and b) an induced atomic dipole.

asymmetric electron ex: liquid H 2

clouds H2 H2

+ - + - H H H H
secondary secondary
bonding Adapted from Fig. 2.13,
bonding
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Development of induced dipoles in adjacent argon atoms leading to a weak,
secondary bond. The degree of charge distortion shown here is greatly exaggerated.

61
• Permanent dipoles-molecule induced

Permanent dipole moments exist in some molecules by virtue of an asymmetrical

arrangement of positively and negatively charged regions; such molecules are
termed polar molecules. schematic representation of a hydrogen chloride
molecule; a permanent dipole moment arises from net positive and negative charges
that are respectively associated with the hydrogen and chlorine ends of the HCl
molecule.

secondary
-general case: + - bonding
+ -
Adapted from Fig. 2.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
secondary
-ex: liquid HCl H Cl bonding
H Cl

-ex: polymer se c on secondary bonding

dary
bond
ing

62
Permanent Dipole Bonds (Hydrogen Bond)
Van der Waals forces will also exist between adjacent polar molecules. The
associated bonding energies are significantly greater than for bonds involving
induced dipoles.

The strongest secondary bonding type, the hydrogen bond, is a special case of polar
molecule bonding. It occurs between molecules in which hydrogen is covalently
bonded to fluorine (as in HF), oxygen (as in H2O), and nitrogen (as in NH3). For
each H-F, H-O, or H-N bond, the single hydrogen electron is shared with the other
atom.

Thus, the hydrogen end of the bond is essentially a positively charged bare proton
that is unscreened by any electrons. This highly positively charged end of the
molecule is capable of a strong attractive force with the negative end of an adjacent
molecule,

Schematic representation of hydrogen

bonding in hydrogen fluoride (HF).
Hydrogen bridge. This secondary bond is formed between two permanent dipoles in adjacent water molecules. (From W. G.
Moffatt, G. W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1: Structures, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1964.)
64
Bond Binding
Energy
(kj.mol-1)

Ionic 625-1550
Covelent 520-1250
Metallic 100-800
Van der Waals <40
67