Steve Goddard

Contents

Topic Page
DC Electrical Principles 2
Complex Waveforms 5
Non-Resonant and Resonant Single Phase R L C 7
Circuits
Transformers 12
Bibliography 14

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 Steve Goddard

Engineering Science – Assignment 3

DC And AC Theory

DC Electrical Principles

1. With reference to the circuit below:

R R
A 1 B 2 C

R
E +
3

D
F R E R
5 4

E = 300 V , R1 = 20 Ω, R 2 = 30 Ω, R3 = 40 Ω, R 4 =10 Ω R5 = 50 Ω

1.1 Draw a well-labeled diagram showing all voltages and currents

R R
A 1 B 2 C

R
E +
3

D
F R E R
5 4

1.2 Calculate the total resistance of the circuit

R1+R2+R3+R4+R5

30+20+40+10+50 = 150 Ω

1.3 Calculate the total current from the battery

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Using Ohm's Law

E 300 v
I= = =2A
RT 150 Ω

E 300 v
(To check total resistance = R = = = 150 Ω)
I 2

1.4 Calculate the voltages across R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5

R1 
→V1 = I × R1 = 2 A × 20 Ω = 40v
R2 
→ V2 = I × R 2 = 2 A × 30Ω = 60v
R3 
→V3 = I × R3 = 2 A × 40 Ω = 80 v
R4 
→V 4 = I × R 4 = 2 A × 10Ω = 20v
R5 
→V5 = I × R5 = 2 A × 50 Ω =100 v
300 v

1.5 Calculate the potential differences between the following points: -

AD, BE, CE & DF

AD = V1 + V 2 + V3 = 40 + 60 + 80 = 180 v
BE = V2 + V3 + V4 = 60 + 80 + 20 = 160 v
CE = V3 +V4 = 80 + 20 = 100 v
DF = V4 +V5 = 100 + 20 = 120 v

2. With reference to the circuit shown below:

R
1

2
8
+
R R
10v 2 3
- 3
2
0 0

R
4

1
0

2.1 Draw a well-labeled diagram showing all voltages and currents

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R
1

2
8
+
R R
10v 2 3
- 3
2
0 0

R
4

1
0

2.2 Calculate the total circuit resistance

Total resistance = 28 + 10 + 12 = 50 Ω

1 =1 +1
To calculate 12 I did this:
Rt 30 20
Rt = 12Ω

2.3 Calculate the total current from the battery

Using Ohm's Law

V 10 v
I= = = 0 .2 A
RT 50 Ω
V 10v
(To check total resistance = R = = = 50 Ω )
I 0.2

2.4 Calculate the current in R2

 R3 
iR2 =   × i1
 R 2 + R3 
 30 Ω 
iR2 =   × 0.2
 20 Ω + 30 Ω 
i R 2 = 0.12 Amps

2.5 Calculate the current in R3

 R2 
i R3 =   × i1
 R3 + R 2 
 20 Ω 
i R3 =   × 0.2
 30 Ω + 20 Ω 
i R 3 = 0.08 A

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Complex Waveforms

You will need to carry out some research and it is suggested that you read
Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology By Bird. In particular, see pages
252 and 470, 631 and 666 onwards. However there are other sources that
you may wish to use including the web and Tooley and Dingle. You should
list any references in a bibliography.

3. Explain how complex waveforms are produced from sinusoidal

waveforms

Sine waves can be mixed with DC signals, or with other sine waves to produce new
waveforms. Here is one example of a complex waveform:

'Complex' doesn't mean difficult to understand. A waveform like this can be thought
of as consisting of a DC component with a superimposed AC component.

More dramatic results are obtained by mixing a sine wave of a particular frequency
with exact multiples of the same frequency, in other words, by adding harmonics to
the fundamental frequency. The V/t graphs below show what happens when a sine
wave is mixed with its 3rd harmonic (3 times the fundamental frequency) at reduced
amplitude, and subsequently with its 5th, 7th and 9th harmonics

As you can see, as more odd harmonics are added, the waveform
begins to look more and more like a square wave.
This surprising result illustrates a general principle first
formulated by the French mathematician Joseph Fourier, namely
that any complex waveform can be built up from a pure sine

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waves plus particular harmonics of the fundamental frequency. Square waves,

triangular waves and saw tooth waves can all be produced in this way.
4. Synthesise the following complex waveforms graphically using a
spreadsheet:

v = 100 Sin ωt + 30 Sin 3ωt

Periodic time ( t )
Plot a minimum of 100 points at intervals of seconds
100
4.1 Produce a print out of the graph and data

See Print out

Equations used in the spreadsheet are:

x = 100*sin(2*PI()*50*0.001*A2)
y = 30*sin(2*PI()*150*0.001*A2)
z = B2 + C2

4.2 Describe how electrical and electronic devices produce complex

waveforms

Complex waveforms can be produced through electrical and electronic generators.

Otherwise known as an oscillator. An oscillator can be thought of as an amplifier that
provides itself (through feedback) with an input signal. By definition, it is a non
rotating device for producing alternating current, the output frequency of which is
determined by the characteristics of the device. The primary purpose of an oscillator
is to generate a given waveform at a constant peak amplitude and specific frequency
and to maintain this waveform within certain limits of amplitude and frequency.
An oscillator must provide amplification. Amplification of signal power occurs from
input to output. In an oscillator, a portion of the output is fed back to sustain the
input. Enough power must be fed back to the input circuit for the oscillator to drive
itself, as does a signal generator.

Wave generators can be classified into two broad categories according to their
output wave shapes, Sinusoidal and Non - sinusoidal.

Non sinusoidal oscillators generate complex waveforms, such as square, rectangular,

trigger, saw tooth, or trapezoidal. Because their outputs are generally characterised
by a sudden change, or relaxation, they are often referred to as Relaxation
Oscillators. The signal frequency of these oscillators is usually governed by the
charge or discharge time of a capacitor in series with a resistor. Some types,
however, contain inductors that affect the output frequency. Thus, like sinusoidal
oscillators, both RC and LC networks are used for determining the frequency of
oscillation.

4.3 Describe the effects of complex waveforms on electrical and electronic

systems.

HARMONIC OVERLOADING OF CAPACITORS

The impedance of a circuit dictates the current flow in that circuit.

As the supply impedance is generally considered to be inductive, the network
impedance increases with frequency while the impedance of a capacitor decreases.
This encourages a greater proportion of the currents circulating at frequencies above
the fundamental supply frequency to be absorbed by the capacitor, and all
equipment associated with the capacitor.
In certain circumstances such currents can exceed the value of the fundamental
(50Hz) capacitor current. These currents in turn cause increased voltage to be
applied across the dielectric of the capacitor. The harmonic voltage due to each

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harmonic current added arithmetically to the fundamental voltage dictates the

voltage stress to be sustained by the capacitor dielectric and for which the capacitor
must be designed.
Capacitors of the correct dielectric voltage stress must always be used in conditions
of harmonic distortion to avoid premature failure.

HARMONIC RESONANCE

As frequency varies, so reactance varies and a point can be reached when the
capacitor reactance and the supply reactance are equal. This point is known as the
circuit or selective resonant frequency.
Whenever power factor correction is applied to a distribution network, bringing
together capacitance and inductance, there will always be a frequency at which the
capacitors are in parallel resonance with the supply.
If this condition occurs at, or close to, one of the harmonics generated by any solid
state control equipment, then large harmonic currents can circulate between the
supply network and the capacitor equipment, limited only by the damping resistance
in the circuit. Such currents will add to the harmonic voltage disturbance in the
network causing an increased voltage distortion.
This results in an unacceptably high voltage across the capacitor dielectric coupled
with an excessive current through all the capacitor ancillary components. The most
common order of harmonics are 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th but resonance can occur at
any frequency.

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Non-Resonant and Resonant Single Phase R L C Circuits

5. A coil has a resistance of 40 Ω, and inductive reactance of 75 Ω. The

current in the coil is 1.70<0°A.

5.1 Draw a well labelled diagram of the circuit.

5. 2 Calculate the value of the supply voltage in POLAR form

VR
If I= then: VR = 1.7 × 40 = 68
R

VL
And If I = then: VL =1.7 ×75 =127 .5
XL

So :
V 2 = 68 2 +127 .5 2
V 2 = 20880 .25
V = 144 .5

Converting to Polar form

127 .5
tan θ =
68
tan (1.875 ) =θ = 61 .9275 °
−1

5.3 Calculate the p.d across the 40 Ω resistance in POLAR form

V = IR =1.70 ∠0°×40 ∠0° =68 ∠0°V

5.4 Calculate the p.d across the inductive part of the COIL in POLAR form

V L = i. jX L

=1.70 ∠0°× j 75
=1.70 ×75 ∠90 °
=127 .5∠90 °V

6. A SERIES R-L-C circuit has a resonant frequency of 1kHz and, at

resonance, a Q-factor of 20. The impedance of the circuit at resonance is
100 Ω

6.1 Draw a well labelled diagram and determine

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6.2 The value of inductance

2πf 0 L 2π ×1000 × L
Q= = 20 =
R 100

2000
∴L = = 0.318 H
2π ×1000

6.3 The value of capacitance

1 1
Q= = 20 =
2πf 0 RC 2π ×1000 ×100 × C

1 1
∴C = = = 7.96 ×10 −8
2π ×1000 ×100 × 20 12566370

6.4 The bandwidth

f 0 1000
Bandwidth = = = 50 Hz .
Q 20

7. A a.c network consists of a coil of inductance 10mH and series resistance

25 Ω in PARALLEL with a 50 µF capacitor. The a.c supply voltage is 120<0°
V at 400 Hz.

7.1 Draw a well labelled diagram of the circuit.

7.2 Calculate the current in the capacitor in POLAR form

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V
Ic =
Xc
1 1
Xc = = = 7.958
2πfc 2π × 400 × 5 ×10 −5 ( )
120
Ic = = 15 .08 @ 90 °
7958

7.3 Calculate the current in the coil in POLAR form.

V
Il =
Xl
X = 2πfl = 2π × 400 × 0.01 = 25 .132 Ω

Im pedance ( z) = (25 2
)
+ 25 .132 2 = 35 .449

V 120
I = = − 3.385
Z 35 .449

Converting to Polar Form:

Xl
tan θ =
R

tan −1
(1.005 ) = 45 .152 °

I lR = 3.385 @ − 45 .15

7.4 Calculate the total current from the supply in POLAR form

I 2 −3.385 2
+15 .08 2 −2 ×15 .08 ×3.385 ×Cos 44 .85

I 2 =166 .48

I =12 .903 Amps

8. A 100 µF capacitor is connected in PARALLEL with a coil of inductance

100mH. The coil has a small resistance of 10 Ω. The circuit is connected
across a 100<0°V variable frequency supply.

8.1 Draw a well labelled diagram and hence determine:-

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8.2 The frequency of the supply when the current is a minimum

The current will be at its minimum when X L + X C is minimum. (Please see attached
pages).

1  1 R2  1  1 10 2 
f0 =  − 2  =  − 
2π  LC L  2π  100 m ×100 µ 100 m
2


f 0 = 0.159 × 300 = 47 .75 Hz

8.3 The dynamic resistance of the circuit

100 m
RD = = 100 Ω
(100 µ ×10 )

8.4 The resonant Q-factor of the circuit

2πf 0 L 2π (47 .7) × (100 m)

Q= = =3
R 10

9. A current of (15 + j8) A flows in a circuit whose supply voltage is (120 +

j200) V.

9.1 Calculate the circuit IMPEDANCE in POLAR form

V = (120 + J 200 )

Firstly I'll convert this to polar form by using modulus: R = 120 2 + 200 2 = 233 .238 V

200
And argument: θ = tan −1 = 59 .036
120

Hence
(1 + 2J2 0) =0 2 0.23 〈 35 .089° 3 6
And I = 15 + J 8

Using Modulus R = 15 2 + 8 2 =17 Amps

8
And argument: θ = tan
−1
= 28 .072
15

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V 2 . 5.0 °〈 3 4 9 3 3 6
So, using ohms law
Z= 1.7 3.9 Ω〈= 3 2 0 3
I 1 2.0°〈 7 8 7
9.2 Calculate the ACTIVE power

Active power is the same as true power therefore

Vs ×I s ×Cos φ
233 .238 ×17 ×Cos 30 .96 = 3.4 Kw

9.3 Calculate the REACTIVE power

V s × I s ×Sin φ
233 .238 ×17 ×Sin 30 .96 = 2.039 Kw

9.4 Calculate the APPARENT power

PA = V × I = 233 .238 ×17 = 3965 VA

Transformers

10. A 1k Ω resistor is connected across the secondary windings of an ideal

transformer whose secondary voltage is 100v. The current in the primary
windings is 10mA.

10.1 Draw a circuit diagram

10.2 Determine the secondary current

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Using Ohms law

V 100
Is = = = 100 mA
R 1000
10.3 Determine the primary voltage

N2 100
V P = Vs × = 100 × = 1000 V
N1 10

To determine this: N 2 =V2 and N 1 =V1

I determined V1 by using ohms law. I knew the primary current was 10mA and this
part of the circuit had no resistance so:

I 10
V = = = 10 V
R 0

10.4 Determine the transformer turns ratio

N 1 100
N= = = 10
N2 10

Transformer turns ratio = 10 : 1

11. An ideal transformer has 1000 primary turns and 100 secondary turns.
If the primary winding is connected to a 230V ac supply and the secondary
is connected to an 100 Ω resistive load:

11.1 Draw a circuit diagram

11.2 Determine the secondary voltage

V 2 N 2 V2 100
= = = V2 = 23 V
V1 N 1 230 1000

11.3 Determine the secondary current

V2 23
I2 = = = 230 mA
R 100

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11.4 The power supplied in the primary circuit

If Power = IV then I 1 ×V1 = 0.23 × 23 = 5.29 W

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Bibliography

Higher Engineering Science – W. Bolton

Course Notes – Roger Macey

http://hep.physics.indiana.edu/~rickv/Complex_waveforms.html -
Waveforms

http://www.doctronics.co.uk/signals.htm - Complex Waveforms

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