Chng VI DNG SONG TUYN TNH DNG TON PHNG

M U Trong Hnh hc, khi nghin cu nhng ng bc hai, mt bc hai, vic a phng trnh ca chng v dng chnh tc c mt ngha rt quan trng, v dng chnh tc ta d nhn bit dng v cc c tnh ca chng, phn loi chng. Cng vic ny thc hin c nh nhng khi nim v dng nh: dng tuyn tnh, dng song tuyn tnh, dng ton phng, v khi nim khng gian vect clit. Nh vy vic nghin cu Hnh hc c thc hin bng nhng phng tin i s. Bn c s thy rng phng tin ny t ra rt hu hiu. Mt nh x tuyn tnh t mt K-khng gian vect n K-khng gian vect K c gi l mt dng tuyn tnh. M rng khi nim ny ta c nhng khi nim: dng song tuyn tnh, dng song tuyn tnh i xng, dng song tuyn tnh thay phin, dng ton phng. Li nh khi nim dng song tuyn tnh i xng v dng ton phng m ta s nh ngha c khi mm tch v hng trong khng gian vect - mt khi nim c lm quen t khi hc lp 10 trng Trung hc Ph thng. Tch v hng gip ta xy dng khng gian vect clit. Khi hc chng ny cc bn cn nm c: - Cc khi nim dng tuyn tnh, dng song tuyn tnh, dng ton phng; - Cc phng php a mt dng ton phng v dng chnh tc; - nh l qun tnh ca dng ton phng; - Khi nim khng gian vect clit; - Khi nim h c s trc chun v cch dng mt h c s trc chun; mt s ng dng ca nhng kin thc ni trn ng thi vn dng

c nhng kin thc ny trong vic hc tp Hnh hc v mt s mn hc lin quan khc. hc tp chng ny c d dng, bn c cn nm vng cc kin thc v khng gian vect, nh x tuyn tnh, ma trn. 1. DNG TUYN TNH V DNG SONG TUYN TNH 1.1. nh ngha, v d nh ngha. Gi s V l khng gian vect. 1) nh x f : V R c gi l mt dng tuyn tnh trn V nu:

2) nh x : V V R c gi l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V nu:

vi mi , 1, 2, , 1, 2 thuc V v mi k R. 3) Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l i xng nu:

Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l thay phin nu:

V d 1. Vi V = Rn, = (a1..., an) ' vi mi i = 1, 2,..., n, ta c php chiu fi t Rn n R xc nh bi fi( ) = ai l dng tuyn tnh trn Rn. V d 2. K hiu Pn l khng gian vc t gm a thc 0 v cc a thc mt n x c bc b hn hoc bng n, vi h s thc, =

a x
i i =0

nh x f : Pn R, xc nh bi f ( ) = trn Pn.

a
i =0

; l mt dng tuyn tnh

V d 3. Vi V = R2, = (a1, a2), = (b1, b2). nh x: = R2 R2 R, xc nh bi ( , ) = song tuyn tnh thay phin. Tht vy, vi bt k = (a1, a2), = (b1, b2), = (a'1, a'2), = (b'1, b'2) R2 v k R ta c:
a1 a2 b1 b 2

(nh thc cp hai), l mt dng

Hn na ta c ( , ) = -( , ) V d 4. nh x = Rn Rn R xc nh bi ( , ) = x1y1 + x2y2 +... + xnyn, vi = (x1, x2,..., xn), = (y1, y2,..., yn), l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn Rn. V d 5. Gi s V l khng gian cc vect (hnh hc) c chung gc O. nh x t V V vo R xc nh nh sau: Vi OA = , OB = , ( , ) = | | | | l cos ( , ) (tch v hng ca v ), l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng. Tht vy, nh bit trong gio trnh hnh hc trng ph thng, vi k hiu , l tch v hng ca hai vect v , ta c:

Nhn xt: - Mt dng tuyn tnh trn V thc cht l mt nh x tuyn tnh t V vo R, R c xt nh mt khng gian vect trn chnh n - nh x : V V R l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V nu v ch nu n l dng tuyn tnh trn V i vi bin x khi ta c nh bin y v tng t l dng tuyn tnh trn V i vi bin y khi ta c nh bin x. - Mi dng song tuyn tnh trn V u c th biu din c thnh tng ca mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng v mt dng song tuyn tnh thay phin trn V. Tht vy: vi , V t :

D dng chng minh c 1 l dng song tuyn tnh i xng v 2 l dng song tuyn tnh thay phin tha mn = 1 + 2. nh l 1. Gi s V l khng gian vect n chiu vi c s l { 1,..., 2 ,..., n}. nh x f : V R l mt dng tuyn tnh trn V khi v ch khi tn ti n s thc c1,..., cn sao cho f ( ) =

a c
i =1

j j

vi mi =

a
i =1

i i

V.

Khi f ( i) = ci, vi mi i = 1,..., n v f l dng tuyn tnh duy nht trn V tha mn iu kin ny. Chng minh. y l trng hp c bit ca nh l v s xc nh mt nh x tuyn tnh (Ch.III). nh l 2. Gi s V l khng gian vect n chiu vi c s l {{ 1,..., 2,..., n}. nh x : V V R l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V khi v ch khi tn ti n2 s thc {dij| i, j =1, 2,..., n} sao cho ( , ) =

 x y d
i i =1 j =1

j ij

v i m i =

x
i =1

i i

, =

y
i =1

i i

V. Khi ( i, j) =

dij, vi mi i, j = 1,..., n v l dng song tuyn tnh duy nht trn V tha mn iu kin ny. Chng minh. Gi s l mt dng song tuyn tnh ty trn V. Vi mi cp (i, j), i, i =1,..., n t ( i, j) = dij. Khi vi hai vect bt

Ngc li, gi s tn ti n2 s thc {dij | i, i = 1, 2,..., n } sao cho nh x t V V vo R tho mn iu kin trong nh l. Khi vi bt k

Tng t ta cng chng minh c ( , + )= ( , ) + ( , ) v ( , k ) = k( , ). Do l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V. Khi = i, = j th xi = 1 v xt = 0 vi t i, yj = 1 v yh = 0 vi h i. V vy ta c : ( i, j) = dij vi mi cp (i, j). Gi s l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V tha mn ( i, j) = dij,

khi vi hai vect bt k = ( , ) = minh. V d:

x
i =1

i i

, =

y
i =1

i i

V ta c:

x y d
i i =1 j =1

j ij

= ( , ). Vy = . nh l c chng

Xt V = Rn, v { 1,..., 2,..., n} l c s chnh tc ca V. Dng song tuyn tnh trn Rn xc nh bi ( , ) = x1y1 + x2y2 +...+ xnyn, vi = (x1, x2,..., xn), = (y1, y2,..., yn) V l dng song tuyn tnh duy nht trn Rn tha mn ( 1, 2) = ij, trong ij = 1 khi i = j v ij = 0 khi i j. 1.2. Ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh nh ngha. Gi s { 1,..., 2,..., v} l mt c s ca khng gian vect n chiu V trn trng s thc R, l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V, k hiu ( i, j) = aij R, i, j = 1, 2,..., n. Ma trn vung cp n sau y c gi l ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh i vi c s { 1,..., 2,..., v} cho

Nhn xt: Gi s V l khng gian vect vi c s { 1,..., 2,..., n} v A = (aij)n l ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh p trn V. Khi vi =
n

x
i =1 n j=1

i i

, =
i j

y
i =1

i i

V, p dng nh l 2, mc 1.1, ta c: ( , ) =

a x y
ij i =1

Nh vy, nu bit ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh q) i vi mt c s no , th ta c th xc nh nh ( , ) ca cp ( , ) tu ; ngha l: mt dng song tuyn tnh c hon ton xc nh bi ma trn ca n i vi mt c s cho.

V d 1. Trong V d 3 ca mc 1.1, nu chn c s ca R l 1 = (1, 0), 2 = (0, 1 th

V d 2. Trong v d 4 ca mc 1.1, nu chn c s ca V l hai vect OI = i , OJ = j , trong | i | | j | = = 1 th:

Do ma trn ca l

1.3. Lin h gia hai ma trn ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh i vi hai c s khc nhau Theo nh ngha, ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh thay i khi ta i c s ca khng gian vect. Ta hy xt mi lin quan gia hai ma trn ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh i vi hai c s khc nhau. nh l. Gi s () = { 1,..., 2,..., n}, () = { 1, 2,..., n} l hai c s ca cng mt R-khng gian vect n chiu V, A = (aij)n v B = (bij)n ln lt l cc ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trn V i vi cc c s tng ng () v (), T = (tij)n l ma trn chuyn t () sang (). Khi B = tTAT. Chng minh. V T l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang () nn

Ta c cki = ma trn

a
l =1

kl lj

t l phn t dng k ct j trong ma trn tch AT v

(t )
kl lj

' ik n

l ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn T, nn bij =

t a
' ik k =1 l =1

n ' t = t ik c kj l phn t dng th i v ct th j ca ma trn tch k =1

TAT. Vy B = tTAT.

V d. Trn khng gian vect R3 trn trng s thc R cho dng song tuyn tnh xc nh nh sau: Vi = (x1, x2, x3), = (y1, y2, y3),

i vi c s (): 1 = (1, 0, 0), 2 = (0, 1, 0), 3 = (0, 0, 1), c ma trn l

Nu xt c s () : () = (1, 1, 1), 2 = (1, 0, 1), 2 = (0, - 1, 1) th

1 1 0 ma vn chuyn t c s () sang () l T = 1 0 1 1 1 1

Ma trn ca i vi c s () s l:

Cng c th tm ma trn B bng cch tnh trc tip bij = ( i, j). Chng hn b13 = ( 1, 3) = 2.1.0+1(-1)= 1.1 - 3.1.1 = -1 -1 - 3 = -5. 2. DNG TON PHNG 2.1. nh ngha nh ngha. nh x : V R (R l trng s thc) c gi l mt dng ton phng trn V nu tn ti mt dng song tuyn tnh f trn V sao cho ( ) = f( , ) vi mi V. Khi f c gi l dng song tuyn tnh sinh ra dng ton phng . V d: Dng song tuyn tnh f( , ) = 3x1y2 - x2y1, vi mi vect = (x1, x2), = (y1, y2) R2, sinh ra dng ton phng ( ) = 2x1x2. Nhn xt (i) C th c nhiu dng song tuyn tnh cng sinh ra mt dng ton phng. Chng hn, nu f l mt dng song tuyn tnh khng i xng, t g( , ) = f( , ), , V th cc dng song tuyn tnh f v g trn V cng sinh ra mt dng ton phng, nhng f g. (ii) Ta c th chng minh tn ti tng ng 1-1 gia cc dng ton phng trn V v cc dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn V; ngha l nu l mt dng ton phng trn V th tn ti mt v ch mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng sinh ra . Thc vy, gi s f l dng song tuyn tnh no sinh ra dng ton phng , , , V, t ( , ) =
1 {( + ) - ( ) -( )}. C 2

th thy ngay l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn V sinh ra . Gi s cng l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn V sinh ra . Khi , V ta c:

V vy dng song tuyn tnh i xng hon ton c xc nh bi r qua cng thc:

Dng song tuyn tnh i xng sinh ra dng ton phng r c gi l dng cc ca . (iii) T nh l mc 1.2 suy ra rng nu V l khng gian vect n chiu vi c s l { 1,..., 2,..., n} th nh x : V R l mt dng ton phng trn V khi v ch khi ( ) =

a x y
ij i i =1 j=1

vi mi =

x
i =1

i i

V, trong aij (i, j = 1, 2,..., n) l dy cc s thc xc nh.

2.2. Ma trn ca dng ton phng nh ngha. Gi s l dng ton phng tng ng vi dng song tuyn tnh i xng . Ma trn ca i vi c s { 1,..., 2,..., n} cng c gi l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s y. Nh vy nn A = (aij)n l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s { 1,..., 2,..., n}, th A c tnh cht aij = ( i, j) = ( j, i) = ai;. Ma trn c tnh cht ny c gi l ma trn i xng. Vi =

x i i , biu thc ( ) =
i =1

a x y
ij i i =1 j=1

c gi l biu thc

ta ca . V d. nh x : R3 R xc nh nh sau: Vi = (x1, x2, x3), ( ) = 2x21 - 2x1x2 + 4x1x3 - x22 + 3x23, l mt dng ton phng ng vi dng song tuyn tnh i xng q) xc nh bi: y = (y1, y2, y3). i vi c s () : 1 = (1, 0, 0), 2 = (0, 1, 0), 3 = (0, 0, 1), v c ma trn l:

V ma trn ca dng ton phng l i xng, tc l aij = aji, nn i

vi =

x
i =1

i i

, biu thc ta ( ) =

a x y
ij i i =1 j=1

c th vit l:

Chng hn i vi dng ton phng trong v d ta c:

Ngc li, nu dng ton phng c xc nh bi ng thc

2.3. Dng ton phng xc nh nh ngha. Dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V c gi l xc nh nu: ( ) = 0 ko theo = 0 . nh l. Nu l mt dng ton phng xc nh th rn c cng mt du vi mi a V. Chng minh. C nh vect 0 , vi bt k ca V, ta xt biu thc:

trong l dng song tuyn tnh i xng tng ng ca . Nu c gi tr x = k R (k 0) sao cho = k th

Do ( ) cng du vi ( ). Nu vi mi x R, tc l - x 0 th v l dng ton phng xc nh nn

iu ny c ngha l phng trnh x2( ) - 2x( , ) + ( ) = 0 i vi n x v nghim. V th = [( , ]2 - ( ) ( ) < 0 hay

Vy ( ) cng du vi ( ). nh ngha. Dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V c gi l xc nh dng (m) nu ( ) > 0 (( ) < 0 ) vi mi 0 thuc V. H qu. Nu l mt dng ton phng xc nh dng (m) trn khng gian vect V v W l mt khng gian con ca V th thu hp ca trn W (k hiu l | W ) cng l mt dng ton phng xc nh dng (m) trn W. 3. A DNG TON PHNG V DNG CHNH TC 3.1. nh ngha Gi s l mt dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V. Nu i vi c s () = { 1, 2,..., n} ca V biu thc ta ca l

th biu thc ny c gi l dng chnh tc ca dng ton phng . Trong trng hp ny ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s () l mt ma trn cho (aij = aji = 0 vi i j). Vic i c s n mt dng ton phng cho i vi c s mi c dng chnh tc c gi l a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc. 3.2. nh l Mi dng ton phng u a c v dng chnh tc. Chng minh. Gi s l mt dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V. Ta chng minh nh l bng quy np theo s chiu n ca V.

Nu n > 1 th c biu thc ta dng ( ) = ax2. l ng chnh tc. Gi s n > 1 v mnh ng vi (n - 1), hn na i vi c s () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} ca V, c biu thc ta ( ) =
=

a x y
ij i i =1 j=1

, vi

x
i =1

i i

a) Trng hp c mt aii 0. Gi s a11 0, ta vit ( ) di dng:

Cng thc ta (I) c th vit thnh:

Cng thc bin i ta (II) cho ta ma trn

M nh thc |T| = 1 0. Do theo cng thc lin h ta ca i vi hai c s khc nhau th T l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () = { 1, 2,..., n}, m i vi n =

y
j i=2

. Gi W l khng gian

vect con ca V sinh bi cc vect { 2,..., n}. t = c biu thc ( ) =

n

y
j i=2

W, ta

k z
i=2

2 i i

+2

b y y
ij i 2 i j n

xc nh dng ton phng

thu hp ca trn W. Theo gi thit qui np, c th a v dng chnh tc ( ) =

k z
i=2

2 i i

t a11 = k1, y1 = z1, ta c: ( )=

k z
i=2

2 i i

b) Trng hp aii = 0 vi mi i = 1, 2,..., n. Trong trng hp ny biu thc ta ca l (a ) = Hin nhin phi c mt akh 0. Bin i ta :

a x x
ij i 2 i j n

Php bin i ta ny xc nh ma trn:

Vi |S| = 2 0. S li l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang mt c s () m i vi n = y j n v biu thc ta ca c dng:

i=2 n

t bkk = 2akh 0, ta li tr v trng hp a). nh l c chng minh. H qu. Gi s r l mt dng ton phng c dng chnh tc ( ) =

k z
i=2

2 i i

. Th th l dng ton phng xc nh dng khi v ch khi k1

> 0, vi mi i = 1,.., n. Chng minh. Gi s l xc nh dng v trong biu din chnh tc i vi mt c s no c mt h s, chng hn k1 < 0. Khi vi ( 0) c ta i vi c s trn l (1, 0,..., 0), ta c. ( ) = k1 0. Tri vi gi thit rng r l mt dng xc nh dng. Vy ki > 0 vi mi i = 1,..., n. Hin nhin. C nhiu phng php khc nhau a mt dng ton phng v dng chnh tc: phng php cho ha ma trn, phng php Jacobi... Quy trnh rt gn dng ton phng trnh by trong nh l trn c gi l phng php Lagrange. y l phng php dng lin tip nhiu php bin i tuyn tnh a mt dng ton phng v dng chnh tc. V d: a dng ton phng sau trn R3 v dng chnh tc

V d 2. a dng ton phng ( ) = 4x1x2 + 3x2x3 trn R3 v dng chnh tc. Gii.

Khi ta c:

Ta c

( ) = 4 z12 - 4 z 2 2

2 3 + 3x1x2 + 4x1x3 + x 2 V d 3. a dng ton phng ( ) 2 x 1 2 + x 3 trn R3 v dng chnh tc.

ta nhn dc biu thc ca i vi c s mi ( ) = { 1, 2, 3} l:

3.3. Da dng ton phng v dng chinh tc bng my tnh i n t Ta c th s dng phng php Lagrange vi s h tr ca phn mm ton Maple da biu thc ta ca dng ton phng v dng chnh tc. Quy trnh c th nh sau:

Trc tin ta phi s dng hai lnh to mi trng tnh ton l: >restart; >with(student); [D,Diff, Int, Limit, Lineint, Product, Sum, Tripleint, Changevar, Completesquare, Distance, Equate, Integran, Intercept, Intpart, leftbox, leftsum, makeproc, midlebox, middlesum, midpoint, powsubs, rightbox, rightsum, showtangent, smpon, slope, summand, trapezoid] Trong qu trnh bin i cn ch phn bit trng hp a1i 0 vi aii = 0.
2 3 V d 1. a dng ton phng ( ) = x 1 + 5 x2 2 - 4 x 3 + 2x1x2 4x1x3 trn R3 v dng chnh tc.

Ta s dng lnh ca Maple theo tng bc sau: Bc 1: nh lnh >completesquare(x1^2+5*x2^2-4*x3^2+2*x1*x2-4*x1*x3,x1);

2 Ta nhn c ( ) = (x1 + x2 2x3) + 4 x 2 2 + 4x2x3 8 x 3

Ta t

y1 = x1 + x2 - 2x3.

Bc 2: nh lnh sau: > completesquare(y1^2+4*x2^2+4*x2*x3-8*x3^2,x2); Ta nhn c: ( ) = 4(x2 + Ta t tip : y2 = x2 +

1 2 x3 ) 2 - 9 x 2 3 + y1 . 2

1 x3, y3 = x3. 2

Ta nhn c biu thc chnh tc ca dng ton phng r l:

2 2 + 4 x2 V d 2. a dng ton phng ( ) = x 1 2 + x 3 + 4x1x2 + 2x1x3 + 2x2x3 trn R3 v dng chnh tc.

Ta s dng lnh ca Maple theo tng bc sau: Bc 1 : nh lnh

Bc 2. Tip tc thc hin lnh > completesquare(y1^2-2*(y2+y3)*(y2-y3),y2),

Ch . gi li c h phng trnh biu din cc php bin i, ta cn ghi li php t n ph trong qu trnh lm cc cu lnh ca Maple. Nh vy, sau khi tin hnh gii bi ton bng phng php Lagrange, ta c th kim tra li tng bc ca cc php bin i lm. Trong mt s trng hp qu kh, ta c th s dng Maple tm trc kt qu sau a ra cc php bin i cho ph hp. 3.4. nh l qun tnh Mt dng ton phng c th c nhiu dng chnh tc. Song chng c mt im chung c th hin bi nh l sau: nh l 1. (1ut qun tnh) Trong hai dng chnh tc bt k ca cung mt dng ton phng s cc h s dng bng nhau, s cc h s m bng nhau.
2 2 2 + ... + ar x 2 Chng minh. Gi s: ( ) = a1 x 1 r b1 x r +1 - ... b3 x r + 3

l dng chnh tc ca i vi c s (') = { 1,..., 2,..., n}, trong ai > 0, i = 1,... r, bj > 0, j = 1,..., s.
2 2 2 (c) = c1 y1 +... + ct y 2 t d1 y t +1 - ... - du y t + u , l dng chnh tc ca r

i vi c s () = { 1, 2,..., n}, trong ck > 0, k = 1,..., t, d1 > 0, l = 1,..., u. Ta phi chng minh r = t, s = u. Gi s r < t. Xt khng gian con W sinh bi h vect { r+1,..., n} v khng gian con U sinh bi h vect { 1,..., t}. Ta c dimW = n - r, dimU = t. V r < t nn t - r > 0. T suy ra dimW + dimU = n + t - r > n = dimV.

Do dimW + dimU - dim (W U) = dim (U + W) dimV, nn dim (W U) dimW + dimU - dimV = n + t - r - n = t - r > 0. V th: W U { 0 }. Gi s W U v 0 ,

l iu khng th c. Vy r t. Thay i vai tr ca r v t, ta li suy ra t r. Do r - t. Cng lp lun nh vy i vi s v u, ta c u = s. nh l trn y c gi l lut qun tnh ca dng ton phng. pht biu mt tiu chun ca dng ton phng xc nh dng ta a ra khi nim sau. i vi ma trn vung

mi nh thc

c gi l mt nh thc con chnh ca ma trn A. nh l 2. Gi sa l ma trn ca dng ton phng trn khng gian vect n chiu V. Khi l dng ton phng xc nh dng nu v ch nn mi nh thc con chnh ca A u dng. Chng minh. Gi s l dng ton phng trn V v A l ma trn ca n i vi c s () = { 1,..., 2,..., n}. Gi Vk l khng gian con ca V, sinh bi cc vect { 1,..., 2,..., k}

(k = 1, 2,..., n). Khi thu hp ca r trn Vk (k hiu l |Vk l mt dng ton phng vi ma trn

Nu xc nh dng th |Vk, cng xc nh dng. Do Dk > 0 Vi mi k = 1, 2,..., n. Gi s Dk > 0 vi mi k = 1, 2,..., n. Ta s chng minh l dng ton phng xc nh dng bng qui np theo n. Vi n = 1, D1 = a11 > 0, biu thc ca dng ton phng l ( ) = 2 > 0. a11 x 1 Gi s vi mi n > 1, iu khng nh ng vi in - 1). Khi dng ton phng n-1 = |Vn-1 c ma trn l An-1. Theo gi thit, cc nh thc con chnh ca An-1 u dng. Do , theo gi thit qui np, n-1. Xc nh dng. V th c mt c s { 1, 2,..., n-1} ca Vn-1 Sao cho rn-1 c dng chnh tc, trong trng hp ny ta c n-1( ) = ki > 0, i = 1, 2,..., n-1. Khi i vi c s { 1, 2,..., n} c ma trn

Trong bin = bin = ( i, n), vi l dng song tuyn tnh i xng tng ng ca . vi

Tm c c s () = { 1, 2,..., n} ca V, i vi n, ma trn ca C dng:

Gi T l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () ta c C = T-1AT. Do : k1...kn-1 kn = |C| = |T-1|.|A|.|T| = |T-1|.|T|.|A| = |A|. V |A| > 0 theo gi thit v ki > 0, vi i = 1, 2,..., n- nn kn =
|A| > 0. Nh vy i vi c s (), c dng ({ 1, 2,..., k1 k 2 ...k n 1

m}) =

k z
i =1

2 i i

, trong ki > 0 vi mi i = 1, 2,..., n. Vy l dng ton

phng xc nh dng. 4. KHNG GIAN VECT CLIT 4.1. nh ngha khng gian vect clit nh ngha. 1) Dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn khng gian vect V c gi l mt tch v hng trn V nu 0 thuc V ta c ( , ) > 0. Vi , V, s thc ( , ) c gi l tch v hng ca v
, k hiu bi . . Nu = , thay cho . ta vit
2

2) Khng gian vect V c gi l mt khng gian vect clit nu

trn V c mt tch v hng. Ch : Trn cng mt khng gian vect thc V c th xc nh nhiu tch v hng khc nhau, v ta c th nhn c nhng khng gian vect clit hon ton khc nhau. V d 1. Xt khng gian V cc vect hnh hc c chung gc O. Trong khng gian ny, dng song tuyn tnh c xc nh bi: ( OA , OB ) = | OA |. | OB |cos ( OA , OB ), l mt tch v hng trn V, vi tch v hng , V l mt khng gian vect clit. V d 2. Trn khng gian Rn, dng song tuyn c xc nh bi ( , ) = x1y1 + x2y2 + ...+ xnyn, vi = (x1, x2,..., xn) = (y1, y2,..., yn), l mt tch v hng v Rn l mt khng gian vect clit, tch v hng ny c gi l tch v hng chnh tc. 4.2. C s trc chun nh ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit. 1) Hai vect , ca E c gi l trc giao nu . = 0; k hiu l . 2) Vi mi E ta gi

( )

l chun ca vect , k hiu | |.

Nu | | = 1 th ta ni l vect nh chun. 3) C s () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} ca khng gian vect clit E c gi l mt c s trc chun nu i, j = ij. (Trong ij l k hiu Kronecker tha mn ij = 1 khi i = j, ij = 0 khi i j). V d 1. Trong khng gian V ca v d 1, mc 4.1, 3 vect tu OI , OJ , OK i mt vung gc v c di bng 1 lp thnh c s trc chun. V d 2. Trong khng gian vect clt Rn v d 2, mc trn, c s

l mt c s trc chun. C s () c gi l c s chnh tc ca khng gian vect clit Rn. V d 3. H vect

l mt c s trc chun trong khng gian R3. Vect = (1, 4, 3) R3 c biu thc ta i vi c s ( ) nh sau = 4. 1 + 2 2 . 2 - 2 3 vc t c ta i vi c s ( ) l = (4, 2 2 26 . 1) Vi E, || || = 0 khi v ch khi = 0 . 2) Vi mi E, mi k R ta c ||k || = |k| .|| ||. 3) Vi mi , E ta c | . | || ||.|| ||, (bt ng thc Cauchy Bunhiakovsky). 4) Vi mi , E ta c || + || || || + || ||, (bt ng thc tam gic). Chng minh. Gi l tch v hng trn E. 1) Hin nhin nu = 0 || || = 0. Ngc li nu || || = 0 th ( , ) = 2 = || ||2 = 0. T suy ra suy ra = 0 (do tnh xc nh ca ). 2) R rng: ||k || =
(k ) 2 = k 2 ()2 = |k|. ()2 = |k|.|| ||.

2 ). Ta c | | =

nh l 1. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit. Khi :

3) Vi mi , E, vi mi gi tr ca x R ta c: 0 || - x ||2 = 2 2x . + x2 2. Do ' = ( . ) - 2. 2 0 | . | Vy | . | || ||.|| ||. Du bng xy ra khi = k. (hai vect , l ph thuc tuyn tnh).
() 2 . ( )2

Du bng xy ra khi = k. (vi k 0). nh l 2. Mi h gm nhng vect khc khng, i mt trc giao ca mt khng gian vect clit u c lp tuyn tnh. Chng minh. Gi s 1, 2, ,..., n l nhng vect khc khng, i mt trc giao ca khng gian vect clit E, xt ng thc Vi mi j, j = 1,..., r ta c

k
i i =1

= 0.

V j nn || || 0 nn ta c kj = 0. Vy kj = 0 j = 1,..., r. Vy h vc t 1, 2,..., r l c lp tuyn tnh. nh l 3. Mi khng gian vect clit n chiu (n 2) u c c s trc chun. Chng minh. Ta chng minh bng qui np theo n. Vi n = 1 d dng chng minh c mnh . Vi n = 2, gi s 1, 2 l mt c s no ca khng gian vect clit E.

Tm vect c dng: = x1 1 + 2, tho mn iu kin: 1,

Nh vy: = 2 ( 2, 1) 1 hon ton c xc nh.

t: E2 =

, hin nhin || 2|| = 1, do 2 1 nn theo nh l 2 ta

c h vect { 1, 2} l c lp tuyn tnh, do l mt c s trc chun ca khng gian clit 2 chiu E. By gi gi s E l khng gian vect clit n-chiu vi n > 2 v mnh c chng minh vi mi khng gian c s chiu (n - 1). Gi F l mt khng gian con (n 1) chiu ca E. Theo gi thit qui np F c mt c s trc chun, chng hn: { 1,..., 2,..., n-1}. Ly ty n E\F. Tm vect n c dng: n =

x
i 1

n 1

i i

+ n, tho

mn iu kin: n. j = 0 (vi mi j = 1,2,..., n - 1). Suy ra

n j = 0, j =1,2,..., n - 1.

x
i 1

n 1

i i

j +

V i j = ij nn ng thc trn ch l: xj + n j = 0. Nh vy n c hon ton xc nh bi cc xj = - n j vi mi j = 1, 2,.., n - 1. t: n =

n n

, hin nhin ln || n|| = 1, ta c mt h trc chun

gm n vect { 1, 2,... n-1, n}. Hn na theo cch xc nh vc t ta c n i (i = 1,..., n - 1 ) nn theo nh l 2, h { 1, 2,... n-1, n} l c lp tuyn tnh. V dimE = n nn n l mt c s trc chun ca E. Vic xy dng h trc chun trn y c gi l qu trnh trc chun ho Giam - Smit. Qu trnh trc chun ho c th xut pht t mt c s bt k ( ) = { 1, 2, ,..., n} cho trc. Khi ta xc nh 1 =
1 1

sau theo

phng php trn ta xc nh 2 thng qua 1 v 2,..., xc nh i thng qua 1,..., i-1 v i,..., v cui cng xc nh n qua 1,..., n-1 v n. Cng thc tng qut ca qu trnh trc chun ny l:

Ta nhn c h { 1,..., 2,..., n} l c s trc chun cn tm. nh l 4. Nu () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} l mt c s trc chun ca khng gian clit n chiu E, th vi E ta c :

Chng minh. V () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} l c s ca E nn c s biu din duy nht di dng:

Vi mi i = 1, 2,..., n, nhn v hng hai v ca ng thc trn vi i; ta c:

Vy c dng cn chng minh. Nh vy, nu () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} l c s trc chun ca khng gian cht n chiu E, th ta c th xc nh ngay ta ca mt vc t bt k i vi c s cho, l ( 1, 2,..., ) ; ngha l = (xi) vi xi = i, i = 1,..., n. V d: Trong khng gian clit R3 (vi tch v hng chnh tc) xt h vect sau: 1 = (0, 1, 0) ; 2 = (4 3 3 4 , 0, ). 3 ( , 0, ). D dng 5 5 5 5

kim tra c h vect 1, 2, 3 l mt c s trc chun ca R3. biu din vc t = (1, 4, 7) l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca c s trn ta thc hin nh sau:

4.3. Khng gian con b trc giao Nhn xt: Gi s F l mt khng gian con ca khng gian vect clit E. Tp hp H = { E | , F} l mt khng gian con ca E. Tht vy, hin nhin H v 0 H. Vi 1, 2 H v k R ta c: 1. = 0, 2. = 0 Vi mi F. Do ( 1 + 2). = 1.
+ 2 = 0, F. iu ny c ngha l ( 1 + 2) H.

Tng t, ta c (k ). = k( . ) = 0, F. Do k H. Vy H l mt khng gian con ca E. nh ngha. Khng gian con H = { E | , F} c gi l khng gian con b trc giao vi khng gian con F. nh l. Nu H l khng gian con b trc giao vi khng gian con F ca khng gian vect clit n chiu E th F H = { 0 } v E = F + H. Chng minh. Ly ty F H, theo cch xc nh H ta thy trc giao vi chnh n, ngha l 2 = 0. Theo nh l nh l 1 (4.2) ta c = 0 vy F H = { 0 }. Gi s { 1,..., 2,..., r} l mt c s trc chun ca khng gian con F. B sung vo n c mt c s trc chun ca E: { 1 2,..., r, r+1,..., n}. Khi mi vc t E u biu din duy nht di dng:

Khi V l khng gian vect tha mn V = F + H, F H = { 0 }, trong F, H l nhng khng gian con ca V, ngi ta ni rng V l tng trc tip ca F v H. 4.4. Hnh chiu ca mt vect ln khng gian con Gi s E l khng gian clit n chiu, F l khng gian con ty ca E, khi E ta lun c biu bin duy nht = + , vi F, H, trong H l khng gian con b trc giao ca F. Ta s gi vect l hnh chiu trc giao ca ln F v k hiu l hchF , cn vect =
- = - hchF c gi l thnh phn ca trc giao vi F.

V d: Xt khng gian clit R3 (vi tch v hng chnh tc) v khng gian con F c sinh bi cc vect sau: 1 = (0, 1, 0); 2 = (0,
4 , 5 3 ). D dng kim tra c l c s trc chun ca F. Theo V d 5 4 3 3 4 trn ta c h 1 = (0, 1, 0) ; 2 = (- , 0, ) ; 3 = ( , 0, - ) l c s 5 5 5 5

trc chun c a R3.

Vi = (2, 1, 3), ta c:

Khi hnh chiu trc giao ca = (2, 1, 3) ln F l:

Thnh phn ca trc giao vi F l :

18 54 72 ). 3 = ( , 0, 5 25 25

4.5. Php bin i trc giao - Ma trn trc giao nh ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng cu f. E E c gi l mt php bin i trc giao nu

nh l 1. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng cu f: E E l php bin i trc giao khi v ch khi n bin c s trc chun thnh c s trc chun. Chng minh. : Gi s h mt php bin i trc giao v () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} l mt c s trc chun bt k ca E. Khi f( 1).f( j) = i j = ij, vi mi i, j = 1, 2,..., n. Nh vy ta c f( i) f( j) vi i j, v ||f( i)|| 1 vi i j = 1, 2,..., n. Vy h {f( 1), f( 2),..., f( n)} l mt c s trc chun ca E. Gi s f l mt t ng cu ca E sao cho vi mi c s trc chun { 1,..., 2,..., n} ca E ta c h vect {f( 1), f( 2),..., f( n)} cng l mt c s trc chun ca E. Vi = c:

xi i
i =1

y
i i =1

ty thuc E ta

Vy f l mt php bin i trc giao. nh l 2. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit, A l ma trn ca t ng cu f: E E i vi mt c s trc chun () = { 1,..., 2,..., t n}. T ng cu f l trc giao khi v ch khi AA = I (I l ma trn n v). Chng minh. : Gi s f l mt php bin i trc giao c ma trn i vi c s trc chun () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} l :

Nhng tch ta.A. V y

a
k =1

ki kj

a chnh l phn t dng th i v ct th j ca ma trn

A.A = I.

Gi s t A.A = I, cng nh trn ta c: f( i).f( j) = i. j =ij. Do h vect {f( 1), f( 2),..., f( n)} l mt c s trc chun ca khng gian vect clit E. Vy theo nh ll f l mt php bin i trc giao. nh ngha. Ma trn vung A c gi l mt ma trn trc giao nu
t

A.A = I (I l ma trn n v).

H qu. f l mt php bin i trc giao khi v ch khi ma trn ca n i vi mt c s trc chun l mt ma trn trc giao. V d: Cc ma trn sau l nhng ma trn trc giao: a) Ma trn n v I;

4.6. Php bin i di xng nh ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng cu f: E E c gi l php bin i i xng nn .f( ) =

f( ). , , E. nh l. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng cu f ca E l php i xng nn v ch nu ma trn ca f i vi mt c s trc chun l mt ma trn i xng. Chng minh. Gi s f l php bin i i xng ca E v ma trn ca f i vi c s trc chun () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} l ma trn A = (aij)n. Khi :

V f l php bin i i xng nn i.f( j) = f( i). j. Do aij = aji, Ta c A l ma trn i xng. : Gi s ma trn ca t ng cu f i vi c s trc chun () : { 1,..., 2,..., n} l ma trn i xng A = (aij)n. Khi ta c cc ng thc (1) v (2) trn. Vi hai vect = E, ta c:

xi i , =
i =1

y
i i =1

tu ca

V aij = aji do ma trn A i xng nn .f( ) = f( ) . Vy f l php i xng. 4.7. ng dng nu ln mt ng dng ca php bin i trc giao ta cn n cc nh l sau: nh l 1. Nu A l mt ma trn i xng vi cc thnh phn l

nhng s thc th mi nghim ca a thc c trng |A kI| u l s thc. Chng minh. Gi s k l mt nghim ca phng trnh |A kI| = 0. Xt phng trnh (A - kIn)X = 0. Gi s X0 l mt nghim khng tm thng ca phng trnh , ta c (A - kIn)X0 = 0 X 0 (A - kIn)X0 = 0 X 0 AX0 = k X 0 X0 (*)
u1 u 0 Gi s X = 2 . Khi ... u n
t_ t_ t_ t_

X 0 = ( u1 u 2 ... u n ). Ta c X 0 X0 =

u
i =1

u n l s thc. Do

k t X 0 X0 = k.

u i u n = k.
i =1

u
i =1

u i = k tX0 X 0 = t(k t X 0 X0). V A l

ma trn i xng vi cc phn t l nhng s thc nn ta c t X 0 AX0 = t t 0 ( X AX0) = tX0 X 0 . Do X 0 AX0 = tX0 X 0 = t X 0 AX0. Vy t X 0 AX0 l s thc. T (*) suy ra k t X 0 X00 l s thc. Theo nhn xt trn c t X 0 X0 l s thc, do k l s thc. nh l c chng minh. nh l 2. Nu f l mt php i xng ca khng gian vect clit n chiu E th hai khng gian con ring ng vi hai gi tr ring phn b ca f phi trc giao vi nhau. Chng minh. Gi s f : E E l php i xng, F1, F2 l hai khng gian con ln lt sinh bi cc vect ring 1, 2 tng ng vi hai gi tr ring phn bit k1, k2. Khi , vi hai vect ty F1, F2, ta c f( ) = k1 ; f( ) = k2 . V f l mt php bin i i xng nn f( ) =
f( ). Do (k1 ). = .(k2 ). Suy ra (k2 k1)( . ) = 0. V k2 k1

nn . = 0. Vy F1 trc giao vi F2. nh l 3. Nu f l mt php bin i i xng ca khng gian vect clit n chiu E, th E c mt c s trc chun gm nhng vect ring ca f . Chng minh. V ma trn A ca f i vi c s trc chun () =

{ 1,..., 2,..., n} l ma trn i xng nn theo nh l cc gi tr ring ca f u l s thc. Ta chng minh bng qui np theo n. Vi n = 1, nh l hin nhin ng. Vi n = 2, gi s k1 l mt gi tr ring ca f v 1 l vect ring tng ng. Gi F l khng gian con ca E sinh bi 1 =
1 1 1 v H l

khng gian con b trc giao vi F. V F H ={ } v E = F + H, nn danH = dimE - dimF = 1. Ta c f( ) H vi H. Tht vy, ly ty F ta c .f( ) = f( ). = 0 v f( ) = k1 F nn f( ) H. Gi s 2 l c s ca H. t 2 =
1 2 2, h { 1, 1} l mt c s

trc chun ca E. V f( 2) H nn tn ti k2 R sao cho f( 2) = k2 2. Nh vy h { 1, 1} l c s trc chun ca E gm nhng vc t ring ca f. Gi s n > 2, v mnh ng vi n - 1. Gi k1 l mt gi tr ring ca f v F, H cng l nhng khng gian nh trn. Lp li lp lun trn ta c dimH = n - 1 v H l khng gian con bt bin i vi f. Nh vy thu hp f|H l mt php bin i i xng ca khng gian n - 1 chiu H. Do , theo gi thit qui np H c mt c s trc chun { 1,..., 1} gm nhng vect ring ca f. V 1 1 vi mi = 2,..., n, nn { 1, 2,..., n} l mt c s trc chun ca E gm nhng vect ring ca f. Ta c iu cn chng minh. T y v sau ta ch xt cc dng ton phng trn khng gian vect cht Rn, v ta vn k hiu c s chnh tc ca Ra l c s gm cc vect 1 = (1, 0,..., 0), 2 (0, 1,..., 0),.., n = (0, 0,.., 1). nh l 4. Mi dng ton phng trn khng gian vect clit En a c v dng chnh tc nh mt ma trn trc giao. Chng minh. Gi s dng ton phng trn En c ma trn i vi c s chnh tc l A. Khi A l ma trn i xng. Coi A l ma trn ca

php bin i tuyn tnh f i vi c s chnh tc. Do A l ma trn i xng, nn theo nh l 3, tn ti mt c s trc chun ca Rn gm nhng vect ring ca f, gi s l () = { 1, 2,..., n}. Khi ma trn B ca f i vi c s () l mt ma trn cho. K hiu T l ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} sang c s () khi T l ma trn trc giao. Ta c B - tTAT l ma trn ca dng ton phng r i vi c s () v l ma trn cho, nn i vi c s () dng ton phng c dng chnh tc. T nh l trn suy ra: Cch tm ma trn trc giao a dng ton phng trn Rn v dng chnh tc. Gi s A l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s chnh tc ca Rn. Ta thc hin cc bc sau: 1) Tm cc gi tr ring l nghim ca a thc c trng |A kI|. 2) Tm cc vect ring to thnh mt c s trc chun ca Rn. 3) Tm ma trn chuyn T t c s chnh tc sang c s trc chun va tm c. V d 1. a dng ton phng trn RA v dng chnh tc Gii. Ma trn ca r i vi c s chnh tc l

Tm nghim ca a thc c trng:

Ta c k1 = 0, k2 = 9, k3 = 14 Tm cc vect ring: - Vi k1 = 0, gii h:

Vect ring c dng: (3c1, 2c1, c1). - Vi k2 = 9, gii h:

Vect ring c dng: (0, c2, -2c2). - Vi k3 = 14, vect ring c dng: (- c3, 2c3, c3) Chn c s trc chun () gm nhng vect ring:
5 3

Ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc sang c s () l

Nu ta ca vect ln lt i vi c s chnh tc v c s ()
x1 l X = x 2 v Y = x 3 y1 y 2 , th ta c: y 3

V d 2. Tm php bin i trc giao a dng ton phng sau trn Ra v dng chnh tc.

Gii. Dng ton phng c ma trn i vi c s chnh tc l:

a thc c trng:

Cc nghim ca a thc c trng l: k1 = - 9, k2 = k3 = 9 - Vi k1 = - 9, gii h phng trnh

ta c nghim c dng (2c, c, 2c). Chn 1 = (2, 1, 2) ta c nghim ring ng vi k1 = - 9. - Vi k2 = k3 = 9, h phng trnh tng ng l:

Nghim ca h phng trnh ny c dng: (d, - 2d - 2e, e). V hng ca h phng trnh bng 1 nn khng gian cc nghim c chiu bng 2. Chn mt c s ca khng gian ny:

l hai vect ring ng vi k2 = k3 = 9. Theo nh l 2, ta c 2 v 3 3 trc giao vi 1. V th, mun c mt c s trc chun ca R gn cc vect ring ch cn trc chun ho h vect { 2, 3}.

Suy ra

t=-

4 5

H vect () = { 1, 2,..., m} l mt c s chun ca R3. V

ta c ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc thnh c s () l:

y chnh l ma trn ca php bin i tuyn tnh trc giao a dng ton phng cho v dng chnh tc.
2 i vi c s (), vi = {y1 1 + y2 2 + y3 3} ta c ( ) = - 9 y1 3 + 9 y2 2 + 9 y2 .

Vic tm php bin i trc giao a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc nh lm trong cc V d trn s c s dng nhiu khi a phng trnh ca ng bc hai, mt bc hai v dng chnh tc.

TM TT

1. DNG TUYN TNH, DNG SONG TUYN TNH 1.1. nh ngha Cho V l khng gian vect 1) nh x f : V R c gi l mt dng tuyn tnh trn V nu

2) nh x : V V R c gi l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V n u

vi mi , 1, 2, , 1, thuc V v mi k R. 3) Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l i xng nu ( , ) = ( ), , V. Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l thay phin nu ( , ) = -( , ), , V. nh l 1. Gi s V l khng gian vect n chiu vi c s l { 1,..., 2,..., n}. nh x f : V R l mt dng tuyn tnh trn V khi v ch khi tn ti n s thc cb,..., cn sao cho f( ) =

a c , vi mi
i i i =1

a
i i =1

V.

Khi f ( i) = ci, vi mi i = 1,..., n, v f l dng tuyn tnh duy nht trn V tha mn iu kin ny. nh l 2. Gi s V l khng gian vect n chiu vi c s l { 1,..., 2,..., n}. nh x : V V R l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V khi v ch khi tn ti n2 s thc {dij | i, j = 1, 2,..., n} sao cho

trn V tha mn iu kin ny. 1.2. Ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh nh ngha. Cho { 1,..., 2,..., n} l mt c s ca khng gian vect n chiu V trn trng s thc R, l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V, k hiu ( i, j) = aij R, i, j = 1, 2,..., n. Ma trn vung cp n sau c gi l ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh i vi c s { 1,..., 2,..., n} cho.

Nhn xt. Gi s V l khng gian vect vi c s { 1,..., 2,..., n} v A = (aij)n l ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trn V. Khi vi mi

Nh vy, nu bit ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh i vi mt c s no , th ta c th xc nh nh ( , ) ca cp ( , ) tu ; ngha l mt dng song tuyn tnh c hon ton xc nh bi ma trn ca n i vi mt c s cho. 1.3. Lin h gia hai ma trn ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh i vi hai c s khc nhau nh l. Cho () = { 1,..., 2,..., n}, () = { 1, 2,..., m} l hai c s ca cng mt khng gian vect n chiu V trn R, A = (aij)n v B = (bij)n ln lu l cc ma trn ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh do trn V i vi cc c s tng ng () v (), T = (tij)n l ma trn chuyn t () sang (). Khi B = tTAT.

2. DNG TON PHNG 2.1. Dng ton phng nh ngha. nh x : V R (R l trng s thc) c gi l mt dng ton phng trn V nu tn ti mt dng song tuyn tnh f trn V sao cho ( ) - f( , ) vi mi V. Khi f c gi l dng song tuyn tnh sinh ra dng ton phng . Tn ti tng ng 1-1 gia cc dng ton phng trn V v cc dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn V; ngha l nu r l mt dng ton phng trn V th tn ti mt v ch mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng sinh ra . Dng song tuyn tnh i xng sinh ra dng ton phng c gi l dng cc ca . Gi s V l khng gian vect n chiu vi c s l { 1,..., 2,..., n}. nh x : V V R l mt dng ton phng trn V khi v ch khi () =

i =1

x i x ja ij , vi mi =
j =1

x
i =1

i i

, V, trong aij (i, j : 1, 2,...,

n) l dy cc s thc xc nh. 2.2. Ma trn ca dng ton phng nh ngha. Cho l dng ton phng tng ng vi dng song tuyn tnh i xng . Ma trn ca i vi c s { 1,..., 2,..., n} cng c gi l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s y. Nu A = (aij)n l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s { 1,..., 2,..., n}, th A c tnh cht aij = ( i, j) = ( j, i) = aij. Ma trn c tnh cht ny c gi l mt ma trn i xng. V i =

x i i , biu thc ( ) =
i =1

x x a
i i =1 j =1

j ij

c gi l biu

thc ta ca . 2.3. Dng ton phng xc nh nh ngha. Dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V c gi l xc nh nu ( ) = 0 ko theo = 0.

nh l. Nu l mt dng ton phng xc inh th ( ) c cng mt du vi mi V. Dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V c gi l xc nh dng (m) nu ( ) > 0 ( ( ) < 0 ) vi mi a 0 thuc V. Nu l mt dng ton phng xc nh dng (m) trn khng gian vect V v W l mt khng gian con ca V th thu hp ca trn W (k hiu l |W) cng l mt dng ton phng xc nh dng (m) trn W.

3. A DNG TON PHNG V DNG CHNH TC 3.1. nh ngha. Gi s l mt dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V. Nu i vi c s () = { 1, 2,..., n} ca V biu thc ta ca l

th biu thc ny c gi l dng chnh tc ca dng ton phng . Trong trng hp ny ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s () l mt ma trn cho (aij = aji = 0 vi i j). Vic i c s mt dng ton phng cho i vi c s mi c dng chnh tc c gi l a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc. 3.2. nh l. Mi dng ton phng u a c v dng chnh tc. H qu. Gi s l mt dng ton phng c dng chnh tc ( ) =

k x
i =1

2 i 1

. Th th l dng ton phng xc nh dng khi v ch khi

ki > 0, vi mi i = 1,.., n. C nhiu phng php khc nhau a mt dng ton phng v dng chnh tc: phng php cho ha ma trn, phng php Jacobi, phng php LagTange. 3.3. Dng phn mm Maple a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc

Ta c th s dng phng php LagTange vi s h tr ca phn mm ton Maple a biu thc ta ca dng ton phng v dng chnh tc. Quy trnh c th nh sau: Trc tin ta phi s dng hai lnh to mi trng tnh ton l: >restart; >with(student); [D,Diff, Int, Limit, Lineint, Product, Sum, Tripleint, Changevar, Completesquare, Distance, Equate, Integrand, Intercept, Intparts, leftbox, leftsum, makeproc, middlebox, middlesum, midpoint, powsubs, rightbox, rightsum, showtangent, smpon, slope, summand, trapezoid] Trong qu trnh bin i cn ch phn bit trng hp aii 0 vi aii = 0. 3.4. nh l qun tnh nh l 1. (1ut qun tnh) Trong hai dng chnh tc bt k ca cng mt dng ton phng s cc h s dng bng nhau, s cc h s tm bng nhau. i vi ma trn vung

mi nh thc

c gi l mt nh thc con chnh ca ma trn A. nh l 2. Gi s A l ma trn ca dng ton phng trn khng gian vect n chiu V. Khi l dng ton phng xc nh dng nu v ch nn mi nh thc con chnh ca A u dng.

4. KHNG GIAN VECT CLIT 4.1. nh ngha 1) Dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn khng gian vect V c gi l mt tch v hng trn V nu 0 thuc V ta c ( , ) > 0. Vi , V s thc ( , ) c gi l tch v hng ca v k hiu bi . . Nu = 6, thay cho . ta vit 2. 2) Khng gian vect V c gi l mt khng gian vect clit nu trn V c mt tch v hng. 4.2. C s trc chun nh ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit. 1) Hai vect , ca E c gi l trc giao nu . = 0; k hiu
.

2) Vi mi E, ta gi ( x) 2 l chun ca vect , k hiu | ||. Nu || || = 1 th ta ni l vect nh chun. 3) C s () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} ca khng gian vect clit E c gi l mt c s trc chun nu i, j = ij (Trong ij l k hiu Kronecker tha mn ij = 1 khi i = j, ij = 0 khi i j). nh l 1. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit. Khi : 1) Vi E, || || = 0 khi v ch khi = 0 . 2) Vi mi E, mi k R ta c ||k || = |k| .|| ||. 3) Vi mi , E ta c | | || ||.|| || (bt ng thc CauchyBunhiakovsky). 4) Vi mi , E ta c || + || || || +|| || (bt ng thc tam gic). nh l 2. Mi h gm nhng vect khc khng, i mt trc giao ca mt khng gian uect clit u c lp tuyn tnh. nh l 3. Mi khng gian vect clit n chiu u c c s trc

chun. nh l 4. Nu () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} l mt c s trc chun ca khng gian clit n chiu E, th vi E ta c :

= ( 1 ) 1 + ( 2 ) 2 + ... + ( n ) n .

4.3. Khng gian con b trc giao nh ngha. Khng gian con H = { E | , ta F} c gi l khng gian con b trc giao vi khng gian con F. nh l 1. Nu H l khng gian con b trc giao vi khng gian con F ca khng gian vect clit n chiu E th F H = { } v E = F + H. 4.4. Hnh chiu ca mt vect ln khng gian con nh ngha. Gi s E l khng gian clit n chiu, F l khng gian con ty ca E, khi E ta lun c biu din duy nht = +
, vi, F, H, trong H l khng gian con trc giao ca F.

Ta s gi vect l hnh chiu trc giao ca ln F v k hiu l hch F

, cn vect = - = - hchF c gi l thnh phn ca trc

giao vi F. 4.5. Php bin i trc giao - Ma trn trc giao nh ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng cu f. E E c gi l mt php bin i trc giao nu f( ). f( , )= . vi mi , E. nh l 1. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng cu f: E E l php bin i trc giao khi v ch khi n bin mi c s trc chun thnh c s trc chun. nh l 2. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit, A l ma trn ca T ng cu f: E E i vi mt c s trc chun () = { 1,..., 2,..., t n}. T ng cu f l trc giao khi v ch khi AA = I (I l ma trn n v). nh ngha. Ma trn vung A c gi l mt ma trn trc giao n u

AA = I (I l ma trn n v)

H qu. f l mt php bin i trc giao khi v ch khi ma trn ca n i vi mt c s trc chun l mt ma trn trc giao. 4.6. Php bin i i xng nh ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng cu f: E E c gi l php i xng nu nh l 1. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng cu f ca E l php i xng nu v ch nu ma trn ca f vi mt c s trc chun l mt ma trn i xng. 4.7. ng dng nh l 1. Nu A l mt ma trn i xng vi cc thnh phn l nhng s thc th mi nghim ca a thc c trng | A kI | u l s thc. nh l 2. Nu f l mt php i xng ca khng gian vect clit n chiu E th hai khng gian con ring ng vi hai gi tr ring phn bit ca f phi trc giao vi nhau. nh l 3. Nu f l mt php i xng ca khng gian vect clit n chiu E, th E c mt c s trc chun gm nhng vect ring ca f. nh l 4. Mi dng ton phng trn khng gian vect clit En chiu a c v dng chnh tc nh mt ma trn trc giao. Tm ma trn trc giao a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc: Gi s A l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s chnh tc ca Rn. Ta thc hin cc bc sau: 1) Tm cc gi tr ring l nghim ca a thc c trng | A kI | . 2) Tm cc vect ring to thnh mt c s trc chun ca Rn. 3) Tm ma trn chuyn T t c s chnh tc sang c s trc chun va tm c.

BI TP

1. DNG SONG TUYN TNH 1. Vit ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trn R3, y

2. Tm ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn R3:

3. Cho ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trn R3 c ma trn i vi c s chnh tc l

Tm ma trn ca i vi c s gm cc vect:

4. Cho dng song tuyn tnh trn R3 c ma trn i vi c s () l

Ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () ca Rn l

Tm ma trn ca i vi c s () .

2. DNG TON PHNG 5. Tm ma trn ca dng ton phng trn R3 c biu thc to sau:

6. Cho cc dng ton phng sau y c vit di dng ma trn. Hy vit chng di trng thng thng:

7. Vit cc dng ton phng sau y di dng ma trn:

8. Tm biu thc to ca mi dng ton phng di y sau khi thc hin Php bin i to tng ng

3. A DNG TON PHNG V DNG CHNH TC 9. a cc dng ton phng sau v dng chnh tc, vi

10. Vi cc k hiu trc nh l 6.7, chng minh rng mt dng ton phng xc nh m khi v ch khi 4. KHNG GIAN VECT CLIT 11. Trong khng gian vect clit ta t: cos l co sin ca gc gia hai vect v v gi

Hy tnh chun v co sin ca gc gia hai vect sau trong R3:

12. Trong khng gian vect clit R3 cho c s gm: Trc chun ho h vect cho. 13. Trong khng gian vect cht R4, hy trc chun ho h vect gm cc vect sau:

14. Trong khng gian vect clit E vi c s trc chun Hy tnh

15. Tm ma trn trc giao a cc dng ton phng trn R3 sau y v dng chnh tc,