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Dạng song tuyến tính dạng toàn phương
Dạng song tuyến tính dạng toàn phương
M U
Trong Hnh hc, khi nghin cu nhng ng bc hai, mt bc hai,
vic a phng trnh ca chng v dng chnh tc c mt ngha rt
quan trng, v dng chnh tc ta d nhn bit dng v cc c tnh ca
chng, phn loi chng. Cng vic ny thc hin c nh nhng khi
nim v dng nh: dng tuyn tnh, dng song tuyn tnh, dng ton
phng, v khi nim khng gian vect clit. Nh vy vic nghin cu
Hnh hc c thc hin bng nhng phng tin i s. Bn c s
thy rng phng tin ny t ra rt hu hiu.
Mt nh x tuyn tnh t mt K-khng gian vect n K-khng gian
vect K c gi l mt dng tuyn tnh. M rng khi nim ny ta c
nhng khi nim: dng song tuyn tnh, dng song tuyn tnh i xng,
dng song tuyn tnh thay phin, dng ton phng. Li nh khi nim
dng song tuyn tnh i xng v dng ton phng m ta s nh ngha
c khi mm tch v hng trong khng gian vect - mt khi nim
c lm quen t khi hc lp 10 trng Trung hc Ph thng. Tch v
hng gip ta xy dng khng gian vect clit.
Khi hc chng ny cc bn cn nm c:
- Cc khi nim dng tuyn tnh, dng song tuyn tnh, dng ton
phng;
- Cc phng php a mt dng ton phng v dng chnh tc;
- nh l qun tnh ca dng ton phng;
- Khi nim khng gian vect clit;
- Khi nim h c s trc chun v cch dng mt h c s trc
chun; mt s ng dng ca nhng kin thc ni trn ng thi vn dng
241
vi mi , 1, 2, , 1, 2 thuc V v mi k R.
3) Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l i xng nu:
a x
i
i =0
242
nh x f : Pn R, xc nh bi f ( ) =
i =0
trn Pn.
V d 3. Vi V = R2, = (a1, a2), = (b1, b2). nh x: = R2 R2
R, xc nh bi ( , ) =
a1
a2
b1 b 2
Hn na ta c ( , ) = -( , )
V d 4. nh x = Rn Rn R xc nh bi ( , ) = x1y1 + x2y2
+... + xnyn, vi = (x1, x2,..., xn), = (y1, y2,..., yn), l mt dng song
tuyn tnh i xng trn Rn.
V d 5. Gi s V l khng gian cc vect (hnh hc) c chung gc O.
nh x t V V vo R xc nh nh sau:
Vi OA = , OB = , ( , ) = | | | | l cos ( , ) (tch v hng
ca v ), l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng.
Tht vy, nh bit trong gio trnh hnh hc trng ph thng, vi
k hiu , l tch v hng ca hai vect v , ta c:
243
Nhn xt:
- Mt dng tuyn tnh trn V thc cht l mt nh x tuyn tnh t V
vo R, R c xt nh mt khng gian vect trn chnh n
- nh x : V V R l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V nu v
ch nu n l dng tuyn tnh trn V i vi bin x khi ta c nh bin y
v tng t l dng tuyn tnh trn V i vi bin y khi ta c nh bin x.
- Mi dng song tuyn tnh trn V u c th biu din c thnh
tng ca mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng v mt dng song tuyn tnh
thay phin trn V.
Tht vy: vi , V t :
a jc j vi mi =
i =1
i =1
i i
V.
i =1
x i y jdij vi mi =
j =1
x i i , =
i =1
i =1
i i
V. Khi ( i, j) =
i =1
j =1
x y d
i
j ij
x i i , =
i =1
i =1
i i
V ta c:
= ( , ). Vy = . nh l c chng
minh.
V d:
Xt V = Rn, v { 1,..., 2,..., n} l c s chnh tc ca V. Dng song
tuyn tnh trn Rn xc nh bi ( , ) = x1y1 + x2y2 +...+ xnyn, vi
= (x1, x2,..., xn), = (y1, y2,..., yn) V l dng song tuyn tnh duy nht
trn Rn tha mn ( 1, 2) = ij, trong ij = 1 khi i = j v ij = 0 khi i
j.
1.2. Ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh
nh ngha. Gi s { 1,..., 2,..., v} l mt c s ca khng gian
vect n chiu V trn trng s thc R, l mt dng song tuyn tnh
trn V, k hiu ( i, j) = aij R, i, j = 1, 2,..., n. Ma trn vung cp
n sau y c gi l ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh i vi c s
{ 1,..., 2,..., v} cho
x i i , =
i =1
i =1
i =1
j=1
a x y
ij
i i
V, p dng nh l 2, mc 1.1, ta c: ( , ) =
Do ma trn ca l
1.3. Lin h gia hai ma trn ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh
i vi hai c s khc nhau
Theo nh ngha, ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh thay i khi ta i
c s ca khng gian vect. Ta hy xt mi lin quan gia hai ma trn
ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh i vi hai c s khc nhau.
nh l. Gi s () = { 1,..., 2,..., n}, () = { 1, 2,..., n} l hai
c s ca cng mt R-khng gian vect n chiu V, A = (aij)n v B = (bij)n
ln lt l cc ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trn V i vi cc c
s tng ng () v (), T = (tij)n l ma trn chuyn t () sang (). Khi
B = tTAT.
Chng minh. V T l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang () nn
247
Ta c cki =
ma trn
(t )
'
ik n
kl lj
l =1
n
n '
'
t
a
t
TAT. Vy B = tTAT.
V d. Trn khng gian vect R3 trn trng s thc R cho dng song
tuyn tnh xc nh nh sau: Vi = (x1, x2, x3), = (y1, y2, y3),
ma vn chuyn t c s () sang () l T = 1 0 1
1 1 1
Ma trn ca i vi c s () s l:
248
1
{( + ) - ( ) -( )}. C
2
i i
i =1
j=1
a x y
ij
vi mi =
i =1
i i
i =1
, biu thc ( ) =
i =1
j=1
a x y
ij
c gi l biu thc
ta ca .
V d. nh x : R3 R xc nh nh sau:
Vi = (x1, x2, x3), ( ) = 2x21 - 2x1x2 + 4x1x3 - x22 + 3x23, l mt
dng ton phng ng vi dng song tuyn tnh i xng q) xc nh
bi:
y = (y1, y2, y3). i vi c s () : 1 = (1, 0, 0), 2 = (0, 1, 0), 3
= (0, 0, 1), v c ma trn l:
vi =
x i i , biu thc ta ( ) =
i =1
i =1
j=1
a x y
ij
c th vit l:
Do ( ) cng du vi ( ).
Nu vi mi x R, tc l - x 0 th v l dng ton
phng xc nh nn
251
Vy ( ) cng du vi ( ).
nh ngha. Dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V c gi
l xc nh dng (m) nu ( ) > 0 (( ) < 0 ) vi mi 0 thuc V.
H qu. Nu l mt dng ton phng xc nh dng (m) trn
khng gian vect V v W l mt khng gian con ca V th thu hp ca
trn W (k hiu l | W ) cng l mt dng ton phng xc nh dng
(m) trn W.
3. A DNG TON PHNG V DNG CHNH TC
3.1. nh ngha
Gi s l mt dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V. Nu i
vi c s () = { 1, 2,..., n} ca V biu thc ta ca l
i i
i =1
j=1
a x y
ij
, vi
i =1
a) Trng hp c mt aii 0.
Gi s a11 0, ta vit ( ) di dng:
253
y
j
. Gi W l khng gian
i=2
y
j
W, ta
i=2
c biu thc ( ) =
k z
i=2
2
i i
+2
b y y
ij i
2 i j n
k z
2
i i
i=2
k z
2
i i
i=2
a x x
ij i
2 i j n
k z
2
i i
i=2
> 0, vi mi i = 1,.., n.
Chng minh. Gi s l xc nh dng v trong biu din
chnh tc i vi mt c s no c mt h s, chng hn k1 < 0. Khi
vi ( 0) c ta i vi c s trn l (1, 0,..., 0), ta c. ( ) =
k1 0.
Tri vi gi thit rng r l mt dng xc nh dng.
Vy ki > 0 vi mi i = 1,..., n.
Hin nhin.
C nhiu phng php khc nhau a mt dng ton phng v
dng chnh tc: phng php cho ha ma trn, phng php Jacobi...
Quy trnh rt gn dng ton phng trnh by trong nh l trn c gi
l phng php Lagrange. y l phng php dng lin tip nhiu php
bin i tuyn tnh a mt dng ton phng v dng chnh tc.
V d: a dng ton phng sau trn R3 v dng chnh tc
255
Khi ta c:
256
Ta c
( ) = 4 z12 - 4 z 22
y1 = x1 + x2 - 2x3.
Bc 2: nh lnh sau:
> completesquare(y1^2+4*x2^2+4*x2*x3-8*x3^2,x2);
Ta nhn c: ( ) = 4(x2 +
Ta t tip : y2 = x2 +
1
x3)2 - 9 x 23 + y12.
2
1
x3, y3 = x3.
2
258
mi nh thc
261
Tm c c s () = { 1, 2,..., n} ca V, i vi n, ma trn ca
C dng:
|A|
> 0. Nh vy i vi c s (), c dng ({ 1, 2,...,
k1 k 2 ...k n 1
m}) =
k z
2
i i
i =1
phng xc nh dng.
4. KHNG GIAN VECT CLIT
4.1. nh ngha khng gian vect clit
nh ngha.
1) Dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn khng gian vect V c
gi l mt tch v hng trn V nu 0 thuc V ta c ( , ) > 0.
Vi , V, s thc ( , ) c gi l tch v hng ca v
, k hiu bi . . Nu = , thay cho . ta vit
( )
Nu | | = 1 th ta ni l vect nh chun.
3) C s () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} ca khng gian vect clit E c
gi l mt c s trc chun nu i, j = ij. (Trong ij l k hiu
Kronecker tha mn ij = 1 khi i = j, ij = 0 khi i j).
V d 1. Trong khng gian V ca v d 1, mc 4.1, 3 vect tu OI ,
OJ , OK i mt vung gc v c di bng 1 lp thnh c s trc
chun.
V d 2. Trong khng gian vect clt Rn v d 2, mc trn, c s
2 ). Ta c | | =
(k ) 2 =
3) Vi mi , E, vi mi gi tr ca x R ta c:
0 || - x ||2 = 2 2x . + x2 2.
Do ' = ( . ) - 2. 2 0 | . |
() 2 . ( )2
Vy | . | || ||.|| ||.
Du bng xy ra khi = k. (hai vect , l ph thuc tuyn
tnh).
264
k
i
= 0.
i =1
Vi mi j, j = 1,..., r ta c
V j nn || || 0 nn ta c kj = 0. Vy kj = 0 j = 1,..., r.
Vy h vc t 1, 2,..., r l c lp tuyn tnh.
nh l 3. Mi khng gian vect clit n chiu (n 2) u c c s
trc chun.
Chng minh. Ta chng minh bng qui np theo n.
Vi n = 1 d dng chng minh c mnh .
Vi n = 2, gi s 1, 2 l mt c s no ca khng gian vect
clit E.
t: E2 =
n 1
i i
+ n, tho
i 1
n 1
i i
j +
i 1
n j = 0, j =1,2,..., n - 1.
V i j = ij nn ng thc trn ch l: xj + n j = 0.
Nh vy n c hon ton xc nh bi cc xj = - n j vi mi j =
1, 2,.., n - 1.
t: n =
n
n
1
1
sau theo
4
3
3
4
, 0, ). 3 ( , 0, ). D dng
5
5
5
5
Tng t, ta c (k ). = k( . ) = 0, F. Do k H.
Vy H l mt khng gian con ca E.
nh ngha. Khng gian con H = { E | , F} c gi
l khng gian con b trc giao vi khng gian con F.
nh l. Nu H l khng gian con b trc giao vi khng gian con F
ca khng gian vect clit n chiu E th F H = { 0 } v E = F + H.
Chng minh. Ly ty F H, theo cch xc nh H ta thy
trc giao vi chnh n, ngha l 2 = 0. Theo nh l nh l 1 (4.2) ta c
= 0 vy F H = { 0 }.
Gi s { 1,..., 2,..., r} l mt c s trc chun ca khng gian con
F. B sung vo n c mt c s trc chun ca E: { 1 2,..., r,
r+1,..., n}.
Khi mi vc t E u biu din duy nht di dng:
268
4
,
5
3
). D dng kim tra c l c s trc chun ca F. Theo V d
5
4
3
3
4
trn ta c h 1 = (0, 1, 0) ; 2 = (- , 0, ) ; 3 = ( , 0, - ) l c s
5
5
5
5
0,
Vi = (2, 1, 3), ta c:
18
54
72
).
3 = ( , 0,
5
25
25
269
xi i
i =1
i =1
ty thuc E ta
c:
Nhng
ki kj
k =1
tch ta.A.
Vy
A.A = I.
f( ). , , E.
nh l. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng
cu f ca E l php i xng nn v ch nu ma trn ca f i vi mt c
s trc chun l mt ma trn i xng.
Chng minh.
Gi s f l php bin i i xng ca E v ma trn ca f i
vi c s trc chun () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} l ma trn A = (aij)n. Khi :
x
i
i =1
, =
y
i
tu ca
i =1
E, ta c:
t_
0
t_
0
X AX = k X X0 (*)
u1
u
0
Gi s X = 2 . Khi
...
u
n
n
t_
X 0 = ( u1 u 2 ... u n ). Ta c X 0 X0 =
u n l s thc. Do
i =1
k X X = k.
t
u
i =1
u n = k.
i =1
1
1
1 v H l
1
2
2, h { 1, 1} l mt c s
Ta c k1 = 0, k2 = 9, k3 = 14
Tm cc vect ring:
- Vi k1 = 0, gii h:
275
Nu ta ca vect ln lt i vi c s chnh tc v c s ()
x1
l X = x 2 v Y =
x
3
y1
y 2 , th ta c:
y
3
276
a thc c trng:
277
Suy ra
t=-
4
5
278
279
TM TT
vi mi , 1, 2, , 1, thuc V v mi k R.
3) Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l i xng nu ( , ) =
( ), , V. Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l thay phin nu
( , ) = -( , ), , V.
nh l 1. Gi s V l khng gian vect n chiu vi c s l { 1,...,
2,..., n}. nh x f : V R l mt dng tuyn tnh trn V khi v ch khi
tn ti n s thc cb,..., cn sao cho f( ) =
ai ci , vi mi =
i =1
i =1
V.
281
i =1
x i x ja ij , vi mi =
i i
i =1
j =1
n) l dy cc s thc xc nh.
2.2. Ma trn ca dng ton phng
nh ngha. Cho l dng ton phng tng ng vi dng song
tuyn tnh i xng . Ma trn ca i vi c s { 1,..., 2,..., n}
cng c gi l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s y.
Nu A = (aij)n l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s
{ 1,..., 2,..., n}, th A c tnh cht aij = ( i, j) = ( j, i) = aij.
Ma trn c tnh cht ny c gi l mt ma trn i xng.
Vi =
i i
, biu thc ( ) =
i =1
i =1
j =1
x x a
i
j ij
c gi l biu
thc ta ca .
2.3. Dng ton phng xc nh
nh ngha. Dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V c gi
l xc nh nu ( ) = 0 ko theo = 0.
282
k x
2
i 1
i =1
ki > 0, vi mi i = 1,.., n.
C nhiu phng php khc nhau a mt dng ton phng v
dng chnh tc: phng php cho ha ma trn, phng php Jacobi,
phng php LagTange.
3.3. Dng phn mm Maple a dng ton phng v dng
chnh tc
283
mi nh thc
chun.
nh l 4. Nu () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} l mt c s trc chun ca
khng gian clit n chiu E, th vi E ta c :
= ( 1 ) 1 + ( 2 ) 2 + ... + ( n ) n .
giao vi F.
4.5. Php bin i trc giao - Ma trn trc giao
nh ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T
ng cu f. E E c gi l mt php bin i trc giao nu f( ).
f( , )= . vi mi , E.
nh l 1. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng
cu f: E E l php bin i trc giao khi v ch khi n bin mi c s
trc chun thnh c s trc chun.
nh l 2. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit, A l ma trn ca
T ng cu f: E E i vi mt c s trc chun () = { 1,..., 2,...,
t
n}. T ng cu f l trc giao khi v ch khi AA = I (I l ma trn n
v).
nh ngha. Ma trn vung A c gi l mt ma trn trc giao
nu
286
AA = I (I l ma trn n v)
287
BI TP
Tm ma trn ca i vi c s gm cc vect:
Tm ma trn ca i vi c s () .
288
289
290
v gi
292