Weltest 200: Technical Description

Weltest 200
Technical Description
2001A
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................................................. iii

List of Figures ..... ................................................................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ...... ................................................................................................................................................................. vii
Chapter 1 - PVT Property Correlations

PVT property correlations ....................................................................................................................................................1-1
Chapter 2 - SCAL Correlations

SCAL correlations................................................................................................................................................................2-1
Chapter 3 - Pseudo variables

Chapter 4 - Analytical Models
Fully-completed vertical well................................................................................................................................................4-1
Partial completion ................................................................................................................................................................4-3
Partial completion with gas cap or aquifer ...........................................................................................................................4-5
Infinite conductivity vertical fracture.....................................................................................................................................4-7
Uniform flux vertical fracture ................................................................................................................................................4-9
Finite conductivity vertical fracture.....................................................................................................................................4-11
Horizontal well with two no-flow boundaries ......................................................................................................................4-13
Horizontal well with gas cap or aquifer ..............................................................................................................................4-15
Homogeneous reservoir ....................................................................................................................................................4-17
Two-porosity reservoir .......................................................................................................................................................4-19
Radial composite reservoir ................................................................................................................................................4-21
Infinite acting ...... ..............................................................................................................................................................4-23
Single sealing fault ............................................................................................................................................................4-25
Single constant-pressure boundary ...................................................................................................................................4-27
Parallel sealing faults.........................................................................................................................................................4-29
Intersecting faults ..............................................................................................................................................................4-31
Partially sealing fault..........................................................................................................................................................4-33
Closed circle ....... ..............................................................................................................................................................4-35
Constant pressure circle ....................................................................................................................................................4-37
Closed Rectangle ..............................................................................................................................................................4-39
Constant pressure and mixed-boundary rectangles ..........................................................................................................4-41
Constant wellbore storage .................................................................................................................................................4-43
Variable wellbore storage ..................................................................................................................................................4-44
Chapter 5 - Selected Laplace Solutions

Introduction ......... ................................................................................................................................................................5-1
Transient pressure analysis for fractured wells ...................................................................................................................5-4
Composite naturally fractured reservoirs .............................................................................................................................5-5
Chapter 6 - Non-linear Regression

Introduction ......... ................................................................................................................................................................6-1
Modified Levenberg-Marquardt method...............................................................................................................................6-2
Nonlinear least squares .......................................................................................................................................................6-4
Appendix A - Unit Convention

Unit definitions .... ............................................................................................................................................................... A-1
Unit sets.............. ............................................................................................................................................................... A-5
Unit conversion factors to SI............................................................................................................................................... A-8
iii
Appendix B - File Formats

Mesh map formats .............................................................................................................................................................. B-1
Bibliography
Index
iv
List of Figures

Figure 2.1
Oil/water SCAL correlations....................................................................................................................2-1
Figure 2.2
Gas/water SCAL correlatiuons ...............................................................................................................2-3
Figure 2.3
Oil/gas SCAL correlations.......................................................................................................................2-4

Figure 4.1
Schematic diagram of a fully completed vertical well in a homogeneous, infinite reservoir....................4-1
Figure 4.2
Typical drawdown response of a fully completed vertical well in a homogeneous, infinite reservoir......4-2
Figure 4.3
Schematic diagram of a partially completed well ....................................................................................4-3
Figure 4.4
Typical drawdown response of a partially completed well. .....................................................................4-4
Figure 4.5
Schematic diagram of a partially completed well in a reservoir with an aquifer......................................4-5
Figure 4.6
Typical drawdown response of a partially completed well in a reservoir with a gas cap or aquifer ........4-6
Figure 4.7
Schematic diagram of a well completed with a vertical fracture .............................................................4-7
Figure 4.8
Typical drawdown response of a well completed with an infinite conductivity vertical fracture ..............4-8
Figure 4.9
Schematic diagram of a well completed with a vertical fracture .............................................................4-9
Figure 4.10
Typical drawdown response of a well completed with a uniform flux vertical fracture ..........................4-10
Figure 4.11
Schematic diagram of a well completed with a vertical fracture ...........................................................4-11
Figure 4.12
Typical drawdown response of a well completed with a finite conductivity vertical fracture .................4-12
Figure 4.13
Schematic diagram of a fully completed horizontal well .......................................................................4-13
Figure 4.14
Typical drawdown response of fully completed horizontal well.............................................................4-14
Figure 4.15
Schematic diagram of a horizontal well in a reservoir with a gas cap...................................................4-15
Figure 4.16
Typical drawdown response of horizontal well in a reservoir with a gas cap or an aquifer...................4-16
Figure 4.17
Schematic diagram of a well in a homogeneous reservoir ...................................................................4-17
Figure 4.18
Typical drawdown response of a well in a homogeneous reservoir......................................................4-18
Figure 4.19
Schematic diagram of a well in a two-porosity reservoir.......................................................................4-19
Figure 4.20
Typical drawdown response of a well in a two-porosity reservoir .........................................................4-20
Figure 4.21
Schematic diagram of a well in a radial composite reservoir ................................................................4-21
Figure 4.22
Typical drawdown response of a well in a radial composite reservoir ..................................................4-22
Figure 4.23
Schematic diagram of a well in an infinite-acting reservoir ...................................................................4-23
Figure 4.24
Typical drawdown response of a well in an infinite-acting reservoir .....................................................4-24
Figure 4.25
Schematic diagram of a well near a single sealing fault .......................................................................4-25
Figure 4.26
Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a single sealing fault...............................................4-26
Figure 4.27
Schematic diagram of a well near a single constant pressure boundary..............................................4-27
Figure 4.28
Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a single constant pressure boundary .....................4-28
Figure 4.29
Schematic diagram of a well between parallel sealing faults................................................................4-29
Figure 4.30
Typical drawdown response of a well between parallel sealing faults ..................................................4-30
Figure 4.31
Schematic diagram of a well between two intersecting sealing faults ..................................................4-31
Figure 4.32
Typical drawdown response of a well that is between two intersecting sealing faults ..........................4-32
Figure 4.33
Schematic diagram of a well near a partially sealing fault ....................................................................4-33
Figure 4.34
Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a partially sealing fault ........................................... 4-34
Figure 4.35
Schematic diagram of a well in a closed-circle reservoir ..................................................................... 4-35
Figure 4.36
Typical drawdown response of a well in a closed-circle reservoir........................................................ 4-36
Figure 4.37
Schematic diagram of a well in a constant pressure circle reservoir ................................................... 4-37
Figure 4.38
Typical drawdown response of a well in a constant pressure circle reservoir...................................... 4-38
Figure 4.39
Schematic diagram of a well within a closed-rectangle reservoir......................................................... 4-39
Figure 4.40
Typical drawdown response of a well in a closed-rectangle reservoir ................................................. 4-40
Figure 4.41
Schematic diagram of a well within a mixed-boundary rectangle reservoir ......................................... 4-41
Figure 4.42
Typical drawdown response of a well in a mixed-boundary rectangle reservoir .................................. 4-42
Figure 4.43
Typical drawdown response of a well with constant wellbore storage ................................................. 4-43
Figure 4.44
Typical drawdown response of a well with increasing wellbore storage (Ca/C < 1) ............................ 4-45
Figure 4.45
Typical drawdown response of a well with decreasing wellbore storage (Ca/C > 1) ........................... 4-45

vi
List of Tables

Table 1.1
Values of C1, C2 and C3 as used in [EQ 1.57]......................................................................................1-11
Table 1.2
Values of C1, C2 and C3 as used in [EQ 1.98]......................................................................................1-19
Table 1.3
Values of C1, C2 and C3 as used in [EQ 1.123]....................................................................................1-23

Table 5.1
Values of f1 and f2 as used in [EQ 5.28] and [EQ 5.29] .........................................................................5-5
Table 5.2
Values of and as used in [EQ 5.33] ......................................................................................................5-6

Table A.1
Unit definitions ....................................................................................................................................... A-1
Table A.2
Unit sets ................................................................................................................................................. A-5
Table A.3
Converting units to SI units .................................................................................................................... A-8
vii
viii
PVT Property Correlations

Chapter 1
PVT property correlations
Rock compressibility
Newman
Consolidated limestone
2
C r = exp(4.026 23.07 + 44.28 ) 10
psi
[EQ 1.1]
psi
[EQ 1.2]
Consolidated sandstone
C r = exp(5.118 36.26 + 63.98 ) 10
Unconsolidated sandstone
C r = exp(34.012 ( 0.2 )) 10
psi, ( 0.2 0.5 )
[EQ 1.3]
where
is the porosity of the rock

1-1
Hall
5
3.63 10
0.58 psi
C r = ------------------------- P Ra
2
[EQ 1.4]
4
7.89792 10
0.687 psi, 0.17
C r = ---------------------------------- P Ra
2
[EQ 1.5]
7.89792 10
- 0.42818
0.687 --------C r = ---------------------------------- P Ra
psi, < 0.17
0.17
2
where
Pa
is the rock reference pressure
P Ra
is ( depth over burden gradient + 14.7 P a ) 2
Knaap
C r = 0.864 10
0.42
0.42
4 P Ra P Ri
--------------------------------- 0.96 10
( Pi P a )
psi
[EQ 1.6]
psi
[EQ 1.7]
C r = 0.292 10
0.30
0.30
2 P Ra P Ri
--------------------------------- 1.86 10
Pi Pa
where
1-2
Pi
is the rock initial pressure
Pa
is the rock reference pressure
P Ri
is ( depth over burden gradient + 14.7 P i ) 2
P Ra
is ( depth over burden gradient + 14.7 P a ) 2

Water correlations
Compressibility
Meehan
2
c w = S c ( a + bT F + cT F ) 10
[EQ 1.8]
where
a = 3.8546 0.000134p
7
b = 0.01052 + 4.77 10 p
8.8 10
0.7
( 0.052 + 0.00027T F 1.14 10 T F + 1.121 10
c = 3.9267 10
S c = 1 + NaCl
[EQ 1.9]
10
6 2
9 3
TF )
[EQ 1.10]
where
TF
is the fluid temperature in F
is the pressure of interest, in psi
NaCl
is the salinity (1% = 10,000 ppm)
Row and Chou

a = 5.916365 10 0 + T F ( 1.0357940 10 2 + T F 9.270048 )
[EQ 1.11]
1
1
+ ------ 1.127522 10 3 + ------ 1.006741 10 5
T
T
F
b = 5.204914 10 3 + T F ( 1.0482101 10 5 + T F 8.328532 10 9 )
[EQ 1.12]
1
1
+ ------ 1.170293 + ------ 1.022783 10 2 )
TF
TF
11
c = 1.18547 10 8 T F 6.599143 10
2
T F 1.70552 10
+ T F 2.23982 10
d = 2.51660 + T F ( 1.11766 10
e = 2.84851 + T F ( 1.54305 10
f = 1.4814 10
g = 2.7141 10
[EQ 1.13]
+ T F ( 8.2969 10
[EQ 1.14]
[EQ 1.15]
T F 1.2469 10
+ T F 2.2655 10
+ T F ( 1.5391 10

Water correlations
[EQ 1.16]
[EQ 1.17]
1-3
h = 6.2158 10
+ T F ( 4.0075 10
+ T F 6.5972 10
12
6
p
p
V w = a ------------- b + ------------- c + NaCl 1 10
14.22
14.22
( d + NaCl 1 10
NaCl 1 10
[EQ 1.18]
[EQ 1.19]
e)
6
p
p
------------- f + NaCl 1 10 g + 0.5 ------------- h )
14.22
14.22
6
6
p
p
b + 2.0 ------------ c + NaCl 1 10 f + NaCl 1 10 g + ------------- h
14.22
14.22
c w = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------V w 14.22
[EQ 1.20]
TF
NaCl
Vw
is the specific volume of Water
cw
is compressibility of Water
[ cm 3 gram ]
[ 1 psi ]
Formation volume factor

Meehan
2
B w = ( a + bp + cp ) S c
[EQ 1.21]
For gas-free water

6
a = 0.9947 + 5.8 10 T F + 1.02 10

b = 4.228 10
c = 1.3 10
10
+ 1.8376 10 T F 6.77 10
1.3855 10
12
T F + 4.285 10
11 2
TF
[EQ 1.22]
15 2
TF
For gas-saturated water

6
a = 0.9911 + 6.35 10 T F + 8.5 10

b = 1.093 10
c = 5 10
11
13
+ 6.429 10
+ ( 3.23 10
where
Water correlations
7 2
TF
3.497 10 T F + 4.57 10
S c = 1 + NaCl [ 5.1 10
1-4
6 2
TF
T F 1.43 10
p + ( 5.47 10
13
+ 8.5 10
12 2
TF
[EQ 1.23]
15 2
TF
1.96 10
2
p ) ( T F 60 ) ]
10
p ) ( T F 60 )
[EQ 1.24]
TF
NaCl
Viscosity
Meehan
w = S c S p 0.02414 10
S c = 1 0.00187NaCl
0.5
446.04 ( T r 252 )
+ 0.000218NaCl
[EQ 1.25]
2.5
[EQ 1.26]
0.5
1.5
+ ( T F 0.0135T F ) ( 0.00276NaCl 0.000344NaCl )
Pressure correction:
S p = 1 + 3.5 10
12 2
p ( T F 40 )
[EQ 1.27]
where
TF
NaCl
Van Wingen
w = e
( 1.003 + T F ( 1.479 10
+ 1.982 10
TF ) )
T F is the fluid temperature in F
Density
3
62.303 + 0.438603NaCl + 1.60074 10 NaCl

w = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Bw
[EQ 1.28]
where
NaCl
Bw
is the formation volume factor
is the Density of Water [ lb ft 3 ]
Water Gradient:

Water correlations
1-5
w
g = ------------144.0
[psi/ft]
Gas correlations
Z-factor
Dranchuk, Purvis et al.
5
a2
a5 2 a5 a6 Pr
a3
z = 1 + a 1 + --------- + --------- P r + a 4 + --------- P r + ------------------

3
T R
T R
T R
TR
[EQ 1.29]
a7 Pr
2
2
+ ------------ ( 1 + a 8 P r ) exp ( a 8 P r )
3
TR
TR
T R = -------T
[EQ 1.30]
5E 3
T c = T c ---------
9
[EQ 1.31]
E 3 = 120 ( Y H S + Y CO )
2
2
0.9
( Y H S + Y CO )
2
2
1.6
0.5
4
+ 15 Y H S Y H S
2
2
[EQ 1.32]
0.27P pr
P r = ------------------ZT R
[EQ 1.33]
P
P pr = --------P
[EQ 1.34]
P c T c
P c = ---------------------------------------------------------T c + YH S ( 1 YH S ) E3
[EQ 1.35]
where
1-6
TR
is the reservoir temperature, K
Tc
is the critical temperature, K
T R
is the reduced temperature
T c
is the adjusted pseudo critical temperature
YH S
2
is the mole fraction of Hydrogen Sulphide
Y CO
is the mole fraction of Carbon Dioxide

Gas correlations
is the pressure of interest
Pc
is the critical pressure
P c
is the adjusted pseudo critical Pressure
Tc
is the critical temperature, K
a 1 = 0.31506237
a 2 = 1.04670990
a 3 = 0.57832729
a 4 = 0.53530771
[EQ 1.36]
a 5 = 0.61232032
a 6 = 0.10488813
a 7 = 0.68157001
a 8 = 0.68446549
Hall Yarborough
2
0.06125P pr t
( 1.2 ( 1 t ) )
Z = ------------------------------ exp
[EQ 1.37]
where
P pr
is the pseudo reduced pressure
is 1 pseudo reduced temperature
is the reduced density
P
P pr = ----------- (where P is the pressure of interest and P crit is the critical pressure)
P crit
[EQ 1.38]
T crit
t = --------TR
(where T crit is the critical temperature and T R is the

temperature in R)
[EQ 1.39]
Reduced density ( Y ) is the solution of the following equation:

1.2 ( 1 t )
0.06125P pr t e
Y+Y +Y Y
+ ---------------------------------------3
(1 Y)
2
( 14.76t 9.76t + 4.58t ) Y

2
+ ( 90.7t 242.2t + 4.58t ) Y
( 2.18 + 2.82t )
[EQ 1.40]
= 0
This is solved using a Newon-Raphson iterative technique.

Gas correlations
1-7
Viscosity
Lee, Gonzalez, and Akin
g = 10
K exp ( Xp Y )
[EQ 1.41]
M
where = 1.4935 ( 10 3 ) p -------gzT

ZT R P sc
B g = -----------------T sc P
[EQ 1.42]
where
Z
is the Z-factor at pressure P
TR
is the reservoir temperature
P sc
is the pressure at standard conditions
T sc
is the temperature at standard conditions
Compressibility
1 1 Z
C g = --- --- ------
P Z P
[EQ 1.43]
where
P
is the Z-factor at pressure P
Density
35.35 sc P
g = ------------------------ZT
[EQ 1.44]
sc = 0.0763 g
[EQ 1.45]
where
1-8
is the gas gravity
is the Z-factor
is the temperature in R

Gas correlations
Condensate correction
0.07636 g + ( 350 con c gr )
gcorr = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 350 con c gr
0.002636 + -------------------------------------------------
6084 ( conAPI 5.9 )
[EQ 1.46]
where
is the gas gravity
con
is the condensate gravity
c gr
is the condensate gas ratio in stb/scf
conAPI
is the condensate API
Oil correlations
Compressibility
Saturated oil
McCain, Rollins and Villena
(1988)
c o = exp [ 7.573 1.450 ln ( p ) 0.383 ln ( p b ) + 1.402 ln ( T ) + 0.256 ln ( API ) + 0.449 ln ( R sb ) ]

[EQ 1.47]
where
Co
is isothermal compressibility, psi-1
R sb
is the solution gas-oil ratio at the bubblepoin pressure, scf/STB
is the weight average of separator gas and stock-tank gas specific gravities
is the temperature, oR
Undersaturated oil
Vasquez and Beggs
5
( 5R sb + 17.2T 1180 g + 12.61 API 1433 ) 10

c o = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------p
[EQ 1.48]
where
co
is the oil compressibility 1/psi
R sb
is the solution GOR, scf/STB
is the gas gravity (air = 1.0)

Oil correlations
1-9
API
is the stock tank oil gravity , API
is the temperature in F
is the pressure of interest, psi
Example
Determine a value for c o where p = 3000 psia, R sb = 500 scf /STB, g = 0.80 ,
API = 30 API, T = 220 F.
Solution
5 ( 500 ) + 17.2 ( 220 ) 1180 ( 0.8 ) + 12.61 ( 30 ) 1433

c o = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
3000 10
5
c o = 1.43 10
/psi
Petrosky and Farshad

C o = ( 1.705 10
[EQ 1.49]
[EQ 1.50]
(1993)
0.3272 T 0.6729 p 0.5906

R s0.69357 ) g0.1885 API
[EQ 1.51]
where
Rs
is the average gas specific gravity (air = 1)
API
is the oil API gravity, oAPI
is the tempreature, oF
is the pressure, psia

Saturated systems
Three correlations are available for saturated systems:
Standing
Vasquez and Beggs
GlasO
Petrosky
These are describe below.

Standing
B o = 0.972 + 0.000147F
1.175
[EQ 1.52]
where
F
1-10
= Rs( g/o )0.5 + 1.25 T

Oil correlations
[EQ 1.53]
and
Bo
is the oil FVF, bbl/STB
Rs
is the oil specific gravity = 141.5/(131.5 + API)
Example
Use Standings equation to estimate the oil FVF for the oil system described by the
data T = 200 F, R s = 350 scf / STB, g = 0.75, API = 30.
Solution
141.5
= 0.876
o = ------------------------131.5 + 30
[EQ 1.54]
0.75 0.5
F = 350 -------------
+ 1.25 ( 200 ) = 574
0.876
[EQ 1.55]
B o = 1.228 bbl / STB
[EQ 1.56]
Vasquez and Beggs
API
B o = 1 + C 1 R s + ( C 2 + C 3 R s ) ( T 60 ) -----------
gc
[EQ 1.57]
where
Rs
API
is the stock tank oil gravity , API
gc
is the gas gravity
C 1 , C 2 , C 3 are obtained from the following table:
Table 1.1
Values of C1, C2 and C3 as used in [EQ 1.57]

API 30
API > 30
C1
4.677 10 -4
4.670 10-4
C2
1.751 10 -5
1.100 10-5
C3
-1.811 10 -8
1.337 10 -9
Example

Oil correlations
1-11
Use the Vasquez and Beggs equation to determine the oil FVF at bubblepoint
pressure for the oil system described by p b = 2652 psia, R sb = 500 scf / STB,
gc = 0.80 , API = 30 and T = 220 F.
Solution
B o = 1.285 bb /STB
[EQ 1.58]
GlasO
B o = 1.0 + 10
[EQ 1.59]
A = 6.58511 + 2.91329 log B ob 0.27683 ( log B ob )
g 0.526
B ob = R s -----
+ 0.968T
o
[EQ 1.60]
[EQ 1.61]
where
Rs
is the oil specific gravity, o = 141.5 ( 131.5 + API )
B ob
is a correlating number
Petrosky & Farshad

B o = 1.0113 + 7.2046 10
(1993)
5
3.0936
g 0.2914
R s0.3738 ------------------ + 0.24626T 0.5371
o0.6265
[EQ 1.62]
where
B o is the oil FVF, bbl/STB
R s is the solution GOR, scf/STB
T
is the temperature, oF
Undersaturated systems
B o = B ob exp(c o ( p b p ))
where
1-12
B ob
is the oil FVF at bubble point , p b psi .
co
is the oil isothermal compressibility , 1/psi
is the pressure of interest, psi

Oil correlations
[EQ 1.63]
is the bubble point pressure, psi
pb
Viscosity
Saturated systems
There are 4 correlations available for saturated systems:
Beggs and Robinson
Standing
GlasO
Khan
Ng and Egbogah
These are described below.

Beggs and Robinson
x
od = 10 1
[EQ 1.64]
where
x = T
1.168
exp(6.9824 0.04658 API)
od
is the dead oil viscosity, cp
is the temperature of interest, F
API
is the stock tank gravity
Taking into account any dissolved gas we get

B
o = A od
[EQ 1.65]
where
A = 10.715 ( R s + 100 )
B = 5.44 ( R s + 150 )
0.515
0.338
Example
Use the following data to calculate the viscosity of the saturated oil system.
T = 137 F, API = 22 , R s = 90 scf / STB.
Solution
x = 1.2658
od = 17.44 cp
A = 0.719
B = 0.853

Oil correlations
1-13
o = 8.24 cp
Standing
7
360 - a
10 ---------------- od = 0.32 + 1.8
------------------
4.53 T 260
API
a = 10
[EQ 1.66]
8.33
0.43 + ---------

API
[EQ 1.67]
where
T
API

a
o = ( 10 ) ( od )
a = R s ( 2.2 10
[EQ 1.68]
R s 7.4 10
[EQ 1.69]
0.68
0.25
0.062 b = ---------------------------------- + ------------------------------- + ---------------------------------5
10
8.62 10 R s
10
1.1 10 R s
10
[EQ 1.70]
3.74 10 R s
where
Rs
Glas
a
o = 10 ( od )
a = R s ( 2.2 10
[EQ 1.71]
R s 7.4 10
[EQ 1.72]
0.68
0.25
0.062
b = ----------------------------------- + -------------------------------- + ----------------------------------5
10
8.62 10 R s
10
1.1 10 R s
10
[EQ 1.73]
3.74 10 R s
and
10
od = 3.141 10 ( T 460 )
3.444
( log API )
= 10.313 ( log ( T 460 ) ) 36.44

where
1-14
API

Oil correlations
[EQ 1.74]
[EQ 1.75]
Khan
4
p
o = ob -----
p
b
0.14 ( 2.5 10 ) ( p p b )
[EQ 1.76]
0.5
0.09 g
ob = --------------------------------------------1 3 4.5
3
Rs r ( 1 o )
[EQ 1.77]
where
ob
is the viscosity at the bubble point
is T 460
is the temperature, R
is the specific gravity of oil
is the specific gravity of solution gas
pb
is the bubble point pressure
Ng and Egbogah
(1983)
log [ log ( od + 1 ) ] = 1.8653 0.025086 API 0.5644 log ( T )
[EQ 1.78]
Solving for od , the equation becomes,
od = 10 10
( 1.8653 0.025086
API
0.5644 log ( T ) )
[EQ 1.79]
where
od
API
uses the same formel as Beggs and Robinson to calculate Viscosity
Undersaturated systems
There are 5 correlations available for undersaturated systems:
Vasquez and Beggs
Standing
GlasO
Khan
Ng and Egbogah
These are described below.

Oil correlations
1-15
Vasquez and Beggs

p m
o = ob -----
p
[EQ 1.80]
where
= viscosity at p > p b
ob
= viscosity at p b
= pressure of interest, psi
pb
= bubble point pressure, psi
m = C1 p
C2
exp(C 3 + C 4 p)
where
C 1 = 2.6
C 2 = 1.187
C 3 = 11.513
C 4 = 8.98 10
Example
Calculate the viscosity of the oil system described at a pressure of 4750 psia, with
T = 240 F, API = 31 , g = 0.745 , R sb = 532 scf / SRB.
Solution
p b = 3093 psia.
ob = 0.53 cp
o = 0.63 cp
Standing
1.6
0.56
o = ob + 0.001 ( p p b ) ( 0.024 ob + 0.038 ob )
[EQ 1.81]
where
ob
is the viscosity at bubble point
pb
GlasO
1.6
0.56
o = ob + 0.001 ( p p b ) ( 0.024 ob + 0.038 ob )
1-16

Oil correlations
[EQ 1.82]
where
ob
pb
Khan
5
o = ob e
9.6 10 ( p p b )
[EQ 1.83]
where
ob
pb
Ng and Egbogah
(1983)
log [ log ( od + 1 ) ] = 1.8653 0.025086 API 0.5644 log ( T )
[EQ 1.84]
Solving for od , the equation becomes,
od = 10 10
( 1.8653 0.025086
API
0.5644 log ( T ) )
[EQ 1.85]
where
od
API
uses the same formel as Beggs and Robinson to calculate Viscosity
Bubble point
Standing
yg
R sb 0.83
P b = 18 ---------
10
g
[EQ 1.86]
where
yg
= mole fraction gas = 0.00091T R 0.0125 API
Pb
= bubble point pressure, psia

Oil correlations
1-17
R sb
= solution GOR at P P b, scf / STB
= gas gravity (air = 1.0)
TR
= reservoir temperature ,F
API
= stock-tank oil gravity, API
Example:
Estimate p b where R sb = 350 scf / STB, T R = 200 F, g = 0.75 ,
API = 30 API.
Solution
g = 0.00091 ( 200 ) 0.0125 ( 30 ) = 0.193

350
p b = 18 ----------
0.75
0.83
10
0.193
= 1895 psia
[EQ 1.87]
[EQ 1.88]
Lasater
For API 40
M o = 630 10 API
[EQ 1.89]
For API > 40

73110
M o = --------------1.562
API
1.0
y g = ----------------------------------------------------------------1.0 + ( 1.32755 o M o R sb )
[EQ 1.90]
[EQ 1.91]
For y g 0.6
( 0.679exp(2.786y g) 0.323 ) T R
P b = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------g
[EQ 1.92]
For y g 0.6
3.56
( 8.26y g + 1.95 ) T R
P b = --------------------------------------------------g
[EQ 1.93]
where
Mo
is the effective molecular weight of the stock-tank oil from API gravity
= oil specific gravity (relative to water)
Example
Given the following data, use the Lasater method to estimate p b .
1-18

Oil correlations
y g = 0.876 , R sb = 500 scf / STB, o = 0.876 , T R = 200 F,

API = 30.
[EQ 1.94]
Solution
M o = 630 10 ( 30 ) = 330
[EQ 1.95]
550 379.3
- = 0.587
y g = -----------------------------------------------------------------------500 379.3 + 350 ( 0.876 330 )
[EQ 1.96]
( 660 )- = 2381.58 psia

p b = 3.161
-------------------------0.876
[EQ 1.97]
Vasquez and Beggs
R sb
P b = ------------------------------------------------- C 3 API
C 1 g exp ----------------------
T R + 460
1
-----C2
[EQ 1.98]
where
Table 1.2

API < 30
API > 30
C1
0.0362
0.0178
C2
1.0937
1.1870
C3
25.7240
23.9310
Example
Calculate the bubblepoint pressure using the Vasquez and Beggs correlation and
the following data.
y g = 0.80 , R sb = 500 scf / STB, g = 0.876 , T R = 200 F,
API = 30 .
[EQ 1.99]
Solution
500
p b = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------30
0.0362 ( 0.80 ) exp 25.724 ---------
680
1
---------------1.0937
= 2562 psia
[EQ 1.100]
GlasO
log ( P b ) = 1.7669 + 1.7447 log ( P b ) 0.30218 ( log ( P b ) )

Oil correlations
[EQ 1.101]
1-19
0.172
R s 0.816 T p
------------------
Pb =
0.989
g
[EQ 1.102]
API
where
Rs
is the solution GOR , scf / STB
is the gas gravity
TF
is the reservoir temperature ,F
API
is the stock-tank oil gravity, API

0.130
for volatile oils T F
is used.
Corrections to account for non-hydrocarbon components:

P b = P b CorrCO2 CorrH2S CorrN2
c
c
[EQ 1.103]
CorrN2 = 1 + [ a1 API + a 2 T F + a 3 API a 4 ] Y N2
[EQ 1.104]
a6
a7
+ a 5 API T F + a 6 API a 8 Y N2
1.553
CorrCO2 = 1 693.8Y CO2 T F
[EQ 1.105]
CorrH2S = 1 ( 0.9035 + 0.0015 API ) Y H2S + 0.019 ( 45 API ) Y H2S
[EQ 1.106]
where
a 1 = 2.65 10
a 2 = 5.5 10
a 3 = 0.0391
a 4 = 0.8295
[EQ 1.107]
a 5 = 1.954 10
11
a 6 = 4.699
a 7 = 0.027
a 8 = 2.366
1-20
TF
API
Y N2
is the mole fraction of Nitrogen
Y CO2
Y H2S

Oil correlations
Marhoun
b c d
e
p b = a R s g o T R
[EQ 1.108]
where
Rs
is the gas gravity
TR
is the reservoir temperature ,R

3
a = 5.38088 10
b = 0.715082
[EQ 1.109]
c = 1.87784
d = 3.1437
e = 1.32657
(1993)
R s0.5774
X
p b = 112.727 ------------------ 10 12.340
g0.8439
[EQ 1.110]
where
5
1.5410
X = 4.561 10 T 1.3911 7.916 10 API
Rs
is the average gas specific gravity (air=1)
is the oil specific gravity (air=1)
GOR
Standing
p 1.204
R s = g --------------------
y g
18 10
[EQ 1.111]
where
yg
is the mole fraction gas = 0.00091T R 0.0125 AP
Rs
TF

Oil correlations
1-21
API
Example
Estimate the solution GOR of the following oil system using the correlations of
Standing, Lasater, and Vasquez and Beggs and the data:
p = 765 psia, T = 137 F, API = 22 , g = 0.65 .
[EQ 1.112]
Solution
1.204
765
R s = 0.65 ----------------------------
= 90 scf / STB
0.15
18 10
[EQ 1.113]
Lasater
132755 o y g
R s = ---------------------------Mo ( 1 yg )
[EQ 1.114]
For API 40
M o = 630 10 API
[EQ 1.115]
For API > 40

73110
M o = --------------1.562
API
[EQ 1.116]
For p g T < 3.29

1.473p
y g = 0.359ln ---------------------g- + 0.476
[EQ 1.117]
For p g T 3.29
0.281
0.121p
y g = ---------------------g- 0.236
[EQ 1.118]
where T is in R.
Example
p = 765 psia, T = 137 F, API = 22 , g = 0.65 .
[EQ 1.119]
Solution
y g = 0.359ln [ 1.473 ( 0.833 ) + 0.476 ] = 0.191
M o = 630 10 ( 22 ) = 410
132755 ( 0.922 ) ( 0.191 )
R s = ------------------------------------------------------- = 70 scf / STB
410 ( 1 0.191 )
1-22

Oil correlations
[EQ 1.120]
[EQ 1.121]
[EQ 1.122]
Vasquez and Beggs

Rs = C1 g p
C2
C 3 API
exp ----------------------
T R + 460
[EQ 1.123]
where C1, C2, C3 are obtained from Table 1.3.

Table 1.3

API < 30
API > 30
C1
0.0362
0.0178
C2
1.0937
1.1870
C3
25.7240
23.9310
Example
p = 765 psia, T = 137 F, API = 22 , g = 0.65 .
[EQ 1.124]
Solution
R s = 0.0362 ( 0.65 ) ( 765 )
1.0937
25.724 ( 22 )
exp --------------------------- = 87 scf / STB
137 + 460
[EQ 1.125]
GlasO
1.2255
0.989
API
R s = g --------------- P b
0.172
TF
P b = 10
[ 2.8869 ( 14.1811 3.3093 log ( Pbc ) )
[EQ 1.126]
0.5
]
[EQ 1.127]
Pb
P bc = -------------------------------------------------------------------------CorrN2 + CorrCO2 + CorrH2S
[EQ 1.128]
where
TF
API
Y N2
is the mole fraction of Nitrogen
Y CO2
Y H2S

Oil correlations
1-23
Marhoun
b
R s = ( a g o T pb )
e
[EQ 1.129]
where
T
is the temperature, R
is the specific gravity of oil
pb
a = 185.843208
b = 1.877840
c = 3.1437
[EQ 1.130]
d = 1.32657
e = 1.398441
(1993)
pb
X 1.73184
- + 12.340 g0.8439 10
R s = ----------------- 112.727
[EQ 1.131]
where
4
X = 7.916 10 g1.5410 4.561 10 T 1.3911

pb
is the bubble-point pressure, psia
[EQ 1.132]
Separator gas gravity correction

gcorr = g 1 + 5.912 10
P sep
API T Fsep log -------------
114.7
where
is the gas gravity
API
is the oil API
T Fsep
is the separator temperature in F
P sep
is the separator pressure in psia
Tuning factors
Bubble point (Standing):
1-24

Oil correlations
[EQ 1.133]
g
R sb 0.83
P b = 18 FO1 ---------
10
g
[EQ 1.134]
GOR (Standing):
1.204
P
R s = g -----------------------------------
g
18 FO1 10
[EQ 1.135]
Formation volume factor:

B o = 0.972 FO2 + 0.000147 FO3 F
1.175
[EQ 1.136]
g 0.5
+ 1.25T F
F = R s -----
o
[EQ 1.137]
Compressibility:
5
FO4 ( 5R sb + 17.2T F 1180 g + 12.61 API 1433 ) 10

c o = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------P
[EQ 1.138]
Saturated viscosity (Beggs and Robinson):

B
o = A od
[EQ 1.139]
A = 10.715 FO5 ( R s + 100 )

B = 5.44 FO6 ( R s + 150 )
0.515
[EQ 1.140]
0.338
[EQ 1.141]
Undersaturated viscosity (Standing):

1.6
0.56
o = ob + ( P P b ) [ FO7 ( 0.024 ob + 0.038 ob ) ]

Oil correlations
[EQ 1.142]
1-25
1-26

Oil correlations
SCAL Correlations
Chapter 2
SCAL correlations
Oil / water
Figure 2.1 Oil/water SCAL correlations
Swmin,
Kro
Swmax,
Krw(Swmax)
Kro(Swmin)
Krw
Sorw
Krw(Sorw)
Swmin
Swcr
1-Sorw
where
SCAL Correlations
Oil / water
2-1
s wmin
is the minimum water saturation
s wcr
is the critical water saturation ( s wmin )
s orw
is the residual oil saturation to water ( 1 s orw > s wcr )
k rw(s orw)
is the water relative permeability at residual oil saturation
k rw(s wmax) is the water relative permeability at maximum water saturation (that
is 100%)
k ro(s wmin) is the oil relative permeability at minimum water saturation
Corey functions
Water
(For values between S wcr and 1 S orw )
s w s wcr
k rw = k rw(s orw) --------------------------------------------------s wmax s wcr s orw
Cw
[EQ 2.1]
where C w is the Corey water exponent.
Oil
(For values between s wmin and 1 s orw )
s wmax s w s orw
k ro = k ro(s wmin) ----------------------------------------------s wmax s wi s orw
Co
where s wi is the initial water saturation and

C o is the Corey oil exponent.
2-2
SCAL Correlations
Oil / water
[EQ 2.2]
Gas / water
Figure 2.2 Gas/water SCAL correlatiuons
Krg
Krw
Swmin,
Krg(Swmin)
Swmax,
Krw(Smax)
Sgrw,
Krw(Sgrw)
Swmin
Swcr
Sgrw
where
s wmin
s wcr
is the critical water saturation ( s wmin )
s grw
is the residual gas saturation to water ( 1 s grw > s wcr )
k rw(s grw)
is the water relative permeability at residual gas saturation
k rw(s wmax) is the water relative permeability at maximum water saturation (that is
100%)
k rg(s wmin) is the gas relative permeability at minimum water saturation
Corey functions
Water
(For values between s wcr and 1 s grw )
s w s wcr
k rw = k rw(s grw) --------------------------------------------------s wmax s wcr s grw
Cw
[EQ 2.3]
where C w is the Corey water exponent.
SCAL Correlations
Gas / water
2-3
Gas
(For values between s wmin and 1 s grw )
s wmax s w s grw
k rg = k rg(s wmin) ----------------------------------------------s wmax s wi s grw
Cg
[EQ 2.4]

C g is the Corey gas exponent.
Oil / gas
Figure 2.3 Oil/gas SCAL correlations
Swmin,
Krg(Swmin)
Swmax,
Krw(Smax)
Sorg+Swmin,
Krg(Sorg)
Swmin
Sorg+Swmin
1-Sgcr
1-Sgmin
Sliquid
where
s wmin
s gcr
is the critical gas saturation ( s gmin )
s org
is the residual oil saturation to gas ( 1 s org > s wcr )
k rg(s org)
is the water relative permeability at residual oil saturation
k rg(s wmin) is the water relative permeability at maximum water saturation (that
is 100%)
k ro(s wmin) is the oil relative permeability at minimum water saturation
2-4
SCAL Correlations
Oil / gas
Corey functions
Oil
(For values between s wmin and 1 s org )
s w s wi s org
k ro = k ro(s gmin) -----------------------------------1 s wi s org
Co
[EQ 2.5]

C o is the Corey oil exponent.
Gas
(For values between s wmin and 1 s org )
1 s w s gcr
k rg = k rg(s org) -------------------------------------------------1 s wi s org s gcr
Cg
[EQ 2.6]

C g is the Corey gas exponent.
Note
In drawing the curves s wi is assumed to be the connate water saturation.
SCAL Correlations
Oil / gas
2-5
2-6
SCAL Correlations
Oil / gas
Pseudo variables
Chapter 3
Pseudo pressure transformations

The pseudo pressure is defined as:
p
p
m ( p ) = 2 ---------------------- dp
(p )z( p)
[EQ 3.1]
pi
It can be normalized by choosing the variables at the initial reservoir condition.
Normalized pseudo pressure transformations

i z p
p
i
m n ( p ) = p i + --------- --------------------- dp
p i ( p ) z(p)
[EQ 3.2]
pi
The advantage of this normalization is that the pseudo pressures and real pressures
coincide at p i and have real pressure units.
Pseudo time transformations

The pseudotime transform is
Pseudo variables
Pseudo Variables
3-1
m(t) =
- dt
----------------------(p)c (p)
[EQ 3.3]
Normalized pseudo time transformations

Normalizing the equation gives
t
1
m n ( t ) = i c i ------------------------ dt
( p ) ct ( p )
[EQ 3.4]
Again the advantage of this normalization is that the pseudo times and real times
coincide at p i and have real time units.
3-2
Pseudo variables
Pseudo Variables
Analytical Models
Chapter 4
Fully-completed vertical well
Assumptions
The entire reservoir interval contributes to the flow into the well.
The model handles homogeneous, dual-porosity and radial composite reservoirs.
The outer boundary may be finite or infinite.
Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of a fully completed vertical well in a homogeneous, infinite reservoir.
Parameters
k
horizontal permeability of the reservoir

Analytical Models
4-1
wellbore skin factor
Behavior
At early time, response is dominated by the wellbore storage. If the wellbore storage
effect is constant with time, the response is characterized by a unity slope on the
pressure curve and the pressure derivative curve.
In case of variable storage, a different behavior may be seen.
Later, the influence of skin and reservoir storativity creates a hump in the derivative.
At late time, an infinite-acting radial flow pattern develops, characterized by
stabilization (flattening) of the pressure derivative curve at a level that depends on the
k * h product.
Figure 4.2 Typical drawdown response of a fully completed vertical well in a homogeneous, infinite reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative
4-2
Analytical Models
Partial completion
Assumptions
The interval over which the reservoir flows into the well is shorter than the
reservoir thickness, due to a partial completion.
The model handles wellbore storage and skin, and it assumes a reservoir of infinite
extent.
The model handles homogeneous and dual-porosity reservoirs.
Figure 4.3 Schematic diagram of a partially completed well
htp
kz
Parameters
Mech. skin
mechanical skin of the flowing interval, caused by reservoir damage
k
reservoir horizontal permeability
kz
reservoir vertical permeability
Auxiliary parameters
These parameters are computed from the preceding parameters:
pseudoskin
skin caused by the partial completion; that is, by the geometry of the
system. It represents the pressure drop due to the resistance encountered
in the flow convergence.
total skin
a value representing the combined effects of mechanical skin and partial
completion
Sf = ( ( S t S r ) l ) h
Analytical Models
Partial completion
4-3
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effects are seen, the flow is spherical or
hemispherical, depending on the position of the flowing interval. Hemispherical flow
develops when one of the vertical no-flow boundaries is much closer than the other to
the flowing interval. Either of these two flow regimes is characterized by a 0.5 slope
on the log-log plot of the pressure derivative.
At late time, the flow is radial cylindrical. The behavior is like that of a fully completed
well in an infinite reservoir with a skin equal to the total skin of the system.
Figure 4.4 Typical drawdown response of a partially completed well.
pressure
pressure derivative
4-4
Analytical Models
Partial completion
Partial completion with gas cap or aquifer
Assumptions
The interval over which the reservoir flows into the well is shorter than the
reservoir thickness, due to a partial completion.
Either the top or the bottom of the reservoir is a constant pressure boundary (gas
cap or aquifer).
The model assumes a reservoir of infinite extent.
Figure 4.5 Schematic diagram of a partially completed well in a reservoir with an aquifer
ht
kz
h
Parameters
Mech. skin
mechanical skin of the flowing interval, caused by reservoir damage
k
reservoir horizontal permeability
kz
Auxiliary Parameters
These parameters are computed from the preceding parameters:
pseudoskin
skin caused by the partial completion; that is, by the geometry of the
system. It represents the pressure drop due to the resistance encountered
in the flow convergence.
total skin
a value for the combined effects of mechanical skin and partial completion.
Analytical Models
4-5
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effects are seen, the flow is spherical or
hemispherical, depending on the position of the flowing interval. Either of these two
flow regimes is characterized by a 0.5 slope on the log-log plot of the pressure
derivative.
When the influence of the constant pressure boundary is felt, the pressure stabilizes
and the pressure derivative curve plunges.
Figure 4.6 Typical drawdown response of a partially completed well in a reservoir with a gas cap or aquifer
pressure
pressure derivative
4-6
Analytical Models
Infinite conductivity vertical fracture
Assumptions
The well is hydraulically fractured over the entire reservoir interval.
Fracture conductivity is infinite.
The pressure is uniform along the fracture.
This model handles the presence of skin on the fracture face.
The reservoir is of infinite extent.
This model handles homogeneous and dual-porosity reservoirs.
Figure 4.7 Schematic diagram of a well completed with a vertical fracture
well
xf
Parameters
k
horizontal reservoir permeability
xf
vertical fracture half-length
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effects are seen, response is dominated by
linear flow from the formation into the fracture. The linear flow is perpendicular to the
fracture and is characterized by a 0.5 slope on the log-log plot of the pressure
derivative.
At late time, the behavior is like that of a fully completed infinite reservoir with a low
or negative value for skin. An infinite-acting radial flow pattern may develop.
Analytical Models
4-7
Figure 4.8 Typical drawdown response of a well completed with an infinite conductivity vertical fracture
pressure
pressure derivative
4-8
Analytical Models
Uniform flux vertical fracture
Assumptions
The flow into the vertical fracture is uniformly distributed along the fracture. This
model handles the presence of skin on the fracture face.
well
xf
Parameters
k
Horizontal reservoir permeability in the direction of the fracture
xf
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effects are seen, response is dominated by
linear flow from the formation into the fracture. The linear flow is perpendicular to the
fracture and is characterized by a 0.5 slope on the log-log plot of the pressure
derivative.
Analytical Models
4-9
Figure 4.10 Typical drawdown response of a well completed with a uniform flux vertical fracture
pressure
pressure derivative
4-10
Analytical Models
Finite conductivity vertical fracture
Assumptions
Fracture conductivity is uniform.
well
xf
Parameters
kf-w
vertical fracture conductivity
horizontal reservoir permeability in the direction of the fracture
xf
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effects are seen, response is dominated by the
flow in the fracture. Linear flow within the fracture may develop first, characterized by
a 0.5 slope on the log-log plot of the derivative.
For a finite conductivity fracture, bilinear flow, characterized by a 0.25 slope on the loglog plot of the derivative, may develop later. Subsequently the linear flow (with slope
of 0.5) perpendicular to the fracture is recognizable.
Analytical Models
4-11
Figure 4.12 Typical drawdown response of a well completed with a finite conductivity vertical fracture
pressure
pressure derivative
4-12
Analytical Models
Horizontal well with two no-flow boundaries
Assumptions
The well is horizontal.
The reservoir is of infinite lateral extent.
Two horizontal no-flow boundaries limit the vertical extent of the reservoir.
The model handles a permeability anisotropy.
The model handles homogeneous and the dual-porosity reservoirs.
Figure 4.13 Schematic diagram of a fully completed horizontal well
Lp
h
x
y
dw
Parameters
Lp
flowing length of the horizontal well
reservoir horizontal permeability in the direction of the well
ky
reservoir horizontal permeability in the direction perpendicular to the

well
kz
Zw
standoff distance from the well to the reservoir bottom
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effect is seen, a radial flow, characterized by a
plateau in the derivative, develops around the well in the vertical (y-z) plane.
Later, if the well is close to one of the boundaries, the flow becomes semi radial in the
vertical plane, and a plateau develops in the derivative plot with double the value of
the first plateau.
After the early-time radial flow, a linear flow may develop in the y-direction,
characterized by a 0.5 slope on the derivative pressure curve in the log-log plot.
Analytical Models
4-13
At late time, a radial flow, characterized by a plateau on the derivative pressure curve,
may develop in the horizontal x-y plane.
Depending on the well and reservoir parameters, any of these flow regimes may or
may not be observed.
Figure 4.14 Typical drawdown response of fully completed horizontal well
pressure
pressure derivative
4-14
Analytical Models
Horizontal well with gas cap or aquifer
Assumptions
The well is horizontal.
The reservoir is of infinite lateral extent.
One horizontal boundary, above or below the well, is a constant pressure

boundary. The other horizontal boundary is a no-flow boundary.
Figure 4.15 Schematic diagram of a horizontal well in a reservoir with a gas cap
Lp
h
x
y
dw
Parameters
k
reservoir horizontal permeability in the direction of the well
ky
reservoir horizontal permeability in the direction perpendicular to the

well
kz
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effect is seen, a radial flow, characterized by a
plateau in the derivative pressure curve on the log-log plot, develops around the well
in the vertical (y-z) plane.
Later, if the well is close to the no-flow boundary, the flow becomes semi radial in the
vertical y-z plane, and a second plateau develops with a value double that of the
radial flow.
At late time, when the constant pressure boundary is seen, the pressure stabilizes, and
the pressure derivative curve plunges.
Analytical Models
Horizontal well with gas cap or aquifier
4-15
Note
Depending on the ratio of mobilities and storativities between the reservoir

and the gas cap or aquifer, the constant pressure boundary model may not be
adequate. In that case the model of a horizontal well in a two-layer medium
(available in the future) is more appropriate.
Figure 4.16 Typical drawdown response of horizontal well in a reservoir with a gas cap or an aquifer
pressure
pressure derivative
4-16
Analytical Models
Horizontal well with gas cap or aquifier
Homogeneous reservoir
Assumptions
This model can be used for all models or boundary conditions mentioned in
"Assumptions" on page 4-1.
Figure 4.17 Schematic diagram of a well in a homogeneous reservoir
well
Parameters
phi
Ct storativity
permeability
reservoir thickness
Behavior
Behavior depends on the inner and outer boundary conditions. See the page describing
the appropriate boundary condition.
Analytical Models
4-17
Figure 4.18 Typical drawdown response of a well in a homogeneous reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative
4-18
Analytical Models
Two-porosity reservoir
Assumptions
The reservoir comprises two distinct types of porosity: matrix and fissures.
The matrix may be in the form of blocks, slabs, or spheres. Three choices of flow
models are provided to describe the flow between the matrix and the fissures.
The flow from the matrix goes only into the fissures. Only the fissures flow into the
wellbore.
The two-porosity model can be applied to all types of inner and outer boundary
conditions, except when otherwise noted. \
Figure 4.19 Schematic diagram of a well in a two-porosity reservoir
Interporosity flow models

In the Pseudosteady state model, the interporosity flow is directly proportional to the
pressure difference between the matrix and the fissures.
In the transient model, there is diffusion within each independent matrix block. Two
matrix geometries are considered: spheres and slabs.
Parameters
omega
storativity ratio, fraction of the fissures pore volume to the total pore
volume. Omega is between 0 and 1.
lambda
interporosity flow coefficient, which describes the ability to flow from the
matrix blocks into the fissures. Lambda is typically a very small number,
ranging from
1e 5 to 1e 9.
Analytical Models
4-19
Behavior
At early time, only the fissures contribute to the flow, and a homogeneous reservoir
response may be observed, corresponding to the storativity and permeability of the
fissures.
A transition period develops, during which the interporosity flow starts. It is marked
by a valley in the derivative. The shape of this valley depends on the choice of
interporosity flow model.
Later, the interporosity flow reaches a steady state. A homogeneous reservoir
response, corresponding to the total storativity (fissures + matrix) and the fissure
permeability, may be observed.
Figure 4.20 Typical drawdown response of a well in a two-porosity reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative
4-20
Analytical Models
Radial composite reservoir
Assumptions
The reservoir comprises two concentric zones, centered on the well, of different
mobility and/or storativity.
The model handles a full completion with skin.
The outer boundary can be any of three types:
Infinite
Constant pressure circle
No-flow circle
Figure 4.21 Schematic diagram of a well in a radial composite reservoir
well
L
re
Parameters
L1
radius of the first zone
re
radius of the outer zone
mr
mobility (k/) ratio of the inner zone to the outer zone
sr
storativity (phi * Ct) ratio of the inner zone to the outer zone
SI
Interference skin
Behavior
At early time, before the outer zone is seen, the response corresponds to an infiniteacting system with the properties of the inner zone.
Analytical Models
4-21
When the influence of the outer zone is seen, the pressure derivative varies until it
reaches a plateau.
At late time the behavior is like that of a homogeneous system with the properties of
the outer zone, with the appropriate outer boundary effects.
Figure 4.22 Typical drawdown response of a well in a radial composite reservoir
pressure
mr >
mr <
mr >
pressure derivative
mr <
Note
4-22
This model is also available with two-porosity options.
Analytical Models
Infinite acting
Assumptions
This model of outer boundary conditions is available for all reservoir models and
for all near wellbore conditions.
No outer boundary effects are seen during the test period.
Figure 4.23 Schematic diagram of a well in an infinite-acting reservoir
well
Parameters
k
permeability
reservoir thickness
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effect is seen, there may be a transition period
during which the near wellbore conditions and the dual-porosity effects (if applicable)
may be present.
At late time the flow pattern becomes radial, with the well at the center. The pressure
increases as log t, and the pressure derivative reaches a plateau. The derivative value
at the plateau is determined by the k * h product.
Analytical Models
Infinite acting
4-23
Figure 4.24 Typical drawdown response of a well in an infinite-acting reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative
4-24
Analytical Models
Infinite acting
Single sealing fault
Assumptions
A single linear sealing fault, located some distance away from the well, limits the
reservoir extent in one direction.
The model handles full completion in homogenous and dual-porosity reservoirs.
Figure 4.25 Schematic diagram of a well near a single sealing fault
well
re
Parameters
re
distance between the well and the fault
Behavior
At early time, before the boundary is seen, the response corresponds to that of an
infinite system.
When the influence of the fault is seen, the pressure derivative increases until it
doubles, and then stays constant.
At late time the behavior is like that of an infinite system with a permeability equal to
half of the reservoir permeability.
Analytical Models
4-25
Figure 4.26 Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a single sealing fault
pressure
pressure derivative
Note
4-26
Analytical Models
The first plateau in the derivative plot, indicative of an infinite-acting radial

flow, and the subsequent doubling of the derivative value may not be seen if
re is small (that is the well is close to the fault).
Single constant-pressure boundary
Assumptions
A single linear, constant-pressure boundary, some distance away from the well,
limits the reservoir extent in one direction.
Figure 4.27 Schematic diagram of a well near a single constant pressure boundary
well
re
Parameters
re
distance between the well and the constant-pressure boundary
Behavior
At early time, before the boundary is seen, the response corresponds to that of an
infinite system.
At late time, when the influence of the constant-pressure boundary is seen, the
pressure stabilizes, and the pressure derivative curve plunges.
Analytical Models
Single Constant-Pressure Boundary
4-27
Figure 4.28 Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a single constant pressure boundary
pressure
pressure derivative
Note
4-28
The plateau in the derivative may not be seen if re is small enough.
Analytical Models
Single Constant-Pressure Boundary
Parallel sealing faults
Assumptions
Parallel, linear, sealing faults (no-flow boundaries), located some distance away
from the well, limit the reservoir extent.
Figure 4.29 Schematic diagram of a well between parallel sealing faults
L1
well
L2
Parameters
L1
distance from the well to one sealing fault
L2
distance from the well to the other sealing fault
Behavior
At early time, before the first boundary is seen, the response corresponds to that of an
infinite system.
At late time, when the influence of both faults is seen, a linear flow condition exists in
the reservoir. During linear flow, the pressure derivative curve follows a straight line
of slope 0.5 on a log-log plot.
If the L1 and L2 are large and much different, a doubling of the level of the plateau
from the level of the first plateau in the derivative plot may be seen. The plateaus
indicate infinite-acting radial flow, and the doubling of the level is due to the influence
of the nearer fault.
Analytical Models
4-29
Figure 4.30 Typical drawdown response of a well between parallel sealing faults
pressure
pressure derivative
4-30
Analytical Models
Intersecting faults
Assumptions
Two intersecting, linear, sealing boundaries, located some distance away from the
well, limit the reservoir to a sector with an angle theta. The reservoir is infinite in
the outward direction of the sector.
The model handles a full completion, with wellbore storage and skin.
Figure 4.31 Schematic diagram of a well between two intersecting sealing faults
well
theta
yw
xw
Parameters
theta
angle between the faults

(0 < theta <180)
x w, y w
the location of the well relative to the intersection of the faults
Behavior
infinite system.
When the influence of the closest fault is seen, the pressure behavior may resemble
that of a well near one sealing fault.
Then when the vertex is reached, the reservoir is limited on two sides, and the
behavior is like that of an infinite system with a permeability equal to theta/360
times the reservoir permeability.
Analytical Models
Intersectingfaults
4-31
Figure 4.32 Typical drawdown response of a well that is between two intersecting sealing faults
pressure
pressure derivative
4-32
Analytical Models
Intersectingfaults
Partially sealing fault
Assumptions
A linear partially sealing fault, located some distance away from the well, offers
some resistance to the flow.
The reservoir is infinite in all directions.
The reservoir parameters are the same on both sides of the fault. The model
handles a full completion.
This model allows only homogeneous reservoirs.
Figure 4.33 Schematic diagram of a well near a partially sealing fault
well
re
Parameters
re
distance between the well and the partially sealing fault
Mult
a measure of the specific transmissivity across the fault. It is defined by

Mult = ( 1 ) ( 1 + )
= (kf/k)(re/lf), where kf and lf are respectively the permeability
and the thickness of the fault region. The value of alpha typically varies
between 0.0 (sealing fault) and 1.0 or larger. An alpha value of infinity
() corresponds to a constant pressure fault.
Behavior
At early time, before the fault is seen, the response corresponds to that of an infinite
system.
When the influence of the fault is seen, the pressure derivative starts to increase, and
goes back to its initial value after a long time. The duration and the rise of the deviation
from the plateau depend on the value of alpha.
Analytical Models
4-33
Figure 4.34 Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a partially sealing fault
pressure
pressure derivative
4-34
Analytical Models
Closed circle
Assumptions
A circle, centered on the well, limits the reservoir extent with a no-flow boundary.
Figure 4.35 Schematic diagram of a well in a closed-circle reservoir
well
re
Parameters
re
radius of the circle
Behavior
At early time, before the circular boundary is seen, the response corresponds to that of
an infinite system.
When the influence of the closed circle is seen, the system goes into a pseudosteady
state. For a drawdown, this type of flow is characterized on the log-log plot by a unity
slope on the pressure derivative curve. In a buildup, the pressure stabilizes and the
derivative curve plunges.
Analytical Models
Closed circle
4-35
Figure 4.36 Typical drawdown response of a well in a closed-circle reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative
4-36
Analytical Models
Closed circle
Constant pressure circle
Assumptions
A circle, centered on the well, is at a constant pressure.
Figure 4.37 Schematic diagram of a well in a constant pressure circle reservoir
well
re
Parameters
re
radius of the circle
Behavior
At early time, before the constant pressure circle is seen, the response corresponds to
that of an infinite system.
At late time, when the influence of the constant pressure circle is seen, the pressure
stabilizes and the pressure derivative curve plunges.
Analytical Models
Constant Pressure Circle
4-37
Figure 4.38 Typical drawdown response of a well in a constant pressure circle reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative
4-38
Analytical Models
Constant Pressure Circle
Closed Rectangle
Assumptions
The well is within a rectangle formed by four no-flow boundaries.
Figure 4.39 Schematic diagram of a well within a closed-rectangle reservoir
xw
By
well
yw
Bx
Parameters
Bx
length of rectangle in x-direction
By
length of rectangle in y-direction
xw
position of well on the x-axis
yw
position of well on the y-axis
Behavior
infinite system.
At late time, the effect of the boundaries will increase the pressure derivative:
If the well is near the boundary, behavior like that of a single sealing fault may be
observed.
If the well is near a corner of the rectangle, the behavior of two intersecting sealing
faults may be observed.
Ultimately, the behavior is like that of a closed circle and a pseudo-steady state flow,
characterized by a unity slope, may be observed on the log-log plot of the pressure
derivative.
Analytical Models
Closed Rectangle
4-39
Figure 4.40 Typical drawdown response of a well in a closed-rectangle reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative
4-40
Analytical Models
Closed Rectangle
Constant pressure and mixed-boundary rectangles
Assumptions
The well is within a rectangle formed by four boundaries.
One or more of the rectangle boundaries are constant pressure boundaries. The
others are no-flow boundaries.
Figure 4.41 Schematic diagram of a well within a mixed-boundary rectangle reservoir
xw
By
well
yw
Bx
Parameters
Bx
length of rectangle in x-direction
By
length of rectangle in y-direction
xw
position of well on the x-axis
yw
position of well on the y-axis
Behavior
infinite system.
At late time, the effect of the boundaries is seen, according to their distance from the
well. The behavior of a sealing fault, intersecting faults, or parallel sealing faults may
develop, depending on the model geometry.
When the influence of the constant pressure boundary is felt, the pressure stabilizes
and the derivative curve plunges. That effect will mask any later behavior.
Analytical Models
4-41
Figure 4.42 Typical drawdown response of a well in a mixed-boundary rectangle reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative
4-42
Analytical Models
Constant wellbore storage
Assumptions
This wellbore storage model is applicable to any reservoir model. It can be used with
any inner or outer boundary conditions.
Parameters
C
wellbore storage coefficient
Behavior
At early time, both the pressure and the pressure derivative curves have a unit slope
in the log-log plot.
Subsequently, the derivative plot deviates downward. The derivative plot exhibits a
peak if the well is damaged (that is if skin is positive) or if an apparent skin exists due
to the flow convergence (for example, in a well with partial completion).
Figure 4.43 Typical drawdown response of a well with constant wellbore storage
pressure
pressure derivative
Analytical Models
Constant wellbore storage
4-43
Variable wellbore storage
Assumptions
This wellbore storage model is applicable to any reservoir model. The variation of the
storage may be either of an exponential form or of an error function form.
Parameters
Ca
early time wellbore storage coefficient
late time wellbore storage coefficient
CfD
the value that controls the time of transition from Ca to C. A larger value
implies a later transition.
Behavior
The behavior varies, depending on the Ca/C ratio.
If Ca/C < 1, wellbore storage increases with time. The pressure plot has a unit slope at
early time (a constant storage behavior), and then flattens or even drops before
beginning to rise again along a higher constant storage behavior curve.
The derivative plot drops rapidly and typically has a sharp dip during the period of
increasing storage before attaining the derivative plateau.
If Ca/C > 1, the wellbore storage decreases with time. The pressure plot steepens at
early time (exceeding unit slope) and then flattens.
The derivative plot shows a pronounced hump. Its slope increases with time at
early time. The derivative plot is pushed above and to the left of the pressure plot.
At middle time the derivative decreases. The hump then settles down to the late time
plateau characteristic of infinite-acting reservoirs (provided no external boundary
effects are visible by then).
4-44
Analytical Models
Figure 4.44 Typical drawdown response of a well with increasing wellbore storage (Ca/C < 1)
pressure
pressure derivative
Figure 4.45 Typical drawdown response of a well with decreasing wellbore storage (Ca/C > 1)
pressure
pressure derivative
Analytical Models
4-45
4-46
Analytical Models
Selected Laplace Solutions

Chapter 5
Introduction
The analytical solution in Laplace space for the pressure response of a dual porosity
reservoir has the form:
K o [ r D sf(s) ]
P fD(s) = ----------------------------------------sf(s)K 1 [ sf(s) ]
[EQ 5.1]
The laplace parameter function f(s) depends on the model type and the fracture system
geometry. Three matrix block geometries have been considered
Slab
(strata)
Matchstick (cylinder)
n=2
Cube
n=3
(sphere)
n=1
where n is the number of normal fracture planes.

In the analysis of dual porosity systems the dimensionless parameters
employed where:
and are
k mb r w
= Interporosity Flow Parameter = ---------------------2
k fb h m
[EQ 5.2]
= 4n ( n + 2 )
[EQ 5.3]
and

Introduction
5-1
fb c f
= Storativity or Capacity Ratio = ---------------------------------- fb c f + mb c m
[EQ 5.4]
If interporosity skin is introduced into the PSSS model through the dimensionless
factor
S ma given by
2k mi h s
S ma = ---------------hm ks
[EQ 5.5]
where k s is the surface layer permeability and hs is its thickness, and defining an
apparent interporosity flow parameter as
a = ----------------------- = n + 2
1 + S ma
[EQ 5.6]
then
(1 )s +
f(s) = ------------------------------------a( 1 ) s + a
[EQ 5.7]
In the transient case, it is also possible to allow for the effect of interporosity kin, that
is, surface resistance on the faces of the matrix blocks.
The appropriate f(s) functions for this situation are given by:
Strata
1 3( 1 )s
(1 )s
--- --- ------------------------ tanh 3----------------------
3s
f(s) = + --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------( 1 ) s- tanh 3----------------------( 1 ) s1 + S ma 3

----------------------
Matchsticks
1---
1 8( 1 )(s )
8 ( 1 ) s- I---------------------------------------------- ----------------------4s
I0 8 ( 1 ) ( s )
f ( s ) = + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8 ( 1 ) s I1 8 ( 1 ) ( s )
1 + S ma ------------------------ --------------------------------------------
I0 8 ( 1 ) ( s )
[EQ 5.8]
[EQ 5.9]
Cubes
1 15 ( 1 ) s
(1 )s
--- --- --------------------------- coth 15
--------------------------- 1
5s
f ( s ) = + -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15 ( 1 ) s
15 ( 1 ) s
1 + S ma --------------------------- coth --------------------------- 1
[EQ 5.10]
Wellbore storage and skin
If these are present the Laplace Space Solution for the wellbore pressure, p
wD is given
by:
5-2

Introduction
sp fD + S
p wD = ----------------------------------------------------s [ 1 + C D s ( S + sp fD ) ]
[EQ 5.11]
Three-Layer Reservoir: Two permeable layers separated by a Semipervious Bed.

2
A2 2
q A2 1
p ( r, s' ) = -------------- --------------------- K 0 ( 1 r ) --------------------- K 0 ( 2 r
D
D
2 Ts'
[EQ 5.12]
where
2
1 = 0.5 ( A 1 + A 2 D )
[EQ 5.13]
2 = 0.5 ( A 1 + A 2 + D )
D
= 4B 1 B 2 + ( A 1 A 2 )
[EQ 5.14]
[EQ 5.15]
2
s'S'
s'S'
A 1 = s' + ------- coth ------- r
S
S
[EQ 5.16]
2
s' T s'S'
A 2 = ------- + ------ ------- r
2 T2 S
[EQ 5.17]
s'S'
s'S' r 2
------- sinh ------S
S
B1 =
[EQ 5.18]
2
T s'S'
s'S'
B 2 = ------ ------- sinh ------- r
T2 S
S
[EQ 5.19]
T''
r D = r ----- b
T
[EQ 5.20]
s' = sr
[EQ 5.21]
s = ct h
[EQ 5.22]
T = kh
[EQ 5.23]
and
K 0 is the modified Bessel function of the second kind of the zero order.

Introduction
5-3
Transient pressure analysis for fractured wells
The pressure at the wellbore,
P WD = ----------------------------------------------------------------------12
s
2
s
k fD w fD s --------- + ----------------- fD k fD w fD
[EQ 5.24]
where
fD
is the dimensionless fracture hydraulic diffusivity
k fD w fD
is the dimensionless fracture conductivity
Short-time behavior
The short-time approximation of the solution can be obtained by taking the limit as
s.
fD
P wD = -----------------------------32
k fD w fD s
[EQ 5.25]
Long-time behavior
We can obtain the solution for large values of time by taking the limit as s 0 :
P wD = -------------------------------------54
2k fD w fD s
5-4

Transient pressure analysis for fractured wells
[EQ 5.26]
Composite naturally fractured reservoirs
Wellbore pressure
P wd = A [ I 0 ( 1 ) S 1 I 1 ( 1 ) ] + B [ K 0 ( 1 ) + S 1 K 1 ( 1 ) ]
[EQ 5.27]
where
1 = ( sf 1 )
2 = ( sf 2 )
12
[EQ 5.28]
12
[EQ 5.29]
Table 5.1
Model
Values of f1 and f2 as used in [EQ 5.28] and [EQ 5.29]

f1 (Inner zone)
f2 (Outer zone)
Homogene 1
-ous
Restricted
double
porosity
( 1 1 ) 1
1 + ----------------------------------1 + ( 1 1 ) s
( 1 2 ) 2
2 + ----------------------------------------M
2 + ( 1 2 ) ----- s
Fs
1
1 sinh 1
2 M
2 sinh 2
Matrix skin 1 + ------ ------------------------------------------------------------- 2 + ------ ----- -------------------------------------------------------------

3s cosh 1 + 1 S m1 sinh 1
3s F s cosh 2 + 2 S m2 sinh 2
Double
porosity
3 ( 1 1 ) s 1 2
1 = -------------------------1
3 ( 1 2 ) Ms 1 2
2 = -------------------------------2 Fs
= 11 A N 12 B N
[EQ 5.30]
A = AN
[EQ 5.31]
B = ( BN )
[EQ 5.32]
1
A N = --- ( 22 33 23 32 )
s
[EQ 5.33]
1
B N = --- ( 21 33 23 31 )
s
Where

5-5
11 = C D s ( [ I 0 ( 1 ) S 1 I1 ( 1 ) ] 1 I i ( 1 ) )
12 = C D s ( [ K 0 ( 1 ) S 1 K 1 ( 1 ) ] 1 K 1 ( 1 ) )
21 = I 0 ( R D 1 )
22 = K 0 ( R D 1 )
[EQ 5.34]
31 = M 1 I 1 ( R D 1 )
32 = M 1 K 1 ( R D 1 )
Table 5.2
Values of 23 and 33 as used in [EQ 5.33]

Outer boundary condition
Constant
Infinite
Constant pressure
Closed
[ K0 ( RD 2
1/2
1/2
K 1 ( r eD 2 )
+ -----------------------------------1/2
I 1 ( r eD 2 )
---
2
K0 RD 2
23
I0 ( RD 2
12
K1 ( RD 2
12

12
12
12
1/2
1/2
K 0 ( r eD 2 )
-----------------------------------1/2
I 0 ( r eD 2 )
I0 ( RD 2
K 1 ( r eD 2
)
---------------------------------------- I 0
12
I 1 ( r eD 2
)
( RD 2
5-6
)]
12
K1 ( RD 2
33
1/2
[ K0 ( R D 2
1/2
)]
12
K1 ( RD 2
12
12
K 0 ( r eD 2
)
+ ---------------------------------------- I 0
12
I 0 ( r eD 2
)
( RD 2
12
Non-linear Regression
Chapter 6
Introduction
The quality of a generated solution is measured by the normalized sum of the squares
of the differences between observed and calculated data:
N
1
Q = ---N
ri
[EQ 6.1]
i=1
where N is the number of data points and the residuals ri are given by:
ri = wi ( Oi Ci )
[EQ 6.2]
where O i is an observed value, C i is the calculated value and wi is the individual

measurement weight. The rms value is then rms =
The algorithm used to improve the generated solution is a modified LevenbergMarquardt method using a model trust region (see "Modified Levenberg-Marquardt
method" on page 6-2).
The parameters are modified in a loop composed of the regression algorithm and the
solution generator. Within each iteration of this loop the derivatives of the calculated
quantities with respect to each parameter of interest are calculated. The user has
control over a number of aspects of this regression loop, including the maximum
number of iterations, the target rms error and the trust region radius.
Introduction
6-1
Modified Levenberg-Marquardt method
Newtons method
A non-linear function f of several variables x can be expanded in a Taylor series about
a point P to give:
2
f(x) = f(P) +
i
1 f
f
x + --x x +
x i i 2 x i x j i j
[EQ 6.3]
i, j
Taking up to second order terms (a quadratic model) this can be written

1
f ( x ) c + g x + --- ( x H x )
2
[EQ 6.4]
where:
2
c = f ( P ), g i =
f
, H ij = f
xi
xi xj
P
[EQ 6.5]
The matrix H is known as the Hessian matrix.

At a minimum of f , we have
f = 0
[EQ 6.6]
so that the minimum point x

Hx
satisfies
= g
[EQ 6.7]
At the point x
c
H x = f ( x ) g
[EQ 6.8]
Subtracting the last two equations gives:

m
x x = H
fx
[EQ 6.9]
This is the Newton update to an estimate x of the minimum of a function. It requires

the first and second derivatives of the function to be known. If these are not known
they can be approximated by differencing the function f .
6-2
Modified Levenberg-Marquardt Method
Levenberg-Marquardt method
The Newton update scheme is most applicable when the function to be minimized can
be approximated well by the quadratic form. This may not be the case, particularly
away from the minimum of the function. In this case, one could consider just stepping
in the downhill direction of the function, giving:
m
x x = f
[EQ 6.10]
where m is a free parameter.

The combination of both the Newton step and the local downhill step is the LevenbergMarquardt formalism:
m
x x = ( H + I )
[EQ 6.11]
The parameter is varied so that away from the solution the bias of the step is towards
the steepest decent direction, whilst near the solution it takes small values so as to
make the best possible use of the fast quadratic convergence rate of Newtons method.
Model trust region

A refinement on the Levenberg-Marquardt method is to vary the step length instead of
the parameter , and to adjust accordingly. The allowable step length is updated on
each iteration of the algorithm according to the success or otherwise in achieving a
minimizing step. The controlling length is called the trust region radius, as it is used to
express the confidence, or trust, in the quadratic model.
Modified Levenberg-Marquardt Method
6-3
Nonlinear least squares
The quality of fit of a model to given data can be assessed by the function. This has
the general form:
N
2
(a ) =
i=1
y i y ( x i, a ) 2
----------------------------
i
[EQ 6.12]
where y i are the observations, a is the vector of free parameters, and i are the
estimates of measurement error. In this case, the gradient of the function with respect
to the kth parameter is given by:
N
= 2
ak
i=1
[ y i y ( xi, a ) ]
y ( x i, a )
---------------------------------
2
ak
i
[EQ 6.13]
and the elements of the Hessian matrix are obtained from the second derivative of the
function
2 2
= 2
ak al
2
1 -
y ( x , a ) [ y y ( x , a ) ] y ( x , a )
------y
(
x
,
a
)
2 a i a i
i
i
i
a l ak
k
l
i=1 i
[EQ 6.14]
The second derivative term on the right hand side of this equation is ignored (the
Gauss-Newton approximation). The justification for this is that it is frequently small in
comparison to the first term, and also that it is pre-multiplied by a residual term, which
is small near the solution (although the approximation is used even when far from the
solution). Thus the function gradient and Hessian are obtained from the first derivative
of the function with respect to the unknowns.
6-4
Nonlinear Least Squares
Unit Convention
Appendix A
Unit definitions
The following conventions are followed when describing dimensions:
Length
Mass
mol
Moles
Temperature
Time
Table A.1
Unit definitions
Unit Name
Description
Dimensions
LENGTH
length
AREA
area
L2
VOLUME
volume
L3
LIQ_VOLUME
liq volume
L3
GAS_VOLUME
gas volume
L3
AMOUNT
amount
mol
MASS
mass
DENSITY
density
M/L3
TIME
time
TEMPERATURE
temperature
Unit Convention
Unit definitions
A-1
Table A.1
Unit definitions (Continued)
Unit Name
A-2
Description
Dimensions
COMPRESSIBILITY
compressibility
Lt/M
ABS_PRESSURE
absolute pressure
M/Lt2
REL_PRESSURE
relative pressure
M/Lt2
GGE_PRESSURE
gauge pressure
M/L2t2
PRESSURE_GRAD
pressure gradient
M/L2t2
GAS_FVF
gas formation volume factor
PERMEABILITY
permeability
L2
LIQ_VISCKIN
liq kinematic viscosity
L2/t
LIQ_VISCKIN
liq kinematic viscosity
L2/t
LIQ_VISCDYN
liq dynamic viscosity
ML2/t
LIQ_VISCDYN
liq dynamic viscosity
ML2/t
ENERGY
energy
ML2
POWER
power
ML2
FORCE
force
ML
ACCELER
acceleration
L/t2
VELOCITY
velocity
L/t
GAS_CONST
gas constant
LIQ_RATE
liq volume rate
L3/t
GAS_RATE
gas volume rate
L3/t
LIQ_PSEUDO_P
liq pseudo pressure
1/t
GAS_PSEUDO_P
gas pseudo pressure
M/Lt3
PSEUDO_T
pseudo time
LIQ_WBS
liq wellbore storage constant
GAS_WBS
gas wellbore storage constant L4t2/M
GOR
Gas Oil Ratio
LIQ_DARCY_F
liq Non Darcy Flow Factor F
t/L6
GAS_DARCY_F
gas Non Darcy Flow Factor F
M/L7t
LIQ_DARCY_D
liq D Factor
t/L3
GAS_DARCY_D
gas D Factor
t/L3
PRESS_DERIV
pressure derivative
M/Lt3
MOBILITY
mobility
L3t/M
LIQ_SUPER_P
liq superposition pressure
M/L4t2
GAS_SUPER_P
gas superposition pressure
M/L4t2
VISC_COMPR
const visc*Compr
L4t2/M
VISC_LIQ_FVF
liq visc*FVF
M/Lt
VISC_GAS_FVF
gas visc*FVF
M/Lt
Unit Convention
Unit definitions
Table A.1
Unit Name
Description
Dimensions
DATE
date
OGR
Oil Gas Ratio
SURF_TENSION
Surface Tension
M/t2
BEAN_SIZE
bean size
S_LENGTH
small lengths
VOL_RATE
volume flow rate
L3/t
GAS_INDEX
Gas Producitvity Index
L4t/M
LIQ_INDEX
Liquid Producitvity Index
L4t/M
MOLAR_VOLUME
Molar volume
ABS_TEMPERATURE
Absolute temperature
MOLAR_RATE
Molar rate
INV_TEMPERATURE
Inverse Temperature
MOLAR_HEAT_CAP
Molar Heat Capacity
OIL_GRAVITY
Oil Gravity
GAS_GRAVITY
Gas Gravity
T
1/T
MOLAR_ENTHALPY
Molar Enthalpy
SPEC_HEAT_CAP
Specific Heat Capacity
L2/Tt
HEAT_TRANS_COEF
Heat Transfer Coefficient
M/Tt3
THERM_COND
Thermal Conductivity
ML/Tt3
CONCENTRATION
Concentration
M/L3
ADSORPTION
Adsorption
M/L3
TRANSMISSIBILITY
Transmissibility
L3
PERMTHICK
Permeability*distance
L3
SIGMA
Sigma factor
1/L2
DIFF_COEFF
Diffusion coefficient
L2/t
PERMPERLEN
Permeability/unit distance
COALGASCONC
Coal gas concentration
RES_VOLUME
Reservoir volume
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV
liq pseudo pressure derivative 1/t2
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV
gas pseudo pressure derivative
MOLAR_INDEX
Molar Productivity index
OIL_DENSITY
oil density
M/L3
DEPTH
depth
ANGLE
angle
LIQ_GRAVITY
liquid gravity
ROT_SPEED
rotational speed
L3
M/Lt4
1/t
Unit Convention
Unit definitions
A-3
Table A.1
Unit Name
A-4
Description
Dimensions
DRSDT
Rate of change of GOR
1/t
DRVDT
Rate of change of vap OGR
1/t
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
liq superposition pseudo pres- 1/L4t2

sure
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
gas superposition pseudo

pressure
1/L3t
PRESSURE_SQ
pressure squared
M2/L2t4
LIQ_BACKP_C
liq rate/pressure sq
L5t3/M2
GAS_BACKP_C
gas rate/pressure sq
L5t3/M2
MAP_COORD
map coordinates
Unit Convention
Unit definitions
Unit sets
Table A.2
Unit sets
Unit Sets
Oil Field
(English)
Unit Name
Metric
Practical Metric
Lab
LENGTH
ft
cm
AREA
acre
m2
m2
cm2
VOLUME
ft3
m3
m3
m3
LIQ_VOLUME
stb
m3
m3
cc
GAS_VOLUME
Mscf
m3
m3
scc
AMOUNT
mol
mol
mol
mol
MASS
lb
kg
kg
DENSITY
lb/ft3
kg/m3
kg/m3
g/cc
TIME
hr
hr
hr
TEMPERATURE
COMPRESSIBILITY
/psi
/Pa
/kPa
/atm
ABS_PRESSURE
psia
Pa
kPa
atm
REL_PRESSURE
psi
Pa
kPa
atm
GGE_PRESSURE
psi
Pa
kPa
atmg
PRESSURE_GRAD
psi/ft
Pa/m
LIQ_FVF
rb/stb
GAS_FVF
rb/Mscf
rm /sm
PERMEABILITY
mD
LIQ_VISCKIN
kPa/m
atm/cm
rm /sm
rm /sm
rcc/scc
rm3/sm3
rcc/scc
mD
mD
mD
cP
Pas
milliPas
Pas
LIQ_VISCDYN
cP
Pas
milliPas
Pas
GAS_VISCKIN
cP
Pas
microPas
Pas
GAS_VISCDYN
cP
Pas
microPas
Pas
ENERGY
Btu
POWER
hp
FORCE
lbf
AccELER
ft/s2
m/s2
m/s2
m/s2
VELOCITY
ft/s
m/s
m/s
m/s
GAS_CONST
dimension-less
dimensionless
dimensionless
dimensionless
LIQ_RATE
stb/day
m3/s
m3/day
cc/hr
GAS_RATE
Mscf/day
m3/s
m3/day
cc/hr
LIQ_PSEUDO_P
psi/cP
Pa/Pas
MPa/Pas
atm/Pas
Unit Convention
Unit sets
A-5
Table A.2
Unit sets (Continued)

Unit Sets
Oil Field
(English)
Unit Name
GAS_PSEUDO_P
Metric
Practical Metric
Lab
psi2/cP
Pa2/Pas
MPa2/Pas
atm2/Pas
PSEUDO_T
psi hr/cP
bar hr/cP
MPa hr/Pas
atm hr/Pas
LIQ_WBS
stb/psi
GAS_WBS
m /bar
dm /Pa
m3/atm
Mscf/psi
m3/bar
dm3/Pa
m3/atm
GOR
scf/stb
rm3/sm3
rm3/sm3
scc/scc
LIQ_DARCY_F
psi/cP/(stb/day)2
bar/cP/(m3/day)2
MPa/Pas/(m3/day)2
atm/Pas/(m3/day)2
GAS_DARCY_F
psi2/cP/(Mscf/day)2
bar2/cP/(m3/day)2
MPa2/Pas/(m3/day)2
atm2/Pas/(m3/day)2
LIQ_DARCY_D
day/stb
day/m3
day/m3
day/m3
GAS_DARCY_D
day/Mscf
day/m3
day/m3
day/m3
PRESS_DERIV
psi/hr
Pa/s
kPa/s
Pa/s
MOBILITY
mD/cP
mD/Pas
LIQ_SUPER_P
psi/(stb/day)
Pa/(m /s)
Pa/(m /s)
atm/(m3/s)
GAS_SUPER_P
psi/(Mscf/day)
Pa/(m3/s)
Pa/(m3/s)
atm/(m3/s)
VISC_COMPR
cP/psi
cP/bar
milliPas/kPa
Pas/atm
VISC_LIQ_FVF
cP rb/stb
Pas rm3/sm3
milliPas rm3/sm3
Pas rm3/sm3
VISC_GAS_FVF
cP rb/Mscf
Pas rm3/sm3
microPas rm3/sm3
Pas rm3/sm3
DATE
days
days
days
days
OGR
stb/Mscf
sm /sm
SURF_TENSION
dyne/cm
dyne/cm
dyne/cm
dyne/cm
BEAN_SIZE
64ths in
mm
mm
mm
S_LENGTH
in
mm
mm
mm
VOL_RATE
bbl/day
m3/day
m3/day
cc/hr
GAS_INDEX
(Mscf/day)/psi
(sm3/day)/bar
(sm3/day)/bar
(sm3/day)/atm
LIQ_INDEX
(stb/day)/psi
(sm3/day)/bar
(sm3/day)/bar
(sm3/day)/atm
MOLAR_VOLUME
ft3/lb-mole
m3/kg-mole
m3/kg-mole
cc/gm-mole
ABS_TEMPERATURE
MOLAR_RATE
lb-mole/day
kg-mole/day
kg-mole/day
gm-mole/hr
INV_TEMPERATURE
1/F
1/K
1/K
1/C
mD/Pas
3
sm /sm
mD/Pas
scc/scc
MOLAR_HEAT_CAP
Btu/ lb-mole/ R
kJ/ kg-mole/ K
kJ/ kg-mole/ K
J/ gm-mole/ K
OIL_GRAVITY
API
API
API
API
GAS_GRAVITY
sg_Air_1
sg_Air_1
sg_Air_1
sg_Air_1
MOLAR_ENTHALPY
Btu/ lb-mole
kJ/ kg-mole
kJ/ kg-mole
J/ gm-mole
SPEC_HEAT_CAP
Btu/ lb/ F
kJ/ kg/ K
kJ/ kg/ K
J/ gm/ K
HEAT_TRANS_COEF
Btu/ hr/ F/ ft2
W/ K/ m2
W/ K/ m2
W/ K/ m2
THERM_COND
Btu/ sec/ F/ ft
W/ K/ m
W/ K/ m
W/ K/ m
A-6
Unit Convention
Unit sets
Table A.2
Unit sets (Continued)

Unit Sets
Oil Field
(English)
Unit Name
CONCENTRATION
Metric
Practical Metric
Lab
lb/STB
kg/m3
kg/m3
g/cc
ADSORPTION
lb/lb
kg/kg
kg/kg
TRANSMISSIBILITY
cPB/D/PS
cPm /D/B
cPm /D/B
cPcc/H/A
PERMTHICK
mD ft
mD m
mD m
mD cm
g/g
SIgA
1/ft
DIFF_COEFF
ft2/D
M2/D
M2/D
cm2/hr
PERMPERLEN
mD/ft
mD/M
mD/M
mD/cm
COALGASCONC
SCF/ft3
sm3/m3
sm3/m3
scc/cc
RES_VOLUME
RB
rm3
rm3
Rcc
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV
psi/cP/hr
Pa/Pas/s
MPa/Pas/s
atm/Pas/hr
1/M
1/M
1/cm2
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV
psi /cP/hr
Pa /Pas/s
MPa /Pas/s
atm2/Pas/hr
MOLAR_INDEX
lb-mole/day/psi
kg-mole/day/bar
kg-mole/day/bar
gm-mole/hr/atm
OIL_DENSITY
lb/ft
kg/m
kg/m
g/cc
DEPTH
ft
ft
ANGLE
deg
deg
deg
deg
LIQ_GRAVITY
sgw
sgw
sgw
sgw
ROT_SPEED
rev/min
rev/min
rev/min
rev/min
DRSDT
scf/stb/day
rm3/rm3/day
rm3/rm3/day
scc/scc/hr
DRVDT
stb/Mscf/day
rm3/rm3/day
rm3/rm3/day
scc/scc/hr
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
psi/cP/(stb/day)
Pa/Pas/(m3/s)
MPa/Pas/(m3/s)
atm/Pas/(cc/hr)
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
psi2/cP/(Mscf/day)
Pa2/Pas/(m3/s)
MPa2/Pas/(m3/s
atm2/Pas/(cc/hr)
PRESSURE_SQ
psi2
LIQ_BACKP_C
stb/day/psi2
m3/s/Pa2
m3/day/kPa2
cc/hr/atm2
GAS_BACKP_C
Mscf/day/psi2
m3/s/Pa2
m3/day/kPa2
cc/hr/atm2
MAP_COORD
UTM
UTM
UTM
UTM
LENGTH
ft
cm
AREA
acre
m2
m2
cm2
VOLUME
ft3
m3
m3
m3
LIQ_VOLUME
stb
m3
m3
cc
GAS_VOLUME
Mscf
m3
m3
scc
AMOUNT
mol
mol
mol
mol
MASS
lb
kg
kg
atm2
Unit Convention
Unit sets
A-7
Unit conversion factors to SI
SI units are expressed in m, kg, s and K.

Table A.3
Converting units to SI units
Unit Quantity
Unit Name
Multiplier to SI
ABS_PRESSURE
MPa
1e6
ABS_PRESSURE
Mbar
1e11
ABS_PRESSURE
Pa
1.0
ABS_PRESSURE
atm
101325.35
ABS_PRESSURE
bar
1.e5
ABS_PRESSURE
feetwat
2.98898e3
ABS_PRESSURE
inHg
3386.388640
ABS_PRESSURE
kPa
1000.0
ABS_PRESSURE
kbar
1e8
ABS_PRESSURE
kg/cm2
1e4
ABS_PRESSURE
mmHg
1.33322e2
ABS_PRESSURE
psia
6894.757
ACCELER
ft /s2
0.3048
ACCELER
m /s2
1.0
ADSORPTION
g /g
1.0
ADSORPTION
kg /kg
1.0
ADSORPTION
lb /lb
1.0
AMOUNT
kmol
1000
AMOUNT
mol
1.0
AREA
acre
4.046856e3
AREA
cm2
1.e-4
AREA
ft2
0.092903
AREA
ha
10000.0
AREA
1.0
AREA
micromsq
1.0e-12
AREA
section
2.589988e6
BEAN_SIZE
64ths in
0.00039688
COMPRESSIBILITY
/Pa
1.0
COMPRESSIBILITY
/atm
0.9869198e-5
COMPRESSIBILITY
/bar
1.0e-5
COMPRESSIBILITY
/kPa
1.0e-3
COMPRESSIBILITY
/psi
1.450377e-4
CONCENTRATION
g /cc
CONCENTRATION
A-8
Unit Convention
Unit conversion factors
1.0e+3
3
kg /m
1.0
Table A.3
Converting units to SI units (Continued)
Unit Quantity
Unit Name
Multiplier to SI
CONCENTRATION
lb /stb
2.85258
DENSITY
g /cc
1.e+3
DENSITY
kg /m
1.0
DENSITY
lb /ft3
16.01846
DRSDT
Mscf /stb /day
2.06143e-3
DRSDT
rm3 /rm3 /day
1.157407e-5
DRSDT
rm3 /rm3 /hr
2.777778e-4
DRSDT
scc /scc /hr
2.777778e-4
DRSDT
scf /stb /day
2.06143e-6
DRVDT
scc /scc /hr
2.777778e-4
DRVDT
rm3 /rm3 /day
1.157407e-5
DRVDT
rm3 /rm3 /hr
2.777778e-4
DRVDT
stb /Mscf /day
6.498356e-8
ENERGY
1.0
ENERGY
Btu
1055.055
ENERGY
MJ
1e6
ENERGY
cal
4.1868
ENERGY
ergs
1e-7
ENERGY
hp
2.6478e6
ENERGY
hpUK
2.68452e6
ENERGY
kJ
1000.0
FORCE
1.0
FORCE
dyne
1e-5
FORCE
kgf
9.80665
FORCE
lbf
4.448221
FORCE
poundal
0.138255
GAS_BACKP_C
Mscf /day /psi2
6.89434490298039e-012
GAS_BACKP_C
cc /hr /atm2
2.705586e-20
GAS_BACKP_C
m3 /day /kPa2
1.15741e-11
GAS_BACKP_C
m3 /s /Pa2
1.0
GAS_BACKP_C
m3 /s /atm2
9.740108055e-11
GAS_CONST
J /mol /K
1.0
GAS_DARCY_D
day /Mscf
GAS_DARCY_F
MPa /Pas /(m /day)
GAS_DARCY_F
atm2 /Pas /(m3 /day)2
7.664145e19
GAS_DARCY_F
bar2 /cp /(m3 /day)2
0.7464926e23
GAS_DARCY_F
psi2 /cp /(Mscf /day)2
4.4256147e17
3051.18
3
0.7464926e23
Unit Convention
A-9
Table A.3
A-10
Unit Quantity
Unit Name
Multiplier to SI
GAS_DARCY_F
psi2 /cp /(stb /day)2
1.403915315617e+022
GAS_FVF
rb /Mscf
5.61458e-3
GAS_GRAVITY
g/cc
1.e+3
GAS_GRAVITY
lb/ft3
16.01846
GAS_GRAVITY
sg_Air_1
1.0
GAS_INDEX
(Mscf /day) /psi
4.753497e-8
GAS_INDEX
(sm /day) /atm
1.1422684e-10
GAS_INDEX
(sm3 /day) /bar
1.15741e-10
GAS_INDEX
(stb /day) /psi
2.66888e-10
GAS_PSEUDO_P
MPa2 /Pas
1.0e12
GAS_PSEUDO_P
Pa2 /Pas
1.0
GAS_PSEUDO_P
Pa2 /cp
1.0e3
GAS_PSEUDO_P
atm2 /Pas
1.0266826e10
GAS_PSEUDO_P
atm2 /cp
1.0266827e13
GAS_PSEUDO_P
bar2 /cp
1e13
GAS_PSEUDO_P
psi2 /cp
4.75377e10
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV
atm2 /cp /hr
2.8518963e9
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV
MPa2 /Pas /s
1.0e12
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV
Pa2 /Pas /s
1.0
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV
bar22 /cp /day
1.1574074e8
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV
bar2 /cp /s
1e13
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV
psi2 /cp /hr
1.32049e7
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV
atm2 /Pas /day
1.1882901e5
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV
atm2 /Pas /hr
2.85189e6
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
atm2 /cp /(cc /hr)
3.696057559e22
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
MPa2 /Pas /(m3 /s)
1.0e12
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
Pa2 /Pas /(m3 /s)
1.0
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
atm2 /Pas /(cc /hr)
3.696057559e19
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
atm2 /Pas /(m3 /s)
1.026682655e10
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
bar2 /cp /(m3 /hr)
3.6e16
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
psi2 /cp /(Mscf /day)
1.45046e+014
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
psi2 /cp /(stb /day)
2.58339e16
GAS_RATE
MMscf /day
3.2774205e-1
GAS_RATE
Mscf /day
3.2774205e-4
GAS_RATE
scf /day
3.2774205e-7
Unit Convention
Table A.3
Unit Quantity
Unit Name
Multiplier to SI
GAS_RATE
scf /s
0.02831685
GAS_SUPER_P
atm /(m3 /s)
101325.35
GAS_SUPER_P
Pa /(m3 /s)
1.0
GAS_SUPER_P
bar /(m3 /day)
8.64e9
GAS_SUPER_P
bar /(m3 /s)
1.0e5
GAS_SUPER_P
psi /(Mscf /day)
2.1037145e7
GAS_VOLUME
MMscf
2.831685e4
GAS_VOLUME
Mscf
28.31685
GAS_VOLUME
scc
0.994955e-6
GAS_VOLUME
scf
0.02831685
GAS_WBS
Mscf /psi
4.10701e-3
GAS_WBS
m /atm
9.8691986e-6
GAS_WBS
m3 /bar
1.0e-5
GOR
Mscf /stb
1.78108e2
GOR
scf /stb
0.178108
HEAT_TRANS_COEF
Btu/ hr/ F/ ft2
0.1761102
HEAT_TRANS_COEF
Btu/ sec/ F/ ft2
6.3399672e2
HEAT_TRANS_COEF
W/ K/ m2
1.0
LENGTH
NauMi
1852
LENGTH
cm
0.01
LENGTH
dm
0.1
LENGTH
ft
0.3048
LENGTH
in
0.0254
LENGTH
km
1000.0
LENGTH
1.0
LENGTH
mi
1609.344
LENGTH
mm
0.001
LENGTH
yd
0.9144
2.705586e-20
LIQ_BACKP_C
cc /hr /atm
LIQ_BACKP_C
m3 /day /kPa2
1.15741e-11
LIQ_BACKP_C
m3 /s /Pa2
1.0
LIQ_BACKP_C
m3 /s /atm2
9.740108055e-11
LIQ_BACKP_C
stb /day /psi2
3.87088705627079e-014
LIQ_DARCY_D
day /stb
543439.87
LIQ_DARCY_D
day /m3
86400.000
LIQ_DARCY_F
MPa /Pas /(m3 /day)2
0.7464926e16
LIQ_DARCY_F
atm /Pas /(m3 /day)2
7.5638968e14
Unit Convention
A-11
Table A.3
A-12
Unit Quantity
Unit Name
Multiplier to SI
LIQ_DARCY_F
bar /cp /(m3 /day)2
0.7464926e18
LIQ_DARCY_F
psi /cp /(stb /day)2
2.0362071e18
LIQ_GRAVITY
sgw
1.0
LIQ_INDEX
(sm /day) /atm
1.1422684e-10
LIQ_INDEX
(sm3 /day) /bar
1.15741e-10
LIQ_INDEX
(stb /day) /psi
2.66888e-10
LIQ_PSEUDO_P
MPa /Pas
1.0e6
LIQ_PSEUDO_P
Pa /Pas
1.0
LIQ_PSEUDO_P
Pa /cp
1.0e3
LIQ_PSEUDO_P
atm /Pas
101325.35
LIQ_PSEUDO_P
atm /cp
1.0132535e8
LIQ_PSEUDO_P
bar /cp
1.0e8
LIQ_PSEUDO_P
psi /cp
6.89476e6
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV
MPa /Pas /s
1.0e6
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV
Pa /Pas /s
1.0
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV
atm /Pas /day
1.172747106
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV
atm /Pas /hr
28.14593056
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV
atm /cp /day
1172.747106
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV
atm /cp /hr
28145.931
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV
bar /cp /day
1157.407407
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV
bar /cp /s
1.0e8
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV
psi /cp /hr
1915.21
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
MPa /Pas /(m3 /s)
1.0e6
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
Pa /Pas /(m3 /s)
1.0
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
atm /Pas /(cc /hr)
3.6477126e14
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
atm /Pas /(m /s)
101325.35
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
atm /cp /(cc /hr)
3.6477126e17
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
atm /cp /(m /s)
1.0132535e8
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
bar /cp /(m3 /hr)
3.6e11
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P
psi /cp /(stb /day)
3.74688e12
LIQ_RATE
cc /hr
2.77778e-10
LIQ_RATE
ft /s
0.02831685
LIQ_RATE
m3 /day
1.15741e-5
LIQ_RATE
m3 /s
1.0
LIQ_RATE
scf /s
0.02831685
LIQ_RATE
stb /day
1.84013e-6
LIQ_SUPER_P
atm /(m /s)
101325.35
LIQ_SUPER_P
Pa /(m3 /s)
1.0
Unit Convention
Table A.3
Unit Quantity
Unit Name
Multiplier to SI
LIQ_SUPER_P
bar /(m3 /day)
8.64e9
LIQ_SUPER_P
bar /(m3 /s)
1.0e5
LIQ_SUPER_P
psi /(stb /day)
3.74688e9
LIQ_VISCDYN
Pas
1.0
LIQ_VISCDYN
cp
1.e-3
LIQ_VISCDYN
microPas
1.0e-6
LIQ_VISCDYN
milliPas
1.0e-3
LIQ_VISCDYN
poise
1e-1
LIQ_VISCKIN
cSt
1e-6
LIQ_VISCKIN
stoke
1e-4
LIQ_VOLUME
bbl
1.589873e-1
LIQ_VOLUME
cc
1.e-6
LIQ_VOLUME
gal
3.785412e-3
LIQ_VOLUME
galUK
4.54609e-3
LIQ_VOLUME
lt
1.e-3
LIQ_VOLUME
scc
1.e-6
LIQ_VOLUME
stb
1.589873e-1
LIQ_WBS
dm3 /Pa
1.0e-3
LIQ_WBS
m3 /atm
9.8691986e-6
LIQ_WBS
m3 /bar
1.0e-5
LIQ_WBS
stb /psi
2.30592e-5
MAP_COORD
UTM
1.0
MAP_COORD
UTM_FT
0.3048
MASS
UKcwt
5.080234e1
MASS
UKton
1.016047e3
MASS
UScwt
4.535924e1
MASS
USton
9.071847e2
MASS
0.001
MASS
grain
6.479891e-5
MASS
kg
1.0
MASS
lb
4.535234e-1
MASS
lbm
4.535234e-1
MASS
oz
2.83452e-2
MASS
slug
1.45939
MASS
stone
6.3502932
MOBILITY
mD /Pas
9.869233e-16
MOBILITY
mD /cp
9.869233e-13
MOLAR_ENTHALPY
Btu/ lb-mole
0.429922613
MOLAR_ENTHALPY
J/ gm-mole
1.0
Unit Convention
A-13
Table A.3
A-14
Unit Quantity
Unit Name
Multiplier to SI
MOLAR_ENTHALPY
kJ/ kg-mole
1.0
MOLAR_ENTHALPY
kJ/ kg-mole
1.0
MOLAR_HEAT_CAP
Btu/ lb-mole/ R
0.238845896
MOLAR_HEAT_CAP
J/ gm-mole/ K
1.0
MOLAR_HEAT_CAP
kJ/ kg-mole/ K
1.0
MOLAR_HEAT_CAP
kJ/ kg-mole/ K
1.0
MOLAR_INDEX
gm-mole /day /bar
1.15741e-13
MOLAR_INDEX
gm-mole /hr /atm
2.74144405e-12
MOLAR_INDEX
kg-mole /day /atm
1.14226684e-10
MOLAR_INDEX
kg-mole /day /bar
1.15741e-10
MOLAR_INDEX
kg-mole /sec /bar
1.0e-5
MOLAR_INDEX
lb-mole /day /psi
7.613213e-10
MOLAR_INDEX
lb-mole /sec /psi
6.577801e-5
MOLAR_RATE
gm-mole /day
1.15741e-8
MOLAR_RATE
gm-mole /hr
2.777777e-7
MOLAR_RATE
kg-mole /day
1.15741e-5
MOLAR_RATE
kg-mole /sec
1.0
MOLAR_RATE
lb-mole /day
5.249125e-6
MOLAR_RATE
lb-mole /sec
4.535234e-1
MOLAR_VOLUME
cc /gm-mole
1.e-3
MOLAR_VOLUME
ft3 /lb-mole
6.2427976e-2
MOLAR_VOLUME
m3 /kg-mole
1.0
NULL
dimensionless
OGR
scc /scc
1.0
OGR
sf /sf
1.0
OGR
sm3 /sm3
1.0
OGR
stb /MMscf
5.61458e-6
OGR
stb /Mscf
5.61458e-3
OGR
stb /scf
5.61458
OIL_DENSITY
g /cc
1.e+3
OIL_DENSITY
kg /m3
1.0
OIL_GRAVITY
sgo
1.0
PERMEABILITY
9.869233e-13
PERMEABILITY
mD
9.869233e-16
PERMTHICK
mD cm
9.86923e-18
PERMTHICK
mD ft
3.00814e-16
PERMTHICK
mD m
9.86923e-16
POWER
1.0
POWER
kW
1000.0
Unit Convention
Table A.3
Unit Quantity
Unit Name
Multiplier to SI
PRESSURE_GRAD
Pa /m
1.00
PRESSURE_GRAD
atm /cm
1.0132535e7
PRESSURE_GRAD
atm /m
101325.35
PRESSURE_GRAD
bar /m
1.0e5
PRESSURE_GRAD
kPa /m
1.0e3
PRESSURE_GRAD
psi /ft
22620.594
1.0
PRESSURE_SQ
Pa
PRESSURE_SQ
atm2
10266826552.62
PRESSURE_SQ
bar2
1.e10
PRESSURE_SQ
kPa2
1e6
PRESSURE_SQ
psi2
47537674.08905
PRESS_DERIV
Pa /s
1.0
PRESS_DERIV
bar /s
1.0e5
PRESS_DERIV
kPa /s
1000.0
PRESS_DERIV
psi /hr
1.9152103
PSEUDO_T
MPa hr /Pas
3.6e9
PSEUDO_T
atm day /Pas
8.754510240e9
PSEUDO_T
atm hr /Pas
3.64771260e8
PSEUDO_T
bar hr /cp
3.6e11
PSEUDO_T
psi hr /cp
2.4821125e10
REL_PRESSURE
psi
6894.757
ROT_SPEED
rev /day
1.1574074e-5
ROT_SPEED
rev /hr
2.7777777e-4
ROT_SPEED
rev /min
0.01666666
ROT_SPEED
rev /s
1.0
SPEC_HEAT_CAP
Btu/ lb/ F
0.238845896
SPEC_HEAT_CAP
Btu/ lb/ R
0.238845896
SPEC_HEAT_CAP
J/ gm/ K
1.0
SPEC_HEAT_CAP
kJ/ kg/ K
1.0
SURF_TENSION
dyne /cm
1.0e-3
THERM_COND
Btu/ hr/ F/ ft
0.5777892
THERM_COND
Btu/ sec/ F/ ft
2.0800411e3
THERM_COND
W/ K/ m
1.0
TIME
day
86400.0
TIME
hr
3600.0
TIME
min
60.0
TIME
mnth
2628000.0
TIME
1.0
TIME
wk
604800.0
Unit Convention
A-15
Table A.3
A-16
Unit Quantity
Unit Name
Multiplier to SI
TIME
yr
31536000.0
VELOCITY
ft /s
0.3048
VELOCITY
knot
0.514444444
VELOCITY
m /s
1.0
VISC_COMPR
Pas /atm
9.8691986e-6
VISC_COMPR
cp /bar
1.0e-8
VISC_COMPR
cp /psi
1.450377e-7
Unit Convention
File Formats
Appendix B
Mesh map formats
This option allows a regular grid mesh of data values to be read from an external file,
which may have been created by the GRID program or a third party software package.
The program offers a number of different formats for reading a mesh.
The following file types may be selected:
ASCII
Formatted text file of Z values
ZMAP
Formatted text file from ZMAP
LCT
Formatted text file from LCT
IRAP-FORMAT Formatted text file from IRAP

Note that other file formats can be set up on request provided that the format is
available.
The file description parameters that may be changed will depend on the file type
selected. In general, the following are considered:
NROW
Number of mesh rows
NCOL
Number of mesh columns
XMIN
Minimum X value
YMIN
Minimum Y value
XMAX
Maximum X value
YMAX
Maximum Y value
ANGLE
Angle of rotation of mesh

(decimal degrees, anticlockwise, positive from X-axis)
File Formats
Mesh map formats
B-1
Null value used for data in the file
NULL
For ASCII formatted files, you may choose to browse through the file and inspect the
input data before deciding the format.
ASCII files
The default structure for ASCII formatted files is:
Record 1
no. of rows (NROW)
no. of columns (NCOL)
Records 2 to End-of-file
NROW x NCOL items of grid data
ASCII file example:
5
4
6900.00
7000.00
7100.00
7000.00
7000.00
7100.00
7000.00
6900.00
7100.00
7000.00
6900.00
6800.00
7000.00
6900.00
6800.00
6700.00
7200.00
7000.00
6850.00
6720.00
For an ASCII file with non-default structure, you can identify the parameters to be
read from the header, the position of the first line of data, the ordering of data in the
file and the format to be used for input.
The following parameters may be read from the header:
NROW, NCOL, XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, ANGLE, NULL
The user must indicate the line containing the data and its position in the line. Data
items should be separated by spaces and/or commas. Parameters which are not
defined in the file header may be defined by the user, or the current defaults for the
map may be used.
Data ordering:
ASCII files may have the mesh data specified in one of four orders, depending on the
mesh origin (top or bottom left), the order in which the data points were written to the
file and whether the data was written in blocks of rows or columns:
First data value is top left corner of mesh and second data value is along the first
row.
First data value is top left corner of mesh and second data value is along the first
column.
First data value is bottom left corner of mesh and second data value is along the
first row.
First data value is bottom left corner of mesh and second data value is along the
first column.
ZMAP file format

This is a special case of the ASCII formatted text file, in the standard layout produced
by ZMAP. The following information is read from the header:
NROW, NCOL, XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, NULL
B-2
File Formats
Mesh map formats
You may choose to redefine the areal position of the mesh by specifying:
XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, ANGLE
Note
Note that ZMAP formatted files may also be read by selecting the file type as
ASCII and identifying the appropriate header items and file layout.
LCT file format

This is a special case of the ASCII formatted text file, with the following structure:
Record 1
header record
Record 2
XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, NCOL, NROW in the format (4E14.7,2I5)
Record 3 + grid values in format (10X,5E14.7) blocked by columns.

The number of rows and columns will be taken from the file header. The user may
specify the following parameters:
XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, ANGLE, NULL
Note
Note that LCT formatted files may also be read by selecting the file type as
ASCII and identifying the appropriate header items and file layout.
IRAP-FORMAT file format

IRAP Formatted File format is another special case of the ASCII file type. The file
structure is as follows:
Old format
Before IRAP Version 6.1:
Record 1
Record 2
2 integers and 2 reals as follows:

Integer 1
no. of columns
(NCOL)
Integer 2
no. of rows
(NROW)
Real 1
row increment
(XDEL)
Real 2
col. increment
(YDEL)
4 real numbers as follows:

Real 1
minimum X value
(XMIN)
Real 2
maximum X value
(XMAX)
Real 3
minimum Y value
(YMIN)
Real 4
maximum Y value
(YMAX)
Record 3+ NCOL*NROW grid values, not necessarily blocked by row:

Real 1
Row 1
Col 1
Real 2
Row 1
Col 2
File Formats
Mesh map formats
B-3
Real 3
Row 1
Col 3
...
Real (NCOL*NROW)-1
Col NCOL-1
Row NROW
Real (NCOL*NROW)
Col NCOL
Row NROW
New format
IRAP Version 6.1 or later:
Record 1
Record 2
Record 3
Record 4
2 integers and 2 reals as follows:

Integer 1
IRAP version identifier
Integer 2
no. of rows
(NROW)
Real 1
row increment
(XDEL)
Real 2
col. increment
(YDEL)
4 real numbers as follows:

Real 1
minimum X value
(XMIN)
Real 2
maximum X value
(XMAX)
Real 3
minimum Y value
(YMIN)
Real 4
maximum Y value
(YMAX)
1 integer and 3 reals as follows:

Integer 1
no. of columns
(NCOL)
Real 1
angle of rotation
Real 2
X-origin for rotation
Real 3
Y-origin for rotation
7 integers (IRAP internal use only)
Record 5+ NCOL*NROW grid values, not necessarily blocked by row:

Real 1
- Row 1
Col 1
Real 2
- Row 1
Col 2
Real 3
- Row 1
Col 3
...
Real (NCOL*NROW)-1
- Row NROW Col NCOL-1
Real (NCOL*NROW)
- Row NROW Col NCOL
The default NULL value for this file type is 9999900.0.

If the file type IRAP-FORMAT is selected, you are prompted to indicate whether it is
OLD or NEW.
The number of rows and columns will be taken from the file header.
You may specify the following parameters:
XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, ANGLE, NULL
B-4
File Formats
Mesh map formats
Note
Note that although GRID can read a file in the NEW layout, containing
information on the angle of rotation, this option has not been fully tested. If
problems occur with use of a rotated mesh, define the mesh areal position and
angle by hand, instead of using defaults from the file header.
IRAP formatted files may also be read by selecting the file type as ASCII and
identifying the appropriate header items and file layout.
File Formats
Mesh map formats
B-5
B-6
File Formats
Mesh map formats
Bibliography
David A T Donohue
and Turgay Ertekin
Gaswell Testing
[Ref. 1]
John Lee
Well Testing
[Ref. 2]
Robert C Earlougher
Jr.
Advances in Well Test Analysis
[Ref. 3]
Tatiana D Streltsova
Well Testing in Heterogeneous Formations
[Ref. 4]
H S Carslaw and
J C Jaeger
Conduction of Heat in Solids (2nd edition)
[Ref. 5]
Roland N Horne
Modern Well Test Analysis: A Computer Aided Approach
[Ref. 6]
Wilson C Chin
Modern Reservoir Flow and Well Transient Analysis
[Ref. 7]
Rajagopal Raghavan
Well Test Analysis
[Ref. 8]
M A Sabet
Well Test Analysis
[Ref. 9]
Stephen L Moshier
Methods and Programs for Mathematical Functions
[Ref. 10]
K S Pedersen,
Aa Fredenslund and
P Thomassen
Properties of Oils and Natural Gases
[Ref. 11]
Sadad Joshi
Horizontal Well Technology
[Ref. 12]
J F Stanislav and
Bibliography
C S Kabir
Pressure Transient Analysis
[Ref. 13]
Roland N Horne
Modern Well Test Analysis - A Computer Aided Approach
[Ref. 14]
C S Matthews and
D G Russell
Pressure Buildup and Flow Test in Wells
[Ref. 15]
I S Gradshteyn and
I M Ryzhik
Table of Integrals Series & Products (5th edition)
[Ref. 16]
Rome Spanier and

Keith B Oldham
An Atlas of Functions
[Ref. 17]
Milton Abramowitz
and Irene A Stegun
Handbook of Mathematical Functions
[Ref. 18]
William H Press,
William T Vetterling,
Saul A Teukolsky and
Brian P Flannery
Numerical Recipes in C
[Ref. 19]
Stephen L Moshier
Methods and Programs for Mathematical Functions
[Ref. 20]
FJ Kuchuk
Pressure behaviour of Horizontal Wells in Multi-layer Reservoirs
[Ref. 21]
CUP
SPE 22731
DK Babu and
AS Odeh
Productivity of a Horizontal Well
R de S Carvalho and
AJ Rosa
Transient Pressure behaviour of Horizontal Wells in Naturally Fractured Reservoirs
F Daviau, G
Mouronval and
G Bourdarot
Pressure Analysis for Horizontal Wells
AG Thompson,
JL Manrique and
TA Jelmert
Efficient Algorithms for Computing the Bounded Reservoir Horizontal Well Pressure
Response
DK Babu and
AS Odeh
Transient Flow behaviour of Horizontal Wells Pressure Drawdown and Buildup Analysis[Ref. 26]
AC Gringarten,
H Ramey.
The Use of Source and Greens Functions in Solving Unsteady-Flow Problems in Reservoirs [Ref. 27]
H Cinco-Ley,
F Kuchuk, J Ayoub,
F Samaniego,
L Ayestaran
Analysis of Pressure Tests through the use of Instantaneous Source Response Concepts.[Ref. 28]
[Ref. 22]
SPE 18298
[Ref. 23]
SPE 18302
[Ref. 24]
SPE 14251
[Ref. 25]
SPE 21827
SPE 18298
SPEJPage 285Oct 1973
SPE 15476
Bibliography
Leif Larsen
A Simple Approach to Pressure Distributions in Geometric Shapes
[Ref. 29]
SPE 10088
Raj K Prasad,
HJ Gruy
Assoc. Pet. Trans
Pressure Transient Analysis in the Presence of Two Intersecting Boundaries
AF van Everdingen,
W Hurst . Pet. Trans
The Application of the Laplace Transformation to Flow Problems in Reservoirs.
RS Wikramaratna
Error Analysis of the Stehfest Algorithm for Numerical Laplace Transform Inversion.
[Ref. 30]
AIME Page 89Jan 1975
[Ref. 31]
AIME Page 305Dec. 1949

[Ref. 32]
AEA
PS Hegeman
A High Accuracy Laplace Invertor for Well Testing Problems
[Ref. 33]
HPC-IE
Bibliography
Bibliography
Index
Closed Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-39
A
Analytical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
B
Boundary Conditions
Circle
Closed . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Constant Pressure . . . .
Faults
Intersecting . . . . . . . . . .
Parallel Sealing . . . . . . .
Partially Sealing . . . . . .
Single Sealing . . . . . . . .
Infinite Acting. . . . . . . . . . . .
Rectangle
Closed . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Constant Pressure . . . .
Mixed-boundary . . . . .
Single Constant Pressure. . .
4-35
4-37
4-31
4-29
4-33
4-25
4-23
Completion
Full. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Partial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
With Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
With Gas Cap . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Compressibility
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Condensate correction
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Consolidated
Limestone . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 to 1-2
Sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 to 1-2
Constant Pressure Circle . . . . . . . 4-37
Constant Pressure Rectangle . . . . 4-41
4-39
4-41
4-41
4-27
Bubble point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-17
C
Closed Circle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35
Constant Wellbore Storage. . . . . . 4-43

Correlation
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Correlations
Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
D
Density
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Dual Porosity
Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
F
Faults
Intersecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Parallel Sealing . . . . . . . . . . .
Partially Sealing . . . . . . . . . .
Single Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-31
4-29
4-33
4-25
Finite Conductivity Vertical Fracture

4-11
Formation Volume Factor
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
Fracture
Finite Conductivity . . . . . . . 4-11
Infinite Conductivity . . . . . . . 4-7
Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Uniform Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Wells
Index
Homogeneous . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17
Radial Composite . . . . . . . . . 4-21
Two-Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
Fully Completed Vertical Well . . . 4-1
N
Normalized Pseudo-Time Transform
3-1
Rock
Compressibility. . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
G
Gas
Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
Condensate correction. . . . . . 1-9
Correlations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
FVF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
Gravity Correction . . . . . . . . 1-24
Z-factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-6, 1-8
Oil
Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
FVF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Separator Gas Gravity Correction1-24

Single Constant-Pressure Boundary .
4-27
GOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-21
P
H
Sandstone
Consolidated . . . . . . . . . 1-1 to 1-2
Unconsolidated. . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Single Sealing Fault . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
Parallel Sealing Faults. . . . . . . . . . 4-29
Homogeneous Reservoir. . . . . . . 4-17

Horizontal Well
Aquifer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Gas Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Two No-Flow Boundaries. . 4-13
I
Infinite Acting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23
Infinite Conductivity Vertical Fracture
4-7
Intersecting Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31
Partial Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3

With Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
With Gas Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
T
Tuning Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24
Partially Sealing Fault. . . . . . . . . . 4-33
Two-Porosity Reservoir . . . . . . . . 4-19
Pressure
Analysis, Transient . . . . . . . . . 5-4
Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27
Constant
Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-37
Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41
Properties
Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Property Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Pseudo Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Pseudo-Time Transform, Normalized
3-1
Unconsolidated Sandstone . . . . . . 1-1

Uniform Flux Vertical Fracture. . . 4-9
Units
Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A-1
Conversion Factors. . . . . . . . .A-8
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A-1
Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A-5
L
Laplace Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Levenberg-Marquardt Method,
Modified . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Limestone
Consolidated. . . . . . . . . 1-1 to 1-2
M
Mixed-Boundary Rectangles . . . 4-41
R
Radial Composite Reservoir . . . . 4-21
Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
Levenberg-Marquardt . . . . . . 6-3
Levenberg-Marquardt, Modified
6-2
Model Trust Region. . . . . . . . . 6-3
Newtons Method. . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Nonlinear Least Squares . . . . 6-4
Reservoir
Dual Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
Fractured, Composite . . . . . . . 5-5
Index
V
Variable Wellbore Storage . . . . . . 4-44
Viscosity
Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
W
Water
Compressibility. . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Viscosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Wellbore Storage
Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-43
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-44
Wells
Fractured
Transient Pressure Analysis
5-4
Horizontal
Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Gas Cap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Two No-Flow Boundaries .
4-13
Vertical
Fully Completed . . . . . . . 4-1
Z
Z-factor
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6, 1-8
Index
Index

Weltest 200: Technical Description

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Weltest 200

Copyright 1996 - 2001 Schlumberger. All rights reserved.

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Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................................................. iii

Chapter 1 - PVT Property Correlations

Chapter 2 - SCAL Correlations

Chapter 3 - Pseudo variables

Chapter 5 - Selected Laplace Solutions

Chapter 6 - Non-linear Regression

Appendix A - Unit Convention

Appendix B - File Formats

Chapter 1 - PVT Property Correlations

Oil/water SCAL correlations....................................................................................................................2-1

Gas/water SCAL correlatiuons ...............................................................................................................2-3

Oil/gas SCAL correlations.......................................................................................................................2-4

Chapter 3 - Pseudo variables

Schematic diagram of a fully completed vertical well in a homogeneous, infinite reservoir....................4-1

Schematic diagram of a partially completed well ....................................................................................4-3

Typical drawdown response of a partially completed well. .....................................................................4-4

Schematic diagram of a partially completed well in a reservoir with an aquifer......................................4-5

Schematic diagram of a well completed with a vertical fracture .............................................................4-7

Schematic diagram of a well completed with a vertical fracture .............................................................4-9

Schematic diagram of a well completed with a vertical fracture ...........................................................4-11

Schematic diagram of a fully completed horizontal well .......................................................................4-13

Typical drawdown response of fully completed horizontal well.............................................................4-14

Schematic diagram of a horizontal well in a reservoir with a gas cap...................................................4-15

Schematic diagram of a well in a homogeneous reservoir ...................................................................4-17

Typical drawdown response of a well in a homogeneous reservoir......................................................4-18

Schematic diagram of a well in a two-porosity reservoir.......................................................................4-19

Typical drawdown response of a well in a two-porosity reservoir .........................................................4-20

Schematic diagram of a well in a radial composite reservoir ................................................................4-21

Typical drawdown response of a well in a radial composite reservoir ..................................................4-22

Schematic diagram of a well in an infinite-acting reservoir ...................................................................4-23

Typical drawdown response of a well in an infinite-acting reservoir .....................................................4-24

Schematic diagram of a well near a single sealing fault .......................................................................4-25

Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a single sealing fault...............................................4-26

Schematic diagram of a well near a single constant pressure boundary..............................................4-27

Schematic diagram of a well between parallel sealing faults................................................................4-29

Typical drawdown response of a well between parallel sealing faults ..................................................4-30

Schematic diagram of a well between two intersecting sealing faults ..................................................4-31

Schematic diagram of a well near a partially sealing fault ....................................................................4-33

Schematic diagram of a well in a closed-circle reservoir ..................................................................... 4-35

Typical drawdown response of a well in a closed-circle reservoir........................................................ 4-36

Schematic diagram of a well in a constant pressure circle reservoir ................................................... 4-37

Typical drawdown response of a well in a constant pressure circle reservoir...................................... 4-38

Schematic diagram of a well within a closed-rectangle reservoir......................................................... 4-39

Typical drawdown response of a well in a closed-rectangle reservoir ................................................. 4-40

Schematic diagram of a well within a mixed-boundary rectangle reservoir ......................................... 4-41

Typical drawdown response of a well in a mixed-boundary rectangle reservoir .................................. 4-42

Chapter 5 - Selected Laplace Solutions

Chapter 1 - PVT Property Correlations

Values of C1, C2 and C3 as used in [EQ 1.57]......................................................................................1-11

Values of C1, C2 and C3 as used in [EQ 1.98]......................................................................................1-19

Values of C1, C2 and C3 as used in [EQ 1.123]....................................................................................1-23

Chapter 2 - SCAL Correlations

Values of f1 and f2 as used in [EQ 5.28] and [EQ 5.29] .........................................................................5-5

Values of and as used in [EQ 5.33] ......................................................................................................5-6

Chapter 6 - Non-linear Regression

Unit definitions ....................................................................................................................................... A-1

Unit sets ................................................................................................................................................. A-5

Converting units to SI units .................................................................................................................... A-8