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Pelton Francis Turbines PDF
Pelton Francis Turbines PDF
ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF WATER & ENVIROMENTAL ENGINEERING
WATER ENGINEERING LABORATORY
LAB REPORT
Subject Code
Code & Experiment Title
Course Code
Date
Section / Group
Name
Members of Group
Lecturer/Instructor/Tutor
Received Date
Comment by examiner
BFC 21201
MKA 03 ; PELTON & FRANCIS TURBINES
2 BFF/1
21 NOVEMBER 2011
2/5
AFANDI BIN ABD WAHID
1.MUHAMMAD IKHWAN BIN ZAINUDDIN
2.MOHD HASIF BIN AZMAN
3.MUHAMMAD HUZAIR BIN ZULKIFLI
CIK AMNANI BIN ABU BAKAR
EN JAMILULLAIL BIN AHMAD TAIB
29 NOVEMBER 2011
Received
(DF100122)
(DF100018)
(DF100079)
(DF100040)
I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not receive or give any assistance in preparing this report and
make this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in, it is true
.
(STUDENT SIGNATURE)
NAME : AFANDI BIN ABD WAHID
MATRIC NO. : DF100122
DATE : 29 NOVEMBER 2011
I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not receive or give any assistance in preparing this report and
make this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in, it is true
.
(STUDENT SIGNATURE)
NAME : MUHAMMAD IKHWAN BIN ZAINUDDIN
MATRIC NO. : DF100018
DATE : 29 NOVEMBER 2011
I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not receive or give any assistance in preparing this report and
make this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in, it is true
.
(STUDENT SIGNATURE)
NAME : MOHD HASIF BIN AZMAN
MATRIC NO. : DF100079
DATE : 29 NOVEMBER 2011
I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not receive or give any assistance in preparing this report and
make this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in, it is true
.
(STUDENT SIGNATURE)
NAME : MUHAMMAD HUZAIR BIN ZULKIFLI
MATRIC NO. : DF100040
DATE : 29 NOVEMBER 2011
INTRODUCTION
A turbine converts energy in the form of falling water into rotating shaft power.
The selection of the best turbine for any particular hydro site depends on the site
characteristics, the dominant ones being the head and flow available. Selection also
depends on the desired running speed of the generator or other device loading the turbine.
Other considerations such as whether the turbine is expected to produce power under partflow conditions also play an important role in the selection. All turbines have a powerspeed characteristic. They will tend to run most efficiently at a particular speed, head and
flow combination.
A turbine design speed is largely determined by the head under which it operates.
Turbines can be classified as high head, medium head or low head machines. Turbines are
also divided by their principle way of operating and can be either impulse or reaction
turbines.
HIGH HEAD
MEDIUM HEAD
IMPULSE
Pelton
Cross-flow multi-jet
TURBINES
Turgo
Pelton Turgo
REACTION
LOW HEAD
Cross-flow
Francis
Propeller
Kaplan
TURBINES
Table 1 - Groups of impulse and reaction turbines
Impulse turbines are usually cheaper than reaction turbines because there is no
need for a specialist pressure casing, or for carefully engineered clearances.
However, they are only suitable for relatively high heads.
2.0
OBJECTIVE
Determine the characteristics of Pelton Turbine operation by using several speed.
3.0
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students should be able to apply the knowledge and skill they
have learned to:
4.0
i.
ii.
THEORY
A Pelton Turbine characteristic operation curve can be derived by using the same
method as a pump. It is because the velocity is usually assumed as an independent
parameter when the plotting of power, efficiency, torque and discharge are carried out.
Mechanical Power, Pm (watt) = Rotation ( , Nm) Circular velocity ( , rad/sec).
Where, T=Force(N) Radius(m)(Nm) and
2radius / min
(rad/s) where, 1 revolution
60 sec/ min
Pm
100 . To convert the unit of rpm to
Pw
5.0
EQUIPMENT
Figure 1: Stopwatch
Figure 2: Tachometer
PROCEDURES
1. Put the Pelton turbine equipment on the hydraulic bench and connected it to the water
supply by using the provided connector.
2. Tighten the optic tachometer by using clip.
3. Make sure that the turbine drum is free from any load.
4. Open the valve controller fully. Then level the tachometer until the rotation reaches the
maximum valve of 2000 rotation/minute or rpm.
5. Record the reading of tachometer, flow rate, pressure at inlet point and load. Put the brake
equipment on the turbine drum. Then level the brake on the right spring at W1. Start with
W1= 1.0N.
6. Record all at table 6.1
7. Repeat 3-6 with W varies in the range of 1.5N to 6.0N.
7.0
RESULT
RPM
(rad/s)
W1 (N)
W2 (N)
W1 W2 (N)
Drum Radius
x10-3m
Rotation
(Nm)
Pm(W)
104.37
9863.5
8417.8
7613.7
6870.6
6201.8
5653.1
4612.5
2418.2
1053.5
1092.9
6
1032.90
881.51
797.30
719.49
649.45
591.99
483.02
253.23
110.32
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
1.6
2.6
3.5
4.4
5.2
6.1
7.5
9.1
10.0
0.6
1.1
1.5
1.9
2.2
2.6
3.5
4.6
5.0
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
0.018
0.033
0.045
0.057
0.066
0.078
0.105
0.138
0.150
18.59
29.09
35.88
41.01
42.86
46.18
50.71
34.95
16.55
Volume (l)
6 liter
0.006m3
Volume (m3)
Time(s)
Flowrate (m3/s)
( x 10-4 )
Pressure (mH2O)
Pw (W)
33.44
25.31
24.31
22.10
20.41
18.94
18.40
17.97
17.79
17.50
1.794
2.371
2.468
2.715
2.940
3.167
3.261
3.339
3.371
3.429
23.0
18.0
17.0
15.0
13.0
12.0
11.5
11.0
10.5
10.0
40.48
41.87
41.16
39.95
37.49
37.28
36.79
36.03
34.72
33.64
Efficiency (%)
44.40
70.67
89.81
109.39
114.97
125.52
140.79
100.66
49.19
8.0
DATA ANALYSIS
(rad/s)
RPM = 10437
RPM = 9863.5
RPM = 8417.8
RPM x 2
60
RPM x 2
60
RPM x 2
60
= 10437 x 2
60
= 9863.5x 2
60
= 8417.8x 2
60
= 1092.96 rad/s
= 1032.90 rad/s
= 881.51 rad/s
RPM = 7613.7
RPM = 6870.6
RPM = 6201.8
RPM x 2
60
RPM x 2
60
RPM x 2
60
= 7613.7x 2
60
= 6870.6x 2
60
= 6201.8x 2
60
= 797.30 rad/s
= 719.49 rad/s
= 649.45 rad/s
RPM = 5653.1
RPM = 4612.5
RPM = 2418.2
RPM x 2
60
RPM x 2
60
RPM x 2
60
= 5653.1x 2
60
= 4612.5x 2
60
= 2418.2x 2
60
= 561.99 rad/s
= 483.02 rad/s
= 253.23 rad/s
RPM = 1053.5
RPM x 2
60
= 1053.5x 2
60
= 110.32 rad/s
W2 W1 (N)
W2 = 0
W2 = 1.6
W2 = 2.6
W1 = 0
W1 = 1.0
W1 = 1.5
W2 W1 = 0 0
W2 W1 = 1.6 1.0
W2 W1 = 2.6 1.5
=0N
= 0.6 N
= 1.1 N
W2 = 3.5
W2 = 4.4
W2 = 5.2
W1 = 2.0
W1 = 2.5
W1 = 3.0
W2 W1 = 3.5 2.0
W2 W1 = 4.4 2.5
W2 W1 = 5.2 3.0
= 1.5 N
= 1.9 N
= 2.2 N
W2 = 6.1
W2 = 7.5
W2 = 9.1
W1 = 3.5
W1 = 4.0
W1 = 4.5
W2 W1 = 6.1 3.5
W2 W1 = 7.5 4.0
W2 W1 = 9.1 4.5
= 2.6 N
W2 = 10.0
W1 = 5.0
W2 W1 = 10.0 5.0
= 5.0 N
= 3.5 N
= 4.6 N
Rotation, (Nm)
Drum Radius = 30 x10-3
W2 W1 (N) = 0 N
(Nm) = W2 W1 (N) x Drum
Radius
= 0 x 30 x10
= 0 Nm
-3
= 0.6 x 30 x10
= 0.018 Nm
W2 W1 (N) = 1.5 N
(Nm) = W2 W1 (N) x Drum
Radius
= 1.5 x 30 x10
= 0.045 Nm
-3
W2 W1 (N) = 2.6 N
(Nm) = W2 W1 (N) x Drum
Radius
= 2.6 x 30 x10
= 0.078 Nm
W2 W1 (N) = 0.6 N
(Nm) = W2 W1 (N) x Drum
Radius
-3
-3
W2 W1 (N) = 1.9 N
(Nm) = W2 W1 (N) x Drum
Radius
-3
= 1.9 x10
= 0.057 Nm
= 1.1 x 30 x10
= 0.033 Nm
-3
-3
W2 W1 (N) = 2.2 N
(Nm) = W2 W1 (N) x Drum
Radius
= 2.2 x 30 x10
= 0.066 Nm
W2 W1 (N) = 3.5 N
(Nm) = W2 W1 (N) x Drum
Radius
= 3.5 x 30 x10
= 0.105 Nm
W2 W1 (N) = 1.1 N
(Nm) = W2 W1 (N) x Drum
Radius
-3
W2 W1 (N) = 4.6 N
(Nm) = W2 W1 (N) x Drum
Radius
= 4.6 x 30 x10
= 0.138 Nm
-3
W2 W1 (N) = 5.0 N
(Nm) = W2 W1 (N) x Drum
Radius
= 5.0 x 30 x10
= 0.150 Nm
-3
Pm (W)
Drum Radius = 30 x10-3
rotation, = 0.0 Nm
Pm = x
=1092.96 x 0.0
=0W
rotation, = 0.045 Nm
Pm = x
=797.30 x 0.045
= 35.88 W
rotation, = 0.078 Nm
Pm = x
= 591.99 x 0.078
= 46.18 W
rotation, = 0.150 Nm
Pm = x
=110.32 x 0.150
= 16.55 W
rotation, = 0.018 Nm
Pm = x
=1032.90 x 0.018
= 18.59 W
rotation, = 0.057 Nm
Pm = x
=719.49 x 0.057
= 41.01 W
rotation, = 0.105 Nm
Pm = x
= 483.02x 0.105
= 50.71 W
rotation, = 0.033 Nm
Pm = x
=881.51 x 0.033
= 29.09 W
rotation, = 0.066 Nm
Pm = x
=649.45 x 0.066
= 42.86 W
rotation, = 0.138 Nm
Pm = x
=253.23 x 0.138
= 34.95 W
Volume (m3)
1 m3 = 1000 liter
6 liter = 6 / 1000
= 0.006 m3
Pw (W)
H = 23
-4
Q = 1.87 x10
Pw = gHQ
= 1000 x 9.81 x 23 x
-4
1.794 x10
= 40.48 W
H = 18
-4
Q = 2.34x10
Pw = gHQ
= 1000 x 9.81 x 18 x
-4
2.371 x 10
= 41.87 W
H = 17
-4
Q = 2.68 x 10
Pw = gHQ
= 1000 x 9.81 x 17 x
-4
2.468 x10
= 41.16 W
H = 15
-4
Q = 2.76 x x10
Pw = gHQ
= 1000 x 9.81 x 15 x
-4
2.715 x 10
= 39.95 W
H = 13
-4
Q = 1.87 x x10
Pw = gHQ
= 1000 x 9.81 x 13 x
-4
2.940 x 10
= 37.49 W
H = 12
-4
Q = 3.16 x x10
Pw = gHQ
= 1000 x 9.81 x 12 x
-4
3.167 x 10
= 37.28 W
H = 11.5
-4
Q = 3.55x10
Pw = gHQ
= 1000 x 9.81 x 11.5 x
-4
3.261 x 10
= 36.79 W
H = 11
-4
Q = 3.75 x 10
Pw = gHQ
= 1000 x 9.81 x 11 x
-4
3.339 x 10
= 36.03 W
H = 10.5
-4
Q = 3.77 x10
Pw = gHQ
= 1000 x 9.81 x 10.5 x
-4
3.371 x 10
= 34.72 W
H = 10
-4
Q = 3.55x10
Pw = gHQ
= 1000 x 9.81 x 10 x
-4
3.429 x 10
= 33.64 W
Efficiency (%)
Pm = 0
Pw = 40.48
= (Pm / Pw) x 100
= (0 / 44.03) x 100
=0
Pm = 18.59
Pw = 41.87
= (Pm / Pw) x 100
= (18.59/ 41.87) x 100
= 44.40
Pm = 29.09
Pw = 41.16
= (Pm / Pw) x 100
= (29.09/ 41.16) x 100
= 70.67
Pm = 35.88
Pw = 39.95
= (Pm / Pw) x 100
= (35.88/ 39.95) x 100
= 89.81
Pm = 41.01
Pw = 37.49
= (Pm / Pw) x 100
= (41.01/ 37.49) x 100
= 109.39
Pm = 42.86
Pw = 37.28
= (Pm / Pw) x 100
= (42.86/ 37.28) x 100
= 114.97
Pm = 46.18
Pw = 36.79
= (Pm / Pw) x 100
= (46.18/ 36.79) x 100
= 125.52
Pm = 50.71
Pw = 36.03
= (Pm / Pw) x 100
= (50.71/ 36.03) x 100
= 140.74
Pm = 34.95
Pw = 34.72
= (Pm / Pw) x 100
= (34.95/ 34.72) x 100
= 100.66
Pm = 16.55
Pw = 33.64
= (Pm / Pw) x 100
= (16.55/ 33.64) x 100
= 49.19
9.0
QUESTIONS
1. Plot graph of:
a. The rotation power curve
(Refer Graph Rotation Power Curve Versus Motor Speed)
b. Efficiency curve
(Refer Graph Efficiency Versus Motor Speed)
c. Discharge versus motor speed
(Refer Graph Discharge Versus Motor Speed)
2. Give a comment on the graph obtained
i. Torque rotations were dependent to motor speed. When the motor speed increase the
torque rotation will decrease and so on reversely.
ii. The efficiency increase with the increase of motor speed until an optimum condition
after that the increasing of motor speed will only decrease the efficiency.
iii. For the graph of motor power versus the motor speed. The graph does not resemble
any trait, it is inconstant. This may be due to some error during the experiment. It is
suspected the inconstant flow rate of water is the cause. When the velocity of motor is
increased, the water power will decrease. As
4. State five (5) safety factors that have been taken in the experiment?
Five safety factors have been taken in the experiment:
a) Avoid taking parallax reading
b) Make sure all the equipments (e.g. stopwatch, Pelton machine, and tachometer) are in
good condition before starting the experiment.
c) Make sure there is enough water in reserve tank so that the flow rate is constant.
d) When using tachometer to take read of the rotation, the tachometer is hold until a
stabled range of reading could be seen and the average value is taken.
e) It is the best if the reading is taken by the same person.
f) Replace the brake if it is ineffective.
10.0
DISCUSSION
The water flows along the tangent to the path of the runner. Nozzles direct forceful
streams of water against a series of spoon-shaped buckets mounted around the edge of a
wheel. As water flows into the bucket, the direction of the water velocity changes to
follow the contour of the bucket. When the water-jet contacts the bucket, the water exerts
pressure on the bucket and the water is decelerated as it does a "u-turn" and flows out the
other side of the bucket at low velocity. In the process, the water's momentum is
transferred to the turbine. This "impulse" does work on the turbine. For maximum power
and efficiency, the turbine system is designed such that the water-jet velocity is twice the
velocity of the bucket.
A very small percentage of the water's original kinetic energy will still remain in
the water; however, this allows the bucket to be emptied at the same rate it is filled, (see
conservation of mass), thus allowing the water flow to continue uninterrupted. Often two
buckets are mounted side-by-side, thus splitting the water jet in half (see photo). This
balances the side-load forces on the wheel, and helps to ensure smooth, efficient
momentum transfer of the fluid jet to the turbine wheel. Because water and most liquids
are nearly incompressible, almost all of the available energy is extracted in the first stage
of the hydraulic turbine. Therefore, Pelton wheels have only one turbine stage, unlike gas
turbines that operate with compressible fluid.
11.0
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, the characteristics of Pelton Turbine operation by using several
speed. There are several speeds that influence the characteristics of Pelton Turbine
besides the power of turbine, rotation and the flow rate. It is also influence the efficiency
of turbine. From the graph, value of the maximum power is reached at 1520 RPM. During
4612.5 RPM the motor efficiency is also at its optimum level, which is 140.74%.
12.0
REFFERENCE
INTRODUCTION
In Francis Turbine water flow is radial into the turbine and exits the Turbine
axially. Water pressure decreases as it passes through the turbine imparting reaction on
the turbine blades making the turbine rotate. Read more about design and working
principle of Francis Turbine in this article.
Francis Turbine is the first hydraulic turbine with radial inflow. It was designed by
American scientist James Francis. Francis Turbine is a reaction turbine. Reaction
Turbines have some primary features which differentiate them from Impulse Turbines.
The major part of pressure drop occurs in the turbine itself, unlike the impulse turbine
where complete pressure drop takes place up to the entry point and the turbine passage is
completely filled by the water flow during the operation.
For power generation using Francis Turbine the turbine is supplied with high
pressure water which enters the turbine with radial inflow and leaves the turbine axially
through the draft tube. The energy from water flow is transferred to the shaft of the
turbine in form of torque and rotation. The turbine shaft is coupled with dynamos or
alternators for power generation. For quality power generation speed of turbine should be
maintained constant despite the changing loads. To maintain the runner speed constant
even in reduced load condition the water flow rate is reduced by changing the guide
vanes angle.
2.0
OBJECTIVE
To determine the relationship between the head, flow rate, velocity, power and efficiency
of Francis Turbine
3.0
LEARNING OUTCOMES
i.
ii.
4.0
THEORY
Hydraulic power can be obtain at the turbine inlet (usually known in watt unit) and
can be calculated as, Phyd = Htot Q, and Q as the volume discharge that can be read from
the measuring equipment (m3/s) and is a water per unit of volume (9820 N/m3). Htot is a
total head (m) which can be calculated (using theorem Bernoulli method) in a circuit
section flow just before the turbine in a location of pressure as total of three parameter,
Htot = Hman + Hkin + Hpres which is Hman is a the differences of pressure head position
which measured the pressure and the turbine shaft bar. As using the experiment table,
Hman ~ 0.35 m (if the pressure decreasing at the turbine point out which cause by the mixer
which count as an available head, Hman can be calculated as the height differences between
the pressure gauging point position and the point of water level at the outflow of
reservoir) is a kinetic parameter which cause by water velocity, Vm (in m/s), at the
pressure gauging location, where the pipe section is Sm (this value is not S and v value at
the inlet section). Hkin =
Hpres =
vm 2
Q
, where as g is the gravity constant (9.81 m/s2) and vm =
.
Sm
2g
m
is a resultant parameter from water pressure, m (in unit N/m2) as measured by
pressure gauging. In calculation table, the readable gauging value which has been read by
four gauging, all the readable value from the calculation can be added by the related
values, vm, Hman, Hkin, Hpres, Htot, Phd, which has been described first.
This following relationship, has been used to calculated the value of mechanical
power out Pmec (usually in watt), Pmec = c = 2nC / 60, where as , is the turbine angular
velocity (in rad/s), n is a turbine average velocity obtain by reader equipment (RPM) and
c is a braking torque velocity at the turbine shaft as obtain by reader equipment (Nm).
P
Lastly, the turbine overall efficiency, mec is calculated as the ratio of power at
Phyd
outlet point compared to the generated power. Last table arrangement for the experimental
value and the calculation value (for each z) can be explained in a provided table.
5.0
EQUIPMENTS
PROCEDURE
i.
ii.
The distributor leverage at the chosen value (50% and 100%) was fixed.
iii.
The delivery control shutter was opened until desired flow rate.
iv.
The reading of pressure (m), speed (n), flow rate (Q), and voltage (v) for each
distributor leverage value in Table 6.1 was recorded.
v.
Step 3-4 steps were repeated with different distributor leverage value.
PRECAUTION:
7.0
719
9.4
1.00
60
46000
4.19
587
7.7
1.32
80
35000
4.33
433
4.2
1.60
100
51200
4.08
737.4
9.48
0.972
98.20
4.08
52000
Mechanical power, Pm
(watt)
40
0.69
Pressure, Hpres
(m)
10.4
Kinetic, Hkin
(m)
902
1.97
0.198
6.31
6.868
109.54
259.95
42.14
2.01
0.206
5.91
6.466
94.46
250.17
37.76
2.08
0.221
5.30
5.871
75.29
235.23
32.01
2.14
0.233
4.68
5.263
61.47
216.55
28.39
2.21
0.249
3.56
4.159
45.34
176.84
25.64
1.93
0.190
8.15
8.690
143.57
322.57
44.51
1.97
0.198
7.54
8.088
120.11
306.58
39.18
0.206
7.13
7.686
91.94
297.30
30.92
6.72
7.288
73.93
290.57
25.44
5.91
6.485
55.19
261.74
21.09
0.00196
0.35
80000
3.78
1371
19.5
0.41
20
74000
3.86
1147
15.5
1.03
40
70000
3.94
878
11.4
1.30
60
2.01
66000
4.06
706
9.0
1.67
80
2.07
58000
4.11
527
6.9
1.80
100
2.10
100 %
69600
3.95
925.8
12.46
3.94
Water speed, Vm
(m/s)
58000
20
0.25
15.2
Average of Voltage, V
(volt)
1046
Average of Speed, n
(RPM)
3.86
Average of Flowrate, Q
(m3/s) (x 10-3)
62000
Current reading, I
(%)
Voltage, V
(volt)
Current reading, I
(ampere)
Speed, n
(RPM)
Flowrate, Q
(m3/s) (x 10-3)
Pressure, Pm
(N/m2)
Z
(%)
50 %
RESULT
1.241
0.218
0.225
8.0
DATA ANALYSIS
A) Data at Z=50%
Pressure, Pm (N/m2)
1 bar = 100kPa
100000 Pa
100000 N/m2
100000 Pa
100000 N/m2
100000 Pa
100000 N/m2
100000 Pa
100000 N/m2
100000 Pa
100000 N/m2
Flowrate, Q (m3/s)
13.9 x103 l x 1m3
h
1000l
H pres = Pm / =
62000
= 6.31 m
9820
H pres = Pm / =
58000
= 5.91 m
9820
H pres = Pm / =
52000
= 5.30 m
9820
H pres = Pm / =
46000
= 4.68 m
9820
H pres = Pm / =
35000
= 3.56 m
9820
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
B) Data at Z=100%
Pressure, Pm (N/m2)
1 bar = 100kPa
100000 Pa
100000 N/m2
100000 Pa
100000 N/m2
100000 Pa
100000 N/m2
100000 Pa
100000 N/m2
100000 Pa
100000 N/m2
Flowrate, Q (m3/s)
13.6 x103 l x 1m3
h
1000l
H pres = Pm / =
80000
= 8.15 m
9820
H pres = Pm / =
74000
= 7.54 m
9820
H pres = Pm / =
70000
= 7.13 m
9820
H pres = Pm / =
66000
= 6.72 m
9820
H pres = Pm / =
58000
= 5.91 m
9820
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
9.0
QUESTIONS
1. Plot a graph of:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
10.0
DISCUSSION
From these experiments, we can see the relationship between the flow rate (Q),
velocity (v), speed (n), power and efficiency of a Francis turbine. Generally, the function
of turbines is to get electricity converted from natural hydraulic power. Francis turbine
may also be used for pumped storage, where a reservoir is filled by the turbine (acting as a
pump) during low power demand, and then reversed and used to generate power during
peak demand.
11.0
CONCLUSION
The experimental objective is achieved. In producing the highest power through
turbines, all factors must be taken. The same flow rate produces a different velocity.
While the velocity of water will produce a different power and efficiency according to the
different capabilities of the turbine. Factors such as the flow rate, velocity, power and
efficiency of this interaction and should be taken into account. Results of experiments
carried out showed the relationship between the head, flow rate, velocity, power and
efficiency were produce the desired energy. Aperture-opening in these experiments
showed differences and advantages between an aperture with the aperture so that we can
to reflect the actual operating situation of a Francis turbine.
12.0
REFERENCE
i. http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/mechanical/articles/27407.aspx
(Accessed on 27 November 2011
ii. Mifflin, Boston, MA.White, F.M. (1994). Fluid Mechanics, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill,
Inc., New York, NY.
iii. R. E. Featherstone, C. Naluri. (1995.) Civil Engineering Hydraulics. Bodmin, Cornwall:
Blackwell Science