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4PP Resistivity
4PP Resistivity
FT09 MW / Page 1 of 9
Introduction :
A basic property of a conductive material is its electrical resistivity. The electrical resistivity is
determined by the availability of free electrons in the material. In turn the availability of free electrons
is determined by the physical binding properties of the material on a molecular level. Other important
properties of the material are related to the physical binding properties and therefore to the electrical
resistivity of the material.
Much may be learned about the properties of a material by measuring its resistivity. An important
example is the characterization of semiconductor materials where the resistivity is strongly related to
the level of purposely added impurities. Measurement of the resistivity is used to both characterize the
material and as a process control parameter for the semiconductor manufacturing process. Resistivity
measurements are also used to characterize many other materials such as the magnetic films used in
CDs etc.
This paper discusses the measurement of electrical resistivity using one of the oldest technologies
available, four in line probes of constant spacing contacting the surface of the material. Electrical
current is passed between two of the probes and the voltage created is measured between the other
two probes. The resistivity may be calculated from the measured values of current and voltage as noted
below. The concept of sheet resistance and its relationship to the materials resistivity is discussed
before the equations for calculating resistivity are presented.
The concept of Sheet Resistance :
Length
Surface 2
Surface 1
Thickness (t)
Width (w)
Figure 1
Please examine Figure 1, a thin conducting sheet with current passing through the ends of the sheet
from surface 1 to surface 2. The sheet has a length and a cross sectional area (A). The current
generates a voltage difference between surfaces 1 and 2. The average resistance, R, between surfaces
1 and 2 may be calculated from Ohms Law as
R = V/I
(1)
Where V is the voltage difference between surface 1 and surface 2 and I is the current.
R is also given by
R = resistivity x length / A
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(2)
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Where
resistivity is an electrical property of the material in ohm-cm
The length of the sheet is measured in cm
A is the cross sectional area surfaces 1 and 2 and is equal to t (thickness) x w (width) in cm x cm.
Then
R = resistivity x length/ (t x w)
(3)
A useful concept is to visualize the special case of the resistance of one square (length = w) of the thin
sheet as viewed from the top. By substitution, the resistance for the square is given by
Rs = resistivity / t
(4)
The result is accurate for one square of conducting material so the units for Rs are given as ohms per
square. (Strictly speaking the square has no physical meaning and the units are in ohms.)
By substitution the value of Rs may be measured and the resistivity calculated if V and I and t can be
measured for the sample.
Difference between 2P and 4P :
2 point probing
4 point probing
With the 2 point method, current and voltage are measured in the same wire. So, the measured voltage
is added with the potential difference created into the wires (Cause of Ohms Law : U=RI) . For high
resistivity (from 1M ohm/sq), this method can be used because contact and spreading resistance are
negligible. For low resistivity measurement, this method will be not accurate because contact and
spreading resistance will very close to sample resistance.
That why, for low resistivity, the best method is the 4 point probing. Current is sent in two probes and
voltage is measured by two other probes. So, the measured voltage is really that circulate into the
sample with no current. So there is no potential difference into the wires and contact and spreading
resistance are not high. Measure will be more accurate.
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Practical Measurements :
It is not practical to cut the material into little squares and contact the end surfaces. A much more
practical and useful measurement of Rs is made using a 4 point probe where the 4 probes contact the
top surface of the film or material. The 4 points are in a line or linear and have a constant spacing (S).
In the classical measurement, Current (I) passes through the two end probes and voltage (V) is
measured between the two center probes.
Probes
Figure 2
The current flowing and the voltage measured are related to Rs in accordance with Maxwells field
equations. (See Figure 2)
In the ideal case with :
1. the conducting sheet infinite in the horizontal directions and
2. the thickness is < 0.4 x the spacing of the probes (S)
3. and if the measurement temperature is 23 C and
4. the probe spacing (S) is truly constant,
the current and voltage are related to the average resistance by a special solution to the equations :
Rs = /ln (2) x V/I = 4.532 x V/I (ohms/sq)
(5)
(6)
Therefore the resistivity may be calculated from the measurements of V and I and film thickness (t).
Conversely if the resistivity of the material is known, the thickness may be calculated from
t = resistivity / Rs (cm)
(7)
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Correction Factors :
As a practical consideration the conditions for equation (5) are not usually in force. However, the four
point probe technology is useful for process control. An accuracy approaching 0.5% is desired.
Therefore equation (5) is modified using correction factors as follows :
Rs = Geometry CF x Thickness CF x Temp CF x (V/I)
(8)
The Geometry CF is best calculated and measured using the Dual Configuration technique and has a
nominal value of 4.532 (See appendix 1). The Dual Configuration method also corrects for variance in
the probe tip spacing (S).
The thickness correction factor (TCF) can become important for practical measurements of substrates.
TCF is a calculation of the correction to the V/I reading required to obtain the true Rs as a function of
the ratio of (t/S) or film thickness (t) to the spacing of the probes (S). (See Appendix 2)
The Temp CF normalizes the readings to 23oC and may be found by measuring the temperature (T)
and looking up the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) for the measured material. (See
Appendix 3)
The Lucas Signatone and FDI Resistivity Measurement equipment uses the appropriate correction
factors to automatically report the correct values of Rs and resistivity or film thickness normalized to
23oC, with the effects of thickness and horizontal geometries included. (temperature factor also include
on special equipments)
The methods used are discussed in the appendices and may be reviewed in the referenced source
material.
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I
V
V
1
First configuration
Second configuration
When using the Dual Configuration technique the constant 4.532 or /ln (2) of equation (5) is replaced
by the Geometry CF or Ka in equation (8). Ka is calculated from the results of two measurements as
follows :
Measurement 1 : Current is passed between pins 1 and 4 and voltage is measured between pins 2 and
3. Then Ra is calculated by
Ra = V23/I14 (ohms)
(9)
Measurement 2 : Current is passed between pins 1 and 3 and the voltage is measured between pins 2
and 4. Rb is calculated by
Rb = V24/I13 (ohms)
(10)
(11)
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(12)
(13)
Where :
M
Where
M = integer (2 x 1/ (t/S) +1)
N is the smallest value of n for which the increment in the second summation is less than 10-5
The values for TCF for this range are shown below :
Ratio t/S
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
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Thick CF
0.998161
0.992574
0.982332
0.966831
0.94645
0.921956
0.894378
0.864725
0.833992
0.802958
0.772222
0.742216
0.7132
0.685429
0.65897
0.633832
0.610077
0.587616
0.566431
0.546482
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2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4
0.527658
0.509916
0.493203
0.477415
0.46251
0.448425
0.43512
0.422509
0.41056
0.399227
0.388468
0.378256
0.36853
0.359269
0.350443
0.342024
(14)
The derivation of (14) is a result of assuming TCF will approach the correct value for the equation for
resistivity where t/S is large. This equation is :
resistivity = 2 x S x (V/I)
(15)
(16)
Also note that the value calculated is for resistivity not Rs.
Then from equation (4)
Rs = resistivity / t = 2 x S/t x (V/I)
(17)
Combining equations (17) and (5) and assuming large Geometry dimensions and temperature at 23 oC
Rs = 2 x S/t x (V/I) = /ln(2) x TCF x (V/I) (18)
Solving for TCF gives equation (14)
TCF = 2 x ln(2) / (t/S) = 1.386 / (t/S)
(14)
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(20)
Where T is the measured temperature in oC and TCR is the Temperature Coefficient of Resistance and
is a known physical property for most materials. The TCR varies between .01% per oC to .6% per oC for
semiconductor material and much less for most other films. Note that the Temp CF equals 1 at 23oC.
The TCR varies dramatically with impurity concentration for semiconductors and less so for metals.
Lucas Signatone offers Four-Point Probe based equipment for measuring TCR for temperatures up to
500oC.
The TCR for various impurity types and concentrations silicon is given in Table 5 of ASTM Standard F
84 -99, page 11 which may be purchased through SEMI. Contact us for help.
Appendix 4. References
The Certification of 100 mm Diameter Silicon Resistivity SRMs 2541 through 2547 Using DualConfiguration Four-Point Probe Measurements, J. R. Ehrstein and M. C. Croarkin. *NIST SPECIAL
PUBLICATION 260-131
Standard Test Method for Measuring Resistivity on Silicon Wafers with an In-Line Four-Point Probe.
*ASTM Standard F 4-99
Standard Test Methods for Conductivity Type of Extrinsic Semiconducting Materials.
*ASTM Standard F 42-93
Standard Test Method for Sheet Resistance of Thin Metallic Films with a Collinear 4 Probe-Array.
*ASTM Standard F 390 78 (Re-approved 1991)
Standard Test Method for Sheet Resistance of Silicon Epitaxial, Diffused, Polysilicon, and IonImplanted Layers Using an In-Line Four-Point Probe.
*ASTM Standard F 374 94a
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Radius or pressure are too hard, tips will penetrate totally the layer and we will characterized the
boundary substrate.
Radius or pressure are too hard, tips will penetrate the layer but without through it. Properties
will be modified, and measurement will be not accurate.
Radius or pressure are too soft and an oxide layer protect the sample, tips couldn't penetrate
the oxide layer, so we will characterized the oxide layer.
Radius or pressure are too soft, tips will have not good contact with the material, so
measurement will be not accurate.
For the best accuracy, we should have the finest radius, and the highest pressure possible.
3 Material
Osmium is harder than tungsten. It is nearly as hard as a diamond. Therefore, it will last longer.
As far as best uses, really Osmium and Tungsten Carbide are quite interchangeable with only a couple
of exceptions. We know that Osmium is best for contacting GaAs wafers. Tungsten Carbide has a
difficult time getting good contact but Osmium works well. Conversely, we seem to get better,more
consistent results on metals when using Tungsten Carbide, but Osmium does still work.
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