CHEMISTRY FORM 6

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER 4 :
STATE OF MATTER
SOLID, LIQUID AND GAS

2.1
THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

The Gaseous State

A gas is composed of atoms or molecules that are separated from each

other by distances far greater than their own size.

The gas particles can be considered as point particles they possess
mass but have negligible volume
There are no forces between the gas particles
Gas particles can vibrate, rotate and move anywhere within the container
where the gas is placed.
A gas has no fixed shape or volume and can be easily compressed
Particles of gas are in constant random motion, moving in straight line
unless they collide with the wall of container or with other gas particles
As the particles collide with the wall, they exert a pressure on container
The collision are perfectly elastic. Theres no loss of kinetic energy during
collision
The average kinetic energy of the particles is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature (Kelvin scale) of the gas

2.2
The Gas Laws
2.2.1 Boyles Law

Stated by Robert Boyle (1662) during his investigation of
relationship between volume occupied by gas to the pressure of
gas using the apparatus below.

The total pressure on the gas is the sum of the atmospheric
pressure and the pressure exerted due to the difference in the
height (h) of the mercury in the column


A plot of the result yields the following graph

Based on the results, he formulated Boyles Law which state that

The volume occupied by a fixed mass of gas at constant

temperature is inversely proportional to its pressure

P 1/V

P x V = constant
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2


Ideal gas obeys Boyles Law under all conditions of temperature and

pressure.
Ideal laws does not exist as real gases obeys Boyles Law closely only at low
pressures and high temperatures. Real gases do not obey Boyles Law closely
at high pressures and low temperatures.
Pressure = force per unit area, SI unit of pressure = Newton (N) per
square metre
1 Nm-2 is called a pascal (Pa)
1 kPa = 1000 Pa or 1000 N m-2
Atmospheric pressure is expressed in units of milimetres of mercury (mm
Hg). Standard atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg or 101325 Pa or 101325
N m-2.
The SI Unit of volume is cubic metre, m3.
1 m3 = 103 dm3 = 106 cm3 ;
1dm3 = 1 litre
The deviation of gases from Boyles Law is called non-ideal behaviour

(a)

(b)
V

1/P against V
1/P

V against 1/P

1/P

V
(c)

(d)

PV against P

V against P
V

PV

2.2.2 CHARLES LAW

JAC Charles investigated the relationship between the volume
occupied by a gas, at constant pressure with temperature which
is describe by the apparatus setting below.

As T increases V increases


He found that the relationship is a linear, as shown in the graph

VT
V = constant x T
V1/T1 = V2/T2

Temperature must
Kelvin (absolute scale)
T (K) = t (0C) + 273


When the temperature of a sample of gas is increased, the

kinetic energy of the gas particles will increase, thus increasing,

the rate of collision between the gas particles and the wall of
container. At the same time, the collision are more energetic
and this lead to an increase in the pressure exerted by gas.
Hence, in order to maintain the original pressure, the volume
occupied by the gas must now increase.

Avogadros Law
V number of moles (n)
V = constant x n

Constant temperature
Constant pressure

V1/n1 = V2/n2

5.3

2.2.3 Avogadros Law

~ state that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature
and pressure contain equal number of atoms/molecules.

The volume occupied by 1 mole of any gas (molar volume)
depends on the temperature and pressure of the gas. The molar
volume of gas at standard temperature & pressure is 22.4 dm3.

The condition of s.t.p are :Temperature : 0 oC (273 K)
Pressure
: 101 kPa (1 atm)

Under room temperature and pressure, molar volume of gas is
24.4 dm3 / mol.

The condition of r.t.p are :Temperature : 25 oC (298 K)
Pressure
: 101 kPa (1 atm)

Ideal Gas Equation

Boyles law: V 1 (at constant n and T)
P
Charles law: V T (at constant n and P)
Avogadros law: V n (at constant P and T)
V

nT
P

V = constant x

nT
P

=R

nT
P

R is the gas constant

PV = nRT

2.2.4 Ideal Gas Equation

Pressure, P

Volume, V

Gas constant, R

Temperature, T

Pa or N m-2

m3

8.31 J K-1 mol-1

atm

dm3

0.0821 dm3 atm K-1 mol-1

For a fixed mass of gas
P V / T = constant

Density (d) Calculations

d=

PM

m
V

RT

P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1
T2
m is the mass of the gas in g
M is the molar mass of the gas

Molar Mass (M ) of a Gaseous Substance

dRT

M=

d is the density of the gas in g/L

P

1. Calculate the volume of the following gases at s.t.p.

(at 0oC and 1 atm = 101 kPa = 760 mm Hg)
a) 200 cm3 hydrogen at 30C and 2.00 x 104 Pa
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
(2.00 x 104)(200) / (273+30) = (101 x 103)(V2) / (0 + 273)
V2 = 35.7 cm3

b) 4.25 dm3 hydrogen chloride at 50C and 650 mm Hg

P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
(650 mmHg)(4.25) / (273+50) = (760 mmHg)(V2) / (0 + 273)
V2 = 3.07 dm3

c) 600 cm3 oxygen at 308 K and 2.20 atm

P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
(2.20)(600) / (308) = (1.00)(V2) / (0 + 273)
V2 = 1170 cm3

d) 1.70 dm3 neon at 95C and 1.45 atm

P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
(1.45)(1.70) / (273+95) = (1.00)(V2) / (0 + 273)
V2 = 1.83 dm3

2.

An aerosol can containing helium gas at 30C and 1.8 x 103 Pa is

heated to 60C. What is the pressure of helium in the can now?
P1 / T1 = P2 / T2
(1.8 x 103) / (273+30) = P / (60 + 273)
P2 = 2.0 x 103 Pa

3.

Determine the density of SO2 gas at 25C and 101 kPa.

PV = nRT @ P = mRT / MRV => P = dRT / MR
d = (101 x 103) (32 + 2(16) / 8.31 (25 +273)
d = 2610 g / m3 @ 2.61 x 10-3 g / cm3

4.

4. A 20.0 m3 steel tank was constructed to store liquefied natural gas (LNG) which
contained mainly methane at 160C and 101 kPa
(a) How many grams of methane can be stored in the container if the density of the
liquid is 416 kg m-3?
Since density = 416 kg m-3 ;
Mass = 20.0 x 416 = 8320 kg @ 8.32 x 106 g

(b) Calculate the volume of a storage tank capable of holding the same mass LNG as a
gas at 28C and 101 kPa.
Since the temperature of gas decrease
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
20.0 / 160 + 273 = V2 / 28 + 273
V2 = 13.9 m3

5. An organic compound consists of 24.24% carbon, 4.04% hydrogen

and 71.72% chlorine by mass. If a 1.803 g sample occupies 546 cm3 at
84.2C and 745 mm Hg (Given 760 mm Hg = 101 kPa)
(a) calculate its molar mass
Pressure in kPa = 745 mm Hg x 101 kPa / 760 mm Hg
Pressure in kPa = 99.0 kPa
PV = nRT
(99.0 x 103)(546 x 10-6) = (1.803 / MR) 8.31 (84.2 + 273)
MR = 99.0

(b) determine its molecular formula

Element

Cl

Mass

24.24

4.04

71.72

Mol

24.24
12
= 2.02

4.04
1
= 4.04

71.72
35.5
= 2.02

Ratio

2.02 / 2.02
=1

4.04 / 2.02
=2

2.02 / 2.02
=1

Empirical formula = CH2Cl

(CH2Cl)n = 99.0
[(12(1) + 2(1) + 35.5(1)]n = 99
n=2
Molecular formula = (CH2Cl)2
= C2H4Cl2

2.3
Daltons Law Partial Pressure

Partial Pressure In a mixture of gases which do not interact
with one another, each gas in the mixture will exert its own
pressure independent of the other gases.

Daltons Law of Partial Pressure

In a mixture of gases which do not interact with one another, the total

pressure of the mixture is the sum of the partial pressure of the

constituent gases

PT = Pa + Pb + Pc + ..

The partial pressure of a gas is also given by the following expression:

Pa = mole fraction of A in mixture (Xa) X Total pressure

Mole fraction of A (Xa) = moles of A
Total moles

Daltons Law of Partial Pressures

V and T
are
constant

P1

P2

Ptotal = P1 + P2

Consider a case in which two gases, A and B, are in a

container of volume V.

nART
PA =
V

nA is the number of moles of A

nBRT
PB =
V

nB is the number of moles of B

PT = PA + PB
PA = XA PT

nA
XA =
nA + nB
PB = XB PT
Pi = Xi PT

nB
XB =
nA + nB

A sample of natural gas contains 8.24 moles of CH4, 0.421

moles of C2H6, and 0.116 moles of C3H8. If the total pressure of
the gases is 1.37 atm, what is the partial pressure of propane
(C3H8)?

Pi = Xi PT

PT = 1.37 atm

0.116
Xpropane =
8.24 + 0.421 + 0.116

= 0.0132

Ppropane = 0.0132 x 1.37 atm = 0.0181 atm

Example 2
A mixture of gases at 200 kPa contains the following composition of gases by
volume. (20% CO2 ; 50% CO ; 30% O2)
a) What is the partial pressure of each gas in the mixture?
b) If CO2 is removed from the vessel, what would be the partial pressure of O2
and CO
For CO2
PCO2 = xCO2 . Ptot
PCO2 = (20) / (20 + 50 + 30) x 200 kPa
PCO2 = 40 kPa
For CO
PCO = xCO . Ptot
PCO = (50) / (20 + 50 + 30) x 200 kPa
PCO = 100 kPa
For O2
PO2 = xCO . Ptot
PO2 = (30) / (20 + 50 + 30) x 200 kPa
PO2 = 60 kPa
Partial pressure of O2 and CO will remain as 60 kPa and 100 kPa
respectively, since removing CO2 will not affect the partial pressure of
each gas in the vessel

Example 3 :
5.00 dm3 of H2 at 200 kPa, 12.0 dm3 of N2 at 300 kPa and 1.50 dm3 of Cl2 at
120 kPa were forced into a vessel of capacity 10.0 dm3 at constant temperature.
Calculate the pressure in the vessel as a result of the mixture of these gases.

For hydrogen
P1V1 = P2V2
(200 kPa)(5.00) = P2(10.00)
P2 = 100 kPa

For nitrogen
P1V1 = P2V2
(300 kPa)(12.00) = P2(10.00)
P2 = 360 kPa

For chlorine
P1V1 = P2V2
(120 kPa)(1.50) = P2(10.00)
P2 = 18 kPa
Total pressure = PH2 + PN2 + PCl2
= 100 kPa + 360 kPa + 18 kPa
= 478 kPa


Nitrogen monoxide and oxygen gas are mixed in the vessel as in the diagram below

Calculate its partial pressure of each gas and total pressure if the stopper is lifted
up from the vessel.

For NO
P1V1 = P2V2
(0.5 atm)(4) = P2(4 + 2))
P2 = 0.333 atm

For O2
P1V1 = P2V2
(1.0 atm)(2) = P2(4 + 2)
P2 = 0.333 atm

Total pressure = PNO + PO2

= 0.333 + 0.333
= 0.666 atm

2.5
THE DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS IN A GAS

Speed of various gas molecules differ widely and are constantly
changing. This is due to their frequent collision and the resultant
changes in energy.

At any time, the speed instantly increase and spread widely. This spread
of molecular speeds is called Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.

There are 2 factors which can only affect the distribution of the graph
1.Temperature.

At constant pressure, the Maxwell Boltzmann distribution graph can be
varies with temperature

The graph below shows the distribution of the graph at 3 different
temperature

Distribution of molecular speeds at three temperatures.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS IN A GAS

Speed of various gas molecules differ widely and are constantly
changing. This is due to their frequent collision and the resultant
changes in energy.

At any time, the speed instantly increase and spread widely. This
spread of molecular speeds is called Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.

Important points to note about the distribution curves for molecular
speed in a gas.

Area directly proportional to the total number of molecules in the gas

At any temp., a small proportion have high/low speed mostly
average

T , distribution curve shift to right peak become lower number
of gas molecules with high speed increase ; average speed decrease.

When heat is supplied, the energy is used to increase the average
kinetic energy and to increase the motion of the gas molecules.

M-B apply not only to molecular speeds but also to molecular energy.

2.

Molecular mass

At constant temperature and pressure, the molecular gas distribution
can also be influenced by the mass of gas itself.

Distribution graph below shows the distribution of different gases
molecules with different molar mass


Important points to note about the distribution curves for

molecular speed in a gas.

Area directly proportional to the total number of molecules in the gas

At constant temperature, a small proportion of molecules have high/low

speed but mostly average

Smaller the molecular mass of the gaseous molecules, distribution curve
shift to right & at the same time, peak become lower. This indicated lesser
molecules travel at average speed while more molecules travel at high speed.

This is due to lighter molecules can move faster than a heavier molecule.
More light molecules are able to travel at high speed, causing lesser
molecules to travel at average speed (represent by lowered peak)

4.5
Real gases Deviations from ideality

Real gases area gases that do not obey the ideal gas equation, PV = nRT
low pressure
high temperature

Real gases behave ideally at _____________
& ________________
liquefied

At high pressure and low temperature, gases would ______________

The deviation of real gases from ideal gas can be explained using
PV/RT against P. The graph below shows how 3 real gases behave

At very low pressure, the gas molecules are far apart and attraction
can be ignored
forces between the molecules _____________________________

However, when pressure increased, the attraction forces become
closer
significant
__________ since the molecules are now __________.
Thus, when
negative deviation, these attractions make the gas
molecules are at _________
lower
more compressible. Volume of the gas _________
more than
< nRT and the gas exhibit _______________
expected. Thus, PV
negative deviation
deviation from ideality.

Graph of PV / RT against P

PV
RT

NH3
H2
CH4


At higher pressure, the molecules are pushes very close together, and

now repulsive forces operate between them. These repulsive forces

make the gas harder to compress. As a result, a higher pressure has to
> nRT. Moreover, as high
be used to compress the gas. Thus, PV .
pressure, volume of the gas become smaller and hence the actual
volume of the gas molecules in comparison with the volume of the
positive
containing vessel cannot be ignored. Thus, the gas exhibit _________
deviation from ideality.

The same curve could also be given at different temperature.
Example, for carbon dioxide gas at 100 K, 200 K and 300 K

Graph of PV / RT against P

PV
RT

100K
700 K

400 K


At low temperatures, when a molecule is about to collide with the wall of

container, the intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules will the

force exerted by the impact. As a result, the pressure exerted by the gas is
<
reduced. This will cause the value of PV
RT (negative deviation)

At very high temperatures, the kinetic energy of the gas molecules is very
high and there are no chances for molecules to interact with each other
causing no intermolecular forces occur.

Negative deviation caused by polar bond
hydrogen and
helium

Light gases such as .
have small molecular
mass and are non-polar. Hence, they possessed very weak intermolecular
forces, and behave almost to ideal (especially at room condition)

Gas such as ammonia, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide are polar
molecules so they have strong intermolecular forces. These gases will show
deviation from ideal behavior

3.1

Properties of Liquid

Average content of kinetic energy.

Molecules arrangements are loose and a little apart.

Intermolecular forces among particles are intermediate.

Particles in liquid state can move around freely, rotate and vibrate freely.

Has fixed mass and volume.

Shape follow its container, and must be filled from beneath of the container.

Molar latent heat of fusion, Hfusion :- amount of energies required to change 1 mole
of solid to liquid under standard condition.
Molar latent heat of vaporization, Hvaporization :- amount of energies required to
change 1 mole of liquid to gas under standard condition

3.1.1 : Vapour Pressure

Particles in liquid are in constant motion. Due to the presence of intermolecular
forces, the particles can only move throughout the body of liquid and not free
from attraction by other liquid particles.

When some of these particles at surface of liquid have enough energy to overcome
intermolecular forces, it escape as vapour. This process is called evaporation.

In open container, evaporation on will continue until no liquid remain.

In a close container, vapour will trap in the container and collide with the walls of
container to form vapour pressure.

Vapour pressure will increase with time. When the rate of vaporation = rate of
condensation it will attain a maximum value of pressure ~ called as saturated
vapour pressure.

Saturated vapour pressure vapour pressure exerted in a close container, where
rate of evaporation is at equilibrium with rate of condensation.


Saturated vapour pressure is directly proportional to the temperature. Higher the

temperature more liquid can escape as vapour and the collision of vapour with
container will be more vigorous.
P

3.1.2 : Boiling

Boiling point of liquid is the temperature where saturated vapour pressure is equal
to the external pressure.
VAPOUR PRESSURE/ ATM
ETHER ETHANOL WATER
1

35

78

100

temperature

For example, the boiling point of water is 100 0C at 1 atm, while under the same

pressure, boiling point of ether and ethanol are 35 and 78oC respectively.

Bubbling at the surface of water is the sign of that the saturated vapour pressure is

equal to external pressure


Constant heat is supply during boiling process, so that molecules in water

receive enough energy to overcome the attraction forces among the liquid
molecules.
Volatility of liquid refers to the liquid with high saturated vapour
pressure at any given temperature.
Higher the vapour pressure, higher the volatility. Among the 3 liquids,
volatility increased from
Intermolecular forces holding the particles in the liquid state are weak, so the
tendency of liquid to escape as vapour, is high. More volatile a liquid, lower
the boiling point, faster for it to achieve saturated vapour pressure at low
temperature.
Furthermore, when the pressure is lowered, the attraction forces between the
particles become weaker. Hence, liquid are easier to vapourise and decrease
its boiling point

3.2

LATTICE STRUCTURE & CRYSTAL SYSTEM

2 types of solids a) crystalline and b) amorphous

In crystalline structure, atoms, molecules or ions are closely packed and have an

ordered 3-D arrangement.

Regular arrangement of atoms, molecules & ion is called as crystal lattice (space

lattice).

Lattice - pattern of point repeat

Unit cell ~ small repeating unit that made up crystal.

Crystal system (primitive unit cells) is a method of classifying crystalline substance

on the basis of their unit cell.

These are the 7 possible shapes of the unit cell

lattice
point

Unit Cell

Unit cells in 3 dimensions

Shared by 8 unit
cells

Shared by 2 unit
cells


From the lattice formed, the number of particles involved can be calculated. In

each position, it only contributes a fraction of its volume or mass to its unit cell

Shared by 8 unit
cells

Shared by 2 unit
cells

11.4

1 atom/unit cell

2 atoms/unit cell

4 atoms/unit cell

(8 x 1/8 = 1)

(8 x 1/8 + 1 = 2)

(8 x 1/8 + 6 x 1/2 = 4)

EXAMPLE 1 :
EXAMPLE 2 :
CALCULATE
THE
NUMBER
OF DIAGRAM SHOWS A UNIT CELL OF AN
PARTICLES IN THE UNIT CELL OF THE
OXIDE OF ELEMENT X. WHAT IS THE
a) FACE-CENTRED CUBIC LATTICE
FORMULA OF THE X OXIDE?
b) BODY CENTRED CUBIC LATTICE
a) FCC = 8 corner + 6 faces
= 8 x 1/8 + 6 x
= 1+3 = 4
b) BCC = 8 corner + 1 body center
= 8 x 1/8 + 1
2

X = 1 body + 2 face
= 1 (1) + 2 (1/2)
= 2
O = 8 corner
= 8 (1/8)
=1
Formula = X2O
O = 12 middle edge
= 12 (1/4)
= 3
Rh = 8 corner
= 8 (1/8)
=1
b) Formula = RhO3

11.4

* Other than the regular 3 unit cell, there are other structure that can be found, such
as a hexagonal close-pack (h.c.p.) and cubic close pack (c.c.p.).


3.3

Allotropes
When an element exists in two or more physical forms in the same state, they
exhibit allotropy
Usually, allotropes have the different types of crystalline structure, due to different
arrangement of atoms
Examples of elements which exhibit allotropies are sulphur and carbon
Allotropes can be changed under certain temperature and pressure. For example,
sulphur allotropes change its crystalline structure at 95.6oC at 1 atm.
Tm = 95.6oC

Rhombic Sulphur

Monoclinic Sulphur

This temperature is known as transition temperature, Tm

Both sulphur allotropes have 8 atoms, S8, which look like a crown shape

ALLOTROP
ES

ALPHA-SULPHUR
(RHOMBIC)

BETA-SULPHUR
(MONOCLINIC)

DIAGRAM

SHAPE

orthorhombic

monoclinic

COLOUR

Light yellow

Deep yellow

DENSITY

Greater

Lower

MELTING
POINT

Lower

Higher

ALLOTRO
PES

DIAMOND

GRAPHITE

DIAGRAM

- Each carbon is surrounded by 4

other carbon atoms in tetrahedral
shape, building a strong giant
covalent network among CC.
Because of this, diamond is
EXPLANA extremely hard and strong.
TION
- Since all 4 valence electron in
carbon are strongly bonded, so there
is no delocalized electron around the
structure, making diamond an
insulator

- Each carbon is surrounded by 3

other carbon atoms in a planar,
building a sheet like honeycomb
hexagon structure. Each layer of
graphite is hold by mere weak Van
Der Waals forces.
- Since there are only 3 electrons
used for bonding, so theres 1
unbonded delocalised electron
which is locate among/within the
layer

ALLOTRO
PES

DIAMOND

GRAPHITE

DIAGRAM

TYPE OF
HYBRIDIS
ATION
ELECTRIC
AL
CONDUC
TIVITY
DENSITY
APPLICAT
ION /
USES

sp3

sp2

insulator

conductor

higher

lower

Diamond cutter, jewelry

Lubricant, electrode


Other allotrope of carbon is fullerene, which is with the formula C60. It is also known

as buckminsterfullerene, where it consists of 12 pentagonal faces and 20 hexagonal

faces (similar to a soccer ball shape).

Each carbon atom is _____________ hybridized.

It is used to make superconductor, lubricant, micro-ball bearing in nano machine and
also abrasives

Phase Diagram of Water

Water is a Unique Substance

Maximum Density
40C
Density of Water

Ice is less dense than water

11.3

11.8

Uses of Solid Carbon Dioxide (Dry Ice)

Solid carbon dioxide is used as a refrigerant for foodstuffs
such as ice cream since it does not melt on warming.
it is also used in stage performance to give a smoky effect.
This is due to the effect of condensation of water vapour
around the atmosphere by the cold air due to sublimation of
carbon dioxide.
It is also used as fire extinguisher to put off fire. Fire
extinguisher is stored in liquid phase under high pressure.
Once the gauge is released, the pressure is reduced and CO2
gas is given off.
It is also used in cloud seeding to encourage the formation of
ice crystals in clouds. As the dry ice sublimes, it absorbs heat
in the clouds, thereby lowering the Temperature and causing
the water vapour to condense and form water. Cloud seeding
is carried out to induce rainfall especially after long periods
without rain

4.10 Colligative properties - effect of a non volatile solute

on the vapour pressure of a solvent
Colligative properties are those properties of solutions that
depend on the number of dissolved particles in solution, but
not on the identities of the solutes.
For example, the freezing point of salt water is lower than that
of pure water, due to the presence of the salt dissolved in the
water.
To a good approximation, it does not matter whether the salt
dissolved in water is sodium chloride or potassium nitrate; if
the molar amounts of solute are the same and the number of
ions are the same, the freezing points will be the same
The four commonly studied colligative properties are freezing
point depression, boiling point elevation, vapor pressure
lowering, and osmotic pressure. In this Chapter, we shall study
the first two while at the end of the Chapter we shall discuss
the next two.

4.10.1 The effect of a solute on the Vapour Pressure of a solvent

The addition of a non-volatile solute to a pure liquid caused the
vapour pressure of liquid Y to decrease. This occurs because the
presence of solute molecules decrease the number of molecules of
solvent that can reach the surface of the liquid. As a result, the number
of solvent that can 'escape' as vapour decrease

Freezing point depression

Boiling point elevation
Tf is defined as the freezing point Tb is defined as the boiling point
of the pure solvent (Tof) minus the
of the solution (Tb) minus the
freezing point of the solution(Tf)
boiling point of the pure solvent
(Tb)
the freezing point is lower
compared to the pure solvent.
the boiling point is higher compared
to the pure solvent
Freezing involves a transition from
the disordered state to the ordered Boiling involved a transition from
state. For this to happen, energy
liquid to gaseous state. During the
must be removed from the system.
process occur, energy is absorbed to
Because a solution has greater
the system. Due to the presence of
disorder than the solvent, more
solute in solvent (which cause
energy needs to be removed from it
interference of other intermolecular
to create order than in the case of a
forces) , more energy is required to
pure solvent. Therefore, the solution
vaporise the solvent, hence increase
has a lower freezing point than its
the boiling point of the solvent.
solvent. Note that when a solution
freezes, the solid that separates is
the pure solvent component