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Step 1 Glycolysis
- produces 2ATP, 2NADH, 2Pyruvate (C3)
- pyruvates are transported through the 2 mitochondrial
membranesMatrix
Step 2 Pyruvate Oxidation / transition cycle
- before Krebs cycle begins
- pyruvate must be converted to acetyl CoA (C2 acetyl attached to coenzyme)
- 3 steps
1.- CO2 is removed from pyruvate
2.- remaining C2 are oxidized by NAD+
- each NAD+ molecule gains 2 H+ atoms from pyruvate and
remaining
C2 compound becomes an acetyl acid (acetate) group
3.- a compound coenzyme A (CoA) has become attached to the
acetyl
compound (C2) forming Acetyl-CoA.
- 2 molecules of Acetyl-CoA enter Krebs cycle
- 2 molecules of NADH go to the Electron transport stage
Step 3 Krebs cycle / citric acid cycle
- completes breakdown of C2 fragment that remains from pyruvic acid
- begins when acetyl CoA condenses with oxaloacetate to form nitrate
- in 1 turn of cycle, the last 2 carbon atoms of original glucose molecules are
removed as
CO2 and free energy is transferred to ATP, NAPH, and FADH2
Krebs cycle
1.- acetyl group (C2) carried by CoA combines with oxaloacetate (C4) forming (C6)
2.- CoA is released
3.- during 1 complete cycle (1 acetyl group)
- 3 NAD and 1 FAD are reduced to form 3 NADH and 1 FADH
- 1 ADP and Pi ATP
- 2 CO2 produced
- cycle occur 2 times for each glucose molecule
4.- citrate goes around the cycle changing to C5, then to C4
- each acetyl group is oxidized 2 molecules of CO2
- redox reactions
3 NADH
1 FADH2
1 ATP
Cellular respiration
Glycolysis
(cytoplasm)
Pyruvate oxidation
(cytoplasm)
Krebs cycle
( matrix)
ETC and Chemiosmosis
Net gains
2ATP
2 NADH
2 NADH
CoA added
6 NADH per CoA
2 FADH per C2
2 ATP per C2
Net total 36
Molecular changes
Glucose to two C3
C3 to C3
CoA added
Krebs cycle
Input
-2
-6
-2
-2
CoA
NAD+
FAD
ADP+Pi
Output - HCO2
- 6 NADH
- 2 FADH2
- 2 ATP
Unit 2: Macromolecules
Enzymes
- chemical reactions within a cell occur in higher speed movement of molecules
- thermal to systems increases kinetic
- chemical reactions proceed in low temperature
- catalysts speed up chemical reactions
-remains unchanged after chemical reaction
- enzyme permit chemical reaction to proceed at low temperature
for absorption
- Microvilli line the cell membranes and increases surface areas
- each Villis has a capillary network that intervenes the lymph vessels called
Lacteals
- transport products
- some nutrients are absorbed by diffusion and some are transported from
digestion tract
- monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed into capillary networks
- fast are absorbed in lacteals
Large Intestine
- Colon is where water is re-absorbed
- inorganic sales, minerals, and vitamins are absorbed also
- the bacteria (E. Coli) is housed here where needed. It then uses wastes to
synthesize B
and K vitamins
- cellulose reaches large intestine undigested
- cellulose is important in providing bulks
- as wastes build up, receptors provide information to central nervous system
and bowel movement is prompted
- ensures removal of potential toxic wastes
- colon cancer is related to diet consumption of highly refined foods
Control of Digestion
- seeing, smelling, and tasting food and swallowing activates the gastric
secretions before
food is in stomach
- homostatic controls of digestion act before food is absorbed
- secretin is released when stomach acid and food small intestine
- secretin is then absorbed in bloodpancreas and initiates releases of
substances
that raise the pH od the small intestine
- Gastrin is another hormone that is produced as the walls of the stomach
are distended
by presence of food
- production also stimulated by partially digested protein in stomach
- travels through the blood to the parietil cells of the stomachsignals
release
of HCl
- as food enters the stomachnerves will cause muscles to contract and
gastrin fluids
are secreted
- a large meal will activate more receptorsmore forceful stomach
contractions and
faster emptying
- if a fatty meal is consumedsmall intestine secretes a digestive hormone,
Enterogastrone, which slows peristaltic movements, allowing fats to be
digested and
absorbed
Hormone and Nerves control digestion
Gastrin secreted by stomach to secrete gastric juices, stomach then stretches
Prosecretin secretin secreted by small intestine to activate pancreas to release
bicarbonate ions and
enzymes
CCK secreted from small intestine which activates liver and gallbladder to release bile
salts
Carbohydrate digestion
Contains: salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase, and dissacharides
- breaks carbohydrates into mosaccharides
Entrance to Exit
Mouth : Saliva Amylase = breaks down starches, complex sugar units
Esophagus : Peristalsis = apply contractions that pushes food down esophagus
Sphincter : = opens to let food from esophagus enter stomach, closes to keep stomach
acids in stomach
Stomach : secretes gastrin = hormone that releases HCl
HCl breaks pepsinogenpepsin = breaks proteins into amino acids
Small intestine and Pancreas: contains three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Steps from stomachsmall intestine:
1.- when acid food enters duodenum, pancreas releases prosecretinsecretin =
signals
pancreas to release bicarbonate ions, neutralizing food before food reaches small
intestine
- turns pH 2.0 to 9.0
2.- pancreas releases enterokinase, breaks trypinogentrypsin = breaks protein
into amino acids
3.- pancreas releases erepsins = break small chains of proteins into individual
amino acids for absorption
4.- pancreas releases amylase = breaks polysaccharidesdisaccharides
5.- pancreas releases dissacharidases = breaks dissacharidesmonosaccharides
6.- pancreas releases lipases = breaks fats
Liver and Gallbladder: produces bile = breaks big fats into small fats, no digestion
- stored in gallbladders when there are no digestion
- released by trigger of CCK when fats are present in
duodenum
: stored glycogen and Vitamins A, B12, and D
: detoxifies harmful chemicals
Large intestine : = re-absorbs water, vitamins, and minerals
: contains E. Coli that breaks and makes Vitamins
Motor Systems
- animals may have exoskeletons composed of chitin (invertebrates) or endoskeletons
made up of cartilage, bones, muscles
- the body is composed of over 350 as a newborn and 206 bones as an adult. Most of the
bones are in your hands and feet to allow for more types of motions between bones and
muscles
- Bone marrow tissue located in the central cavity of the long bones that produces cells
and stores fat
- Compact bone dense bone
- Spongy bone porous bone
- Periosteum this tissue that covers the bone
- Axial skeleton central part of the skeleton containing the skull, vertebral, column,
ribs, and sternum
- Appendicular skeleton bones of the upper and lower limbs and their supporting
structures
- Osteocyte bone cell directly below periosteum surrounded by minerals and a hard
dense mixture of collagen
- Collagen connective protein fibres found in the bone matrix where Osteocytes are set
- Cartilage semisolid, flexible connective made up of collagen and polysaccharides
- Chondrocyte cartilage cell
- Ossification process in which a bone is created from chondrocytes to osteocytes from
the help of osteoblasts
- Osteoblasts bone forming cells
- as calcium and potassium salts from cartilage deposits die and canals
remain and
eventually form and grow together to make bone marrow
- Haversian canals small canals located in the bone tissues occupied by blood vessels
and nerves
- Epiphyseal plates areas of cartilage near the ends of long bones, Growth plates
- once epiphyseal cartilage plates are replaced with bone, growth is
complete
- Oseoclasts cells that dissolve bone
- Joint place in the skeleton where 2 or more bones meet
- can be immovable, slightly moveable and freely moveable
- Moveable joint joint that allows bones to move
- Ligaments bands of connective tissue that join bones
- Rheumatoid arthritis is where the synovial fluid becomes inflamed and thickens
- Muscles, tendons, ligaments, and bones wear away
- Tendons bands of connective tissue that join muscles to bone
- Bursae sacs of fluids found below
- Greenstick fracture a fracture commonly found in children in which the bone doesnt
break all the way through
- Anthroscopic surgery where fibre optic tools can be used to perform joint surgery,
greatly decreasing recovery time
Muscles
- Cardiac muscle involuntary muscle of heart
- Smooth muscle muscle that must be contracted to bend a joint
- Skeletal muscle voluntary muscle that makes the bones and skeleton move
- Antagonistic muscles pair of skeletal muscles that are arranged in pairs and that
work against each other to make a joint move
- Flexor muscle that must be contracted to bend a joint
- Extensor muscle that must contract to straighten a joint
- biceps and triceps operate as antagonistic muscles, the origin is where the tendon is
attached to a skeleton bone, the insertion is the tendon attached to a moving bone
Respiratory system
- Breathing air exchange between the lungs and the environment, including inspiration
and expiration
- Respiratory membrane membrane where the diffusion of oxygen and other gases
occurs between living cells of the body and environment
- Respiration all processes involved in the exchange of O and CO2 between cells and
the environment, including breathing, gas exchange, and cellular respiration
- air enters through our nose or mouth and is filtered from impurities by nasal hairs and
mucous layers. The air travels to the pharynx at the back of the mouth to one of the two
openings: trachea and esophagus
- air is filtered by mucous and cilia to prevent impurities from reaching lungs. The
epiglottis protects the opening of the trachea from food or water
-
Trachea windpipe
Cilia tiny hair structures found on cells that filter environment
Epiglottis structure that covers glottis (opening of trachea)
Larynx voice box where this elastic ligaments vibrate to produce sound
- air then branches in the bronchi to the lungs moving to smaller bronchiole airways
with the lack
of cartilage bands, air then goes to Alveoli
- in Alveoli, it is surrounded by capillaries which allow gases to diffuse (from high
concentration
to low)
- Bronchi passages from trachea to left and right lungs
- Bronchiole smallest passageway of respiration tract
- Alveoli sacs of the lung in which gas exchange occurs
- Pleural membrane a thin membrane that surrounds the outer surface of the lungs
and lines the inner wall of the chest cavity
- diaphragm helps to regulate the pressure of gases move in
- has relationship between volume of chest and gas pressure
- Diaphragm sheet of muscle that operates to organs of thoracic cavity
- Intercostal muscle muscle that lowers and raises rib cage
Gas exchange
- dissolved gases create partial pressure according to Daltons Gas Law. This phenomenon
aid in gas exchange as increases partial pressure allow more absorption of gases from the
air to blood
- oxygen is not very soluble in blood, so Hemoglobin helps by creating intermolecular
branches with oxygen to allow more oxygen uptake which aids in the bodys demand for
high concentration of oxygen needed
- partial pressure helps increase the affinity between hemoglobin and oxygen which allows
the oxygenated blood to travel all the way to the cells
- Co2 is much more soluble in blood and the intermolecular bonds between CO2 and
hemoglobin from carboaminohemoglobin. The remaining of CO2 combines with water
to form carbonic acid
- carbonic anhydrase helps convert the 2 reactants to carbonic acid (CO2 + H2O
H2CO3). This keeps a low partial pressure of CO2 helping the increase of absorption of
more CO2.
- H2CO3 build-up is then buffered so that the pH is not too high and the dissociation of the
ions H+ helps dislodge O2 to move into the cell and hemoglobin act as buffer.
- mechanisms can help maintain normal levels of gases by causing increase of breathing
during moments of high physical activty
Breathing Movements
- Chemoreceptors specialized nerve receptor that detects chemicals
- CO2 and acid receptors are highly sensitive to the build-up of chemicals and relay
messages to the medulla oblongata to help increase breathing by stimulating intercostal
and diaphragm muscles until CO2 levels return to normal
- oxygen receptors are called carotid and aortic bodies and they detect low concentrations
of oxygen. This signal is also sent to the medulla where the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles are again stimulated to increase breathing of oxygenation. These bodies can also
detect high CO2 and acid concentration in blood.
- bodys response to exercise is initiated by 3 factors: decreased O2, increased CO2, and
increased H+. The brain detects CO2 and H+ build-up and signals an increase in
breathing. The kidney remove H+ from blood. When the muscle O2 levels drop, adrenal
gland releases hormone protein epinephine to increasing of breathing rates.
- Respiratory disorders decrease oxygenation to body.
- Bronchitis inflammation of bronchial tubes caused by bacteria and viral infection from
environment
- Emphesema overinflammation of alveoli
- Bronchial asthma respiratory disorder characterized by a reversible narrowing of
bronchial passages
Body and Heart
Body
- artery blood vessel that carries blood away from heart
- made of layers of muscle fibres, elastic connective tissues
- pulse change in diameter of arteries following heart contractions
- capillaries single layers of cells where fluid and gas exchange
- veins blood vessel that carry blood towards heart
Heart
- heart is surrounded by a fluid membrane (pericardium) to prevent friction as the 2 heart
pumps are divided by septum and operates
- septum wall of muscle that operates the right and left sides of heart
- pulmonary circuit from lungs to heart
- temperature rise in the body signals the hypothalamus to stimulate sweat glands.
Blood is the sent to the skin and cools thus helping body temperature
- hypothalamus region of mid brain
Capillary Fluid Exchange
- capillaries turn oxygen, glucose, amino acids, and remove wastes from extracellular fluid.
Smaller molecules diffuse, while others are brought into the cell by endocytes/ exocytes.
- extracellular fluid (ECF) fluid that occupies the spaces between cells and tissues;
includes plasma and interstitial fluid
- fluid pressure moves higher to lower pressure into cells from capillaries. The
concentration of proteins and dissolved minerals in blood helps osmotic pressure to cause
fluids to return to blood
- hemorrhage - causes low fluid pressure, normal osmotic pressure
- starvation - causes normal fluid pressure, low osmotic pressure
- inflammation causes normal fluid pressure, low osmotic pressure
- fitration selective movement of materials through capillary walls by a pressure
gradient
- any proteins that leak into the ECF must by removed if the osmotic gradient is to
remain intact.
thus proteins are drained by the lymphatic system
- lymph fluid found in lymph vessels that contains some proteins that leaked through
capillary walls
- lymph nodes masses of tissues that store lymphocytes and remove bacteria and
forcing particles from the lymph. These can swell during immune responses to pathogens.
- lymphocytes white blood cells that produce antibodies
- RBCs are made by red bone marrow which use stem cells and differentiate into
the needed blood cell. There is more red bone marrow in children then in adults.
- spleen lymphoid organ that acts as a reservoir for blood and a filtering site for lymph
- thymus gland lymphoid organ in which the T lymphocytes mature
Immunology
First Line of Defense
- non-specific immune response
- largely physical
- skin and muscle defend against viral and bacterial invaders
- pH of 3 to 5, inhibits microbe growth
- lysozyme destroys cell walls of bacteria
- invading microbes and foreign debris in respiratory tract become trapped in cilia
- corrosive acids in stomach and protein-digesting enzymes destroy most of the
invading
microbes carried into the body within food
Second Line of Defense
- mobilized if the invader residences in body
- leukocytes (white blood cell) may:
- engulf invading microbes
- Phagocytosis
- produce antibodies
- when foreign particles penetrate the skin, monocytes (special leukocytes)
migrate from blood
to tissue where they develop into macrophages (white blood cell engulfs microbe
turning into phagocytic white blood cells), also big eater
- macrophages create psuedopods that attach to the surface of microbes
- microbe is then engulfed and destroyed by enzyme in macrophage
- neutrophils ( another phagocytic response) are attracted to chemical signals given
off by cells that have been damaged by microbes
Antigen
NONE (Universal Donor)
A
B
A AND B
Antibody
A AND B
B
A
NONE (Universal Recipient)
Rhesus Factor
- Rh- may donate blood to Rh+, but cannot receive from Rh+
Science History
When a Rh- mother develops a Rh+ baby, erthroblastosis fetalis occurs
in the second pregnancy.
First Baby - At the beginning, the babys blood is separated by the
placenta(membrane that exchanges mother-baby materials). When birth
takes place, the placenta is shed and babys blood contacts moms blood,
causing production of antibodies to attack foreign blood. Since baby has left
the mothers body, the antibody will not be able to attack baby, causing
death.
Second Baby from the last birth, an aftermath has occurred, the
placenta has weakened and antibodies from the first birth remain, therefore
the mothers blood will be able to attack baby while it is still developing. This
happens when antibodies cross placenta, causing erthroblastosis fetalis
including anemia, jaundice, and enlarged liver symptoms.
Water Balance
- nervous and endocrine system work together to reduce urine output when body is
dehydrated or exercising and increased urine output when body has increased water
output
- Antidieuretic Hormone (ADH) hormone that causes kidneys to increase water
reabsorption that leads to a more concentrated urine output
- produced in hypothalamus then stored in pituitary gland and
then enters the blood stream
- sweating causes blood solutes to have a higher concentration.
Osmotic blood pressure increases and ADH is released as
hypothalamus cells shrink. More water is reabsorbed relieving
osmotic pressure and a sense of thirst causes organism to drink
and hypothalamus cells swell and ADH production is halted
- Osmoreceptors specialized nerve cells in hypothalamus that detect changes in
osmotic pressure of blood and surrounding extracellular fluids
- only proximal tubule of Henles loop are permeable to water, however, when ADH
is released, the remaining tubules become permeable, thus helping to increase and
decrease absorption to maintain homeostasis. High concentration of salts in ECF draw
more water through the remaining portion of nephron helping to increase water retention
and making urine more concentrated
- adrenal glands, located on top of kidney, releases Aldosterone that increases
sodium absorption thus drawing more water out of nephron by osmosis. If there is low
blood pressure (fluid loss), tissues receive less oxygen and nutrients. BP receptors in
Juxtaglamerula (near glomerulus) detect this low BP. Renin is then released and
converts AngotensinogenAngiotension(liver plamsa protein)
- Angiotension constricts blood vessels and stimulate more fluids in blood
- Aldosterone hormone that increase sodium absorption from distal tubule and
collecting ducts
- pH is maintains by kidney when transporting carbon dioxide from
peritubular capillaries
and joins with water to make HCO3 to buffer acidity of carbonic acid
Kidneys Dysfunction
- Diabetes Mellitus results in high concentrations of blood sugar from improper
pancreatic islet cells
that normally produce insulin. This draws water and large amounts of
urine then expels sugars and water. Therefore people must replace
sugar
- Diabetes Insipidus destruction of ADH production that normally regulates water
absorption, causing
a huge quantity of urine. Synthetic ADH can regulate water reabsorption.
- Nephritis inflammation of nephrons causes damage to glomerulus and large proteins
can now pass
into nephrons, drawing water for urine output. This can cause irreversible kidney
damage.
- Kidney Stones precipitate forming from minerals carried from blood. Both alkaline and
acid stones
cause tissue damage as they travel through excretory system. Some stones
break up through ultra-sound and then pass through urinary tract
- Dialysis Treatment restores balance by passing blood through semi-permeable
membrane under
specific pressures. Unfortunately, dialysis cant mimic actual transplant
- Hemodialysis blood cycles from vein is passed through solute solutions where
gradients of
salt and sugars diffuses waste into the clean solution. The solution is
replaced and more wastes can be drawn out of blood, using chemical
gradients. Hormone can also be added that the body needs
- Peritoneal Dialysis 2L of dialysis fluid is pumped into peritoneal cavity which
selectively
filters
- Kidney cells from pigs can be used in dialysis that can produce hormones, pH
- Kidney Transplants with anti-rejection drugs, it gives a patient with kidney failure a
much better
change of survival. It is attached to existing blood vessels when
possible and the new kidney can compensate to failed kidneys
Biosphere
- dynamic equilibrium describes any change that does not affect the entire system
- biosphere Earth life
- biotic biological or living thing
- abiotic non-living thing
- population amount of same species in an area
- community population of all species in an area
- ecosystem community and environment
- habitat type of environment suitable for population
- biodiversity amount of species in an ecosystem
- food chain chain that links organisms that eat each other, starting from food source
- producer autotroph, organism that makes it own food
- autotroph organism that uses sun light to make energy
- consumer heterotroph, eats other consumers/producers to survive
- heterotroph incapable of making it food and must eat others for
energy
-
- biomass
an ecosystem
greenhouse effect gases trap the heat from the sun and warms earths surface
global warming carbon dioxide increase temperature
albedo reflection of light
stromatolite limestone containing fossilized bacteria
biotic potentail max number of offspring per species with unlimited resources
carrying capacity max number of species that can be supported by environment
law of minimum nutrient in the least supply is the one that limits growth
law of tolerance how long an organism can survive inn a range of an abiotic factor
density-independant factor affects population regardless of population density
density-dependant factors - affects population due to population density