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Higher Algebra by H S HALL& KNIGHT
Higher Algebra by H S HALL& KNIGHT
WELLESLEY COLLEGE
PRESENTED BY
TVof Horafo-rd
HIGHER ALGEBRA
A SEQUEL TO
s.
HIGHER ALGEBRA
A SEQUEL TO
BY
H.
S.
HALL,
M.A.,
KNIGHT,
B.A.,
FOURTH EDITION.
Honfcon:
MACMILLAN AND
CO.
is
reserved.}
2-
TO
422
12/
PREFACE.
The
present work
is
for
first
course of
reading.
From
part new
to
importance
these
we have endeavoured
to treat
minutely
as
completely as possible
within
all
the
room
it
of
single
much indebted to the Rev. W. A. Whitworth for permission to make use of some of the proofs given in his
Choice and Chance.
For many years we have used these
proofs in our own teaching, and we are convinced that this
are
PREFACE.
vi
part of Algebra
made
common
is
far
more
intelligible to the
beginner
much
stress
important applications.
known formula
The
basis of this
its
method
wide and
is
a well-
which in
the absence of a purely algebraical proof can hardly be considered admissible in a treatise on Algebra. The proof of the
Finite Difference formula which
396,
we
believe to be
of the Difference
new and
Method from
we have given
original,
this
in Arts. 395,
We
Simmons
of
original problems.
It
is
Analytical
PKEFACE.
ledge of Determinants and
their
yii
nants in Chapter
xxxm.,
in the
We
applications.
hope that
have
of Determi-
may
it
provide
The
last
chapter contains
all
in the
chapters.
It will
complete in
itself,
is
as nearly as possible
mended
that
all
sections
marked with an
but
it is
recom-
asterisk should be
which
it is
difficult
to
say
how
far
we
is
are
one book
indebted.
H. H. A.
PREFACE.
Viii
years, so that
ment
impossible to
it is
make
definite acknowledge-
in every case
other writers.
are
we
remains
for
so largely assisted us in
the Rev. H.
Watson
**'
1887
in particular
we
reading and
are indebted to
gratefully acknowledge.
and
for
many
valuable suggestions;
it.
"
H.
S.
S. R.
HALL,
KNIGHT.
j
<
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
ratio.
I.
PAGE
_c _e
/pan + qc n +re n +
...\
b~d~f~"'~\pb n + qd n + rf n +...J
+ a 2 + a 3 +... + an
b l + b 2 + b.i + ... + b n
a1
lies
'
flh
an
Cross multiplication
Eliminant
Examples
10
CHAPTER
proportion.
II.
and Propositions
Comparison between algebraical and geometrical
Case of incommensurable quantities
Examples II.
Definitions
CHAPTER
If
Ace B, then
III.
13
1G
definitions
17
19
VARIATION.
A = mB
21
Inverse variation
22
Joint variation
23
li
Ace
B when G
is
constant,
and A
& C when B
is
constant, then
A=mBG
Illustrations.
Examples
23
Examples on
joint variation
.21
20
III
b-1
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
IV.
ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.
PAGE
Sum
n terms of an arithmetical
Fundamental formulae
Insertion of arithmetic means
Examples IV. a
Discussion of roots of dn~ + (2a
28
series
of
29
31
31
-d)n-2s =
33
35
Examples IV. b
f'
CHAPTER
Insertion of geometric
Sum
Sum
V.
GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION.
....
means
38
39
40
41
43
Sum
44
n terms
Examples V. b
of
of
an arithmetico-geometric
series
45
CHAPTER VI.
......
Harmonic mean
Number
VI.
a.
of shot in
.....
pyramid on a square base
.....
CHAPTER
VII.
5J
scales of notation.
Examples VII.
57
a.
59
.
59
01
CONTENTS.
XI
PAGE
The
difference between a
number and
tho
sum
of its digits
is
divisible
by r - 1
62
C3
+1
64
Examples VII. b
65
CHAPTER
VIII.
07
+ jc + s/d
68
69
70
72
74
75
If
a + ib = 0, then a = Q, b =
If
+ ib = c + id, then a = c,
Modulus
of product
Square root of a +
Powers of i
is
75
=d
75
77
ib
77
79
1 + w -f or =
79
80
81
CHAPTER
A
IX.
...
Conditions for
Sum
of roots
real, equal,
imaginary roots
84
product of roots = a
.....
(2)
(1)
88
in general the
same
90
Examples IX. b
...
+ 2fy + c may
92
93
linear factors
2
+ bx + c = and
a'x- + b'x
common
96
root
Examples IX.
86
88
exceptions
Condition that ax
85
equal in magni-
reciprocals
Examples IX. a
For real values of x the expression ax 2 + bx + c has
sign as a
83
c.
96
CONTENTS.
Xll
CHAPTER
MISCELLANEOUS EQUATIONS.
X.
page
97
100
Reciprocal equations
Examples X. a
101
103
Homogeneous equations
Examples X. b
104
....
106
107
Examples X.
109
c.
Indeterminate equations
111
113
Examples X. d
CHAPTER XL
Preliminary proposition
.115
115
Number of permutations of n things r at a time
117
Number of combinations of n things r at a time
The number of combinations of n things r at a time is equal to the
.119
number of combinations of n things ?i-rata time
Number of ways in which m + n +p + ... things can be divided into
.
classes containing m, n, p,
...
things severally
Examples XI. a
Signification of the terms 'like'
Number
of arrangements of
and 'unlike'
n things taken
all at
....
.....
a time,
when p
of
may
124
125
be
repeated
126
127
greatest
127
of combinations of n
things r at a time
128
p + q+r+
...
things, whereof
are alike
Examples XI. b
129
131
CHAPTER
Illustrations of the
122
things
are alike of one kind, q things are alike of a second kind, &c.
Number
120
XII.
mathematical induction.
method of proof
133
134
Examples XII
135
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XIII.
Xlii
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
....
are equal
PAGE
137
139
140
141
142
143
143
Sum
Sum
146
of the coefficients
of coefficients of
odd terms
equal to
is
sum
of coefficients of even
terms
146
Expansion of multinomials
Examples XIII. b.
CHAPTER
XIV.
146
147
ANY INDEX.
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
.....
(1
+ x)'
150
153
Examples XIV. a
Expansion of (l-rx) n is only arithmetically intelligible when x<l
The expression (.r-f?/)'1 can always be expanded by the binomial
theorem
General term of the expansion of
(1
_n
.r)
(1
....
157
158
Number
of
homogeneous products of
155
157
- x)~ n
155
(l
159
161
+ x)
162
letters
105
Examples XIV.
107
CHAPTER XV.
General term in the expansion of
MULTINOMIAL THEOREM.
(a
+ bx + ex 2 + dx 3 +
...) p ,
when ^
is a
170
positive integer
a rational quantity
Examples
XV
166
<lv :i
...)
n
,
when
//
171
173
CONTENTS.
XIV
CHAPTER
XVI.
LOGARITHMS.
PAGE
Definition.
N=a)og a N
175
176
Elementary propositions
Examples XVI. a
Common Logarithms
178
.179
.....
....
180
181
182
183
log a &xlog 6 a = l
183
Examples XVI. b
185
CHAPTER
Expansion
e is
XVII.
of ax .
the limit of
(
(
Series for
l\ n
1
+-
Expansion of
log,, (1
V
)
187
when n
188
is infinite
+ x)
191
log,,
(n
192
+ 1) - log n
194
CHAPTER
XVIII.
195
195
.198
198
199
....
Amount
Amount
200
200
201
202
Definitions
202
203
of unpaid annuity,
203
compound
interest
204
204
.
.205
206
206
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
XIX.
XV
INEQUALITIES.
PAGE
208
Elementary Propositions
Arithmetic
mean
The sum of two
is
209
quantities being given, their product
sum
is
is least
greatest
when
when they
are
equal
210
except
is
when
greater than
m th
power of
and 1
m lies between
their arithmetic
211
212
212
213
mean,
214
If a
and
and a>b,
+-
>
+^
216
217
+ b\ a+b
217
Examples XIX. b
218
CHAPTER XX.
....
Definition of Limit
+ a x x + a 2 x" + a 3
+ ...
a when x is zero
By taking x small enough, any term of the series a + a rr + a^x- + ...
may be made as large as we please compared with the sum of all
that follow it; and by taking x large enough, any term may be
made as large as we please compared with the sum of all that
Limit of a
precede
Method
it
x3
is
some
peculiarities
in the
solution
equations
Peculiarities in the solution of quadratic equations
Examples
of
221
simultaneous
....
XX
CHAPTER
222
222
Discussion of
220
226
227
228
XXI.
if
u
Lim ~ n
u
-i
is less
than
SERIES.
.....
230
232
CONTENTS.
XVI
PAGE
Comparison
The
of 2rtn with
auxiliary series
^p
an auxiliary
234
235
237
238
238
241
243
244
245
{n)
247
248
2v n
series
+ 2P + 3~p +
Limits of
Product of
71
n
an
and nx n when n
infinite
Examples XXI.
a.
number
of factors
w-series is convergent
when
Series is convergent
Lim
if
convergent
is
Series
20
The
(n)
if
]n
Series is convergent if
two infinite
Examples XXI. b.
- 1
if
u ji-i
compared with
auxiliary series
Product
Lim
convergent,
v- series is
<
Series
is infinite
v n-l
\un+i
n log
>
series
2a
,l
(log n) p
Lim
\n
of
series
CHAPTER
XXII.
l| log
248
249
252
UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS.
If the equation
254
254
Examples XXII. a
256
Examples XX1T. b
CHAPTER
XXIII.
257
2C0
PARTIAL FRACTIONS.
261
265
in expansions
CHAPTER XXIV.
265
recurring series.
Scale of relation
267
Sum
269
of a recurring series
Generating function
269
Examples XXIV
272
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXV.
XV ii
continued fractions.
....
Pn&w-l-Pn-l4n=(~
Examples XXV. a.
The convergents gradually approximate to the continued fraction
Lhnits of the error in taking any convergent for the continued fraction
Each convergent is nearer to the continued fraction than a fraction
.
Pp'
,:>
P
as->
or <x~, according
PAGE
273
275
275
27G
277
278
279
280
p'
<
or
281
Examples XXV. b
281
CHAPTER XXVI.
Solution of ax-bi/ = c
284
286
287
Number
of solutions of
ax + by = c
287
Examples XXVI.
286
...
c'z
= d'
289
290
CHAPTER XXVII.
Numerical example
292
is
Examples XXVII. a
21)4
CHAPTER
293
XXVIII.
295
296
297
last are equal
298
299
301
Solution of ax 2 + 2hxy
be solved
303
304
xviii
CONTENTS.
CONTENTS.
XIX
PAGE
If
prime to b, then
different remainders
is
......
a, 2a, 3a,
(6-
...
a when divided by
1)
6 leave
350
(p(abcd...)=<p(a)(p(b)<p(c) <p(d)
352
PO-'(i-i)(i-J)(i-l)
352
Wilson's Theorem
\p
=M
(p)
where p
a prime
354
....
is
354
.......
355
Proofs by induction
35G
Examples XXX.
357
b.
CHAPTER XXXI.
the
general
theory
of
continued
FRACTIONS.
Law
a,+
a.2
...
if
Lim
n4' 1
'"
y
The convergents
to
. .
a l ~ a 2~
if
359
>0
362
n+l
a n <kl
+ bn
363
364
365
a x + a2 +
is
incommensurable,
if
<1
366
cl
Examples XXXI. a
367
369
371
Examples XXXI. b
372
CHAPTER XXXII.
and illustrations.
(Examples XXXII. a
/Compound Events
Definitions
probability.
Simple Events
373
376
377
is
pp'
.......
.......
378
379
381
383
385
386
388
CONTENTS.
XX
PAOE
Examples XXXII.
389
c.
391
Inverse probability
P P
Q r = ^rj-jn
Concurrent testimony
Traditionary testimony
392
....
....
396
Examples XXXII. d
899
401
402
Examples XXXII.
405
CHAPTER XXXIII.
dktkrminants.
.....
Sign of a determinant
is
altered by interchanging
fcw<
411
412
112
412
413
.111
417
Examples XXXIII. a
Application to solution of simultaneous equations
Sia^-^
Examples XXXIII.
b.
...
.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
worked out
.
419
422
423
42jl
425
\-r,
...
...
.
Examples
410
adjacent rows or
columns
If two rows or columns are identical, the determinant vanishes
A factor common to any row or column may be placed outside
Cases where constituents are made up of a number of terms
.
409
.410
429
432
433
434
434
435
437
438
CONTENTS.
XXI
PAGE
Examples XXXIV. a
Identities proved
438
440
441
Value of an + bn + cn when a + b + c = Q
442
Examples XXXIV.
442
b.
Elimination
444
444
Euler's
method
of elimination
Method
445
....
Sylvester's Dialytic
Bezout's method
446
446
447
Examples XXXIV.
449
c.
CHAPTER XXXV.
theory of equations.
Examples XXXV. a.
Imaginary and surd roots occur in pairs
Formation and solution of equations with surd
452
452
454
454
455
456
....
roots
457
458
459
Examples XXXV. b
460
462
Value of /(.r +
Calculation of
x)
changes
If f(a)
An
An
f(x+h) by Horner's
its
463
process
464
value gradually
and/ (b)
a and
Derived Functions
//).
465
its last
roots
/ (x) =
/'(*)_
(X)
x-a
Sum
f (x) =
466
467
468
x-c
1
,
x-b
a,
468
470
471
.
471
472
CONTENTS.
XX11
....
(x)
475
475
476
477
478
480
481
482
483
484
486
486
487
Biquadratic Equations.
PAGE
472
473
Ferrari's Solution
Descartes' Solution
Undetermined multipliers
Discriminating cubic
Examples XXXV. e.
Miscellaneous Examples
Answers
y
=1,
a+\ + b + \ + c + \
&c.
488
490
525
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
CHAPTER
I.
RATIO.
other.
The
and
is usually written A
to
The quantities
B.
are called the terms of the ratio.
The first term is
ratio of
To
2.
by
-^
find
and we
B may
is
of B,
we
divide
2x20
....
by the traction ^
or
8
-
ratio expresses the number of times that one quantity contains another, and therefore every ratio is an abstract quantity.
Note.
3.
a
b
ma
mJ'
H. H. A.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
Two
4.
bx
x
and = = hence
h
by
by
y
the ratio a
b is greater than, equal to, or less than the ratio
x
y according as ay is greater than, equal to, or less than bx.
_
and x
y are two
J
a
a
JNow - = ~V
xt
x-
ratios.
The
5.
ratio of
Ch
of
two
Thus the
integers.
ratio
ratio
is
measured by the
fraction
or =
and
therefore equivalent
is
to
the
ratio
be
d
ad
be.
6.
J5 =
V
J5
>
mm(>
2-236068...
Thus
-.
and therefore
A1I ,
-559017...
559017
559018
and <
-jooOOOO
between the
559017
ratios
1000000 and
J5
is less
Example.
Find the
ratio
2a
compounded
:
Sb, Q>ab
5c 2 c
,
KATIO.
m
The
.
,.
required ratio =
.
2a
Gab
-x
x 6b
a
be
c
--
1
_4a
~ DC
'
Also a
2"
is
Examples.
b.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Definition.
ratio
is
11.
less
ratio
terms.
its
a ,
,,
Let T be the
..
ratio,
and
let
adding x to both
its
Now
a+x
=
be the new ratio formed by
J
b + x
terms.
erms.
a+x
ax bx
+x
b(b+x)
x(a b)
~b(b + x)
H.
is
greater or
/,
d.it
a <b,
a
7-
<
~t~
+ x
is
the
it
its terms.
two or more ratios are equal many useful propositions may be proved by introducing a single symbol to
12.
When
12
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
//
will illustrate
'
each of
J these ratios
where
r,
p, q,
/pan
r-
+ qc + re +
j\pb n + qd n + rtsn +
11
bk,
pan =pbn
~>
. .
= dk,
qc"
&
j
')
= qd"k
e
n
=fk, ...;
re
= rf"k",...
n
pa" + gc" + re +
'''
quantities ivhatever.
ace
=
Ijet
whence
n are any
then
.\ n
...
pb + qd"+rf+...
n
fb +
'
qcl
+r/i +...
= k";
i
'pa"
2)b"
a
c
+ re" + .\ n _
= k = ^ = -,=
d
b
+ qd" + ?'/" + .../
qc"
By
_c
b-~d'f-'"
each of these ratios
b+d +f+
a result of such frequent utility that the following verbal equivalent should be noticed
When a series of fractions are equal,
each of them is equal to the sum of all the numerators divided by the
sum of all the denominators.
:
Example
(I
1.
If b
= C- =>
shew that
+ 2c 2 e - Sae 2/ _ ace
~b 4 + 2^/-36/3 ~bdf
az b
Let
_ _^._A,,
---X;.
6
then
a = bk,
rf
= dk, e =fk
RATIO.
aa6+2cg-3qgy _
""
k 4 + 2tl-f - Bbf3
'*
fc
+2d?fk* - 3bf 3 k 3
4
+ 2r/-/ - 36/8
a
...
ace
bdf'
Example
=f=
If
2.
#+a
it
=r=-=
A;
prove that
y2 + &2
y+b
*2 + a2
x
Let a
+ c2 _
z+c
so that x = ,
s a + a3
then
.c
+ y +2 2 + (a + & + c) 2
a; + ?/ + 2 + a + &+c
)
= 6/c, = ch
?/
2;
ah + a
= aW+a* =
(k*
+a
x*+a*
ar
+a
?/
+y
+
ga +e_
&
(ife
'
+ l)a
L__
'
Jc+1
a:
+l)o
+1
(&
+ l)&
(fc
+1
/c
&
+ l)c
+1
Jfc 2 + l)(a + 6 + c)
fc+1
8
Jfc
&(a + & + c) + a +
+c
+ he) % + (a + b + c) 2
(ka + kb + kc)+a + b + c
(x+y+z)*+(a+ b + cf
_ (lea
kb
x+y+z+a+b+c
13.
an equation
If
quantities,
we may
is
homogeneous in
portional to
x, y, %
Put h = =
a
75
Let
a, j3,
respectively.
= -
so that
x-
ak,
y=
/3k, z
= yk
y
Ia f3k
is,
For
2 2
y + mxifz + ny z
x, y, z.
then
that
11
to certain
7a /?
0,
2
+ ma/3 2 y + nj3 y =
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
14.
.
If
y*
y~
nominators are
be
r-
. ,....
important.
is
all
+ a8 + a 3 +
b +b 2 +b 3 +
a,
...
+ an
'
+bn
lies
Suppose that
all
and
least
of them.
and denote
least fraction,
the fraction
/c
a
1
>k
ko r
a> kb
.-.
=*
be the
then
.'.a r
'
b
y-
by k
it
Let
>
'
a2
> k;
a 2 > kb 2
.-.
ba
and
.*.
by
so on;
addition,
a ,+2
+ an >
+ 3 +
+b + K +
b.+b 29 + b.+
3
+b n
we may prove
is tlie
'
br
that
+ an
+*.+*
+K
<
at
'>
ar
a + a2 + a 3 +
6
+K) k
+ au
Similarly
bl
a + a 2 + a3 +
l
where
all
the
Example
If
prove that
X
1.
+ c-a
x+y+z
a+b
V
c
+ a-b
+ b-c
RATIO.
t
Each
i
,i
i=
ofe the given efi actions
sum f numerators
__
sum of denominators
x+y+z
'
"
+b+c
''
+ z)
=
j
\
(y + z)(b + c-a)
?( + *>
{l
each fractions
(z
+ x)
(c
'(* + *
__.
+ a-b)
(x + y)
(a+b-e)
sum of numerators
sum of denominators
x
.'.
from
(1)
and
prove that
If
2.
_x
(y
+ z)+y
+ b + c~
(2).
+ x)+z (x + y)
(ax + by + cz)
(z
m(nc + la-mb)
l(mb + nc-la)
x(by + cz-ax)
We have
+ y (z + x ) +z {x + y)
2ax + 2by + 2cz
+z)
(2),
x+y+z
Example
(y
(cz
mb + nc
nc
la
(la
+ mb - nc)
'
+ ax-by)
z(ax + by -cz)
z
+ la-mb
n
la + mb
nc
v
z
-+-
=m
'"2/a"
= two
similar expressions
ny + mz _lz + nx
b
a
Multiply the
y,
first
_ mx + ly
c
and below by
.r,
the second by
then
nxy + mxz
ax
Jyz
by
cz
= _2lyz
by
+ cz- ax
= two
(by
+ cz -ax)
similar expressions
(cz
+ ax-by)
n
(ax + by-cz)'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
we have two
If
a x+b y+
l
a2 x +
we cannot
z=Q
b 2y
+ c2 z =
unknown
(1),
(2),
form
we
can,
II
X
by regarding - and - as the unknowns, solve in the
ordinary
way and
x
%
or,
obtain
- b2c
"
afi 2 - a 2 b
b c2
l
i
'
__
"
cxa
afi 2
- c2 a
-a
b
2
>
'
l
more symmetrically,
b c2
x
- b2c
y
cla
c a,
2
afi 2
a_p x
'
,(3).
represented by (1)
write down the ratios x y z in terms of the coefficients of the
equations by the following rule
:
are proportional to
This
is
c
x
a2-
an a
A- a b
2
>
x, y, z respectively.
called the
RATIO.
Example
Find the
1.
ratios of
7x=4y + Qz
By
down
we have 7x - Ay - 8-2 = 0,
12x + lly-Sz = 0.
transposition
"Write
-4
-8
-3
11
-4
12
11,
(-8)xl2-(-3)x7,
(-4)x(-3)-llx(-8),
or
-75,
100,
is,
Example
2.
Eliminate
-*-
-3
(2)
and
+ ^ 1 + c 12 =
a^ + ^y + c^^O
(2),
Ogaj+fegy+c^^O
(3).
Example
3.
(1),
?/
*__
" Vs
_
C 2i
(Va -
This relation
by cross multiplication,
(3),
k> C 3
Oj
= z?
x, y, z
a 1 a;
From
,.
that
125;
100 ~ ^75~"125'
'*
x,
7 x 11 - 12 x (-4),
63ca)
+ &i
k,
(^'"3
y
~ C 32
j*
2 6 3
~ ll ih
'
- c 3 a a) + ('i
A-
" A-)
= -
is
ax + by + cz =
(1),
=
hex + cay + abz = (b - c)
x+ y+
From
(1)
and
(2),
.-.
Substituting in
(2),
(c-a) (a-b)
(3).
by cross multiplication,
x
z
y
b-c
= ^ =
c-a
x = k (b-
c),
k, suppose
a-bT
y k (c - a), z k(a- b).
:
(3),
k {bc(b-c) + ca
(c
a)
+ ab (a -
k{-{b-c)(c-
b)}
a) {a - &)
.-.
^ln'nce
(1),
={b- c)
a) {a
= (b-e) [e - a)
fcss-lj
x = c -b, y a-r,
(c
= b - a.
{a
b),
b)
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
10
1,
ax+
bxy
= 0,
v+
h 2y
c2
we put
If in Art. 16
17.
and
(3)
>
becomes
x
-
b x c2
y
cx a
b 2c l
a
l
b2
-a b
- c2a
*
-a b
afi 2
- a2 b
aj> %
'
]
Hence any two simultaneous equations involving two unknowns in the first degree may be solved by the rule of cross
multiplication.
Example.
By
5x-3y -1 = 0, x + 2y = 12.
Solve
= 0,
5x - 3y - 1
transposition,
x + 2y -12 = 0;
x
36 + 2
*'
x=
whence
- 1 + 60 ~
38
10 + 3
59
=
is' y lS'
EXAMPLES.
I.
1.
(1)
the ratio 2a
(2)
(3)
#+7
36,
2a
-j-
9,
and the
/6a?
:
-,
and the
If
3.
ratio
8,
ab.
ratio 27
2.
ratio of 9b 2
Sax
56.
2by.
find x.
to
make
equal to
y=3
5.
If x
6.
If 15 (2a-2
4,
- y 2 ) = *7xy,
7x-4y
3x+y.
y.
37
"
RATIO.
?= =
If
+ 3a -5eV = _
_^__^__
2rt 4 &
prove that
= =
6ca
-7
If v
8.
11
2 2
prove that
"
is
-j
equal
t<
y
a
9.
If
If
r+p-q
q + r-p
shew that
10.
- r) x + (r - p) y + (p - q) z = 0.
(q
x-z
==-
p + q-r
=-
Khew
if
2 (*+?+*)
tliat
12.
a+o + c
tliat
+a
If
prove
1
16.
If
t
2
+6
t- ;,,
y* + b 2
-
z3 + c 3 _(.y + + *) 3 + (q + &+c)
+ 2 + c- (>c+y + \ /_
_\s
5) + (a + o + c)3
?/
.,
.,
26 +
2c-a
=
2c
+ 2a"-
_
2A-+2y-g
=
j.
2a + 26-c
+y 2 + ^2 = (.v+^ + ^) 2
x a=y b = z c.
I (my + rut - Ix) = m (nz + Ix - my) = n (Ix + my - nz\
y+z-x = z+x-y x+y-z
=
n
(a 2 +6 2 + c2 )
(.i-
-j
Shew
ax + cy +
bz
= Q,
a3
is
17.
2y + 2g-.v _
2g + 2.-c-y
II
shew that
15.
6c + <?a-|-a6
BheW that
14.
z.
i'=^ = 2-,
.r-fa
1<J.
'y
If
.tfS
shew
y+ z = z+ v == r+ ^
pb + qc pc + qa pa + qb'
'
ii
Eliminate
ctx
x, y, z
= 0, bx + </y + c; = 0,
+ & 3 + c3 -36c = 0.
cx + by + az
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
12
18.
If
X
z
=
=
j*
y
1 - a
\-b
\c
19.
II
shew that
i >
l
9
L
prove that
bc
+ ca + ab + 2abc = l.
3x-4y + 7z =
20.
z,
3x-2y+17z =
0,
x* + 3f + 2z
tyz + 3sa?=4an/,
2tys - Sac = 4ry,
22.
x+y=
21.
0,
2x-y-2z = 0,
to?-f+=l8.
23.
Ja+Jb
5.0-4^ + 73 = 6.
Jb+Jo
shew that
= l67.
- 3y 2 -I5z 2 = 0,
7a*
+-^L^
.--*
If
3x 2 - 2y 2 + oz 2 = 0,
ff+2y+32=19.
24.
*<>,
n
</c+V
?==-
(a-b)(c-\/ab)
(b
- c)
(a -
'
V be)
=(c
- a)
(b
\J ac)
ax + by + cz = 0,
bcx + cay + abz = 0,
xyz + abc (a3x + b 3y + &z) = 0.
25.
a.-+&y
26.
+ C2=a 2# + & 2y +
6' 2
2==0,
x + y + z + (b-c)(c-a) (a-b) = 0.
27.
a(y+x)=x,
If
7 =
=
prove
that
1
28.
If
?/
s2
{I
prove that
x2
bc-f 2
(2)
(be
-f
z2
ca-g 2
2
)
{ea -
ab-h 2
2
)
(ab
- h 2 ) = (fg - eh)
CHAPTER
II.
PROPORTION,
When
Definition.
18.
ft
if
= - then
saying that a
d are
a, b, c,
is
to b as c
or
is
ratios
proportionals.
to d,
This
extremes
Let
is
equal
a, b, c,
Then by
J
d be the
written
d.
and
the
the means.
product of
the
proportionals.
=.
Thus
found.
ad =
may be
is
to the
definition
if
expressed by
whence
Hence
is
19.
fourth
them
quantities composing
two
be.
of
if a, c,
d are
given, then b
the
bed
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
14
If three quantities a,
b,
and
[Art. 18.]
In this case
\
= b2
ac
.-.
c is
b is said to
If
21.
be
Let the three quantities
1
then T = -.
be
a. b, c:
cue
Now
=r
x -
that
is,
F,;
= a2
2
.
If
22.
b - c
.b
a
or
F
b
d and
c
-
ae
Cor.
v.
then will ae
bf= eg dh.
:
bf=
eg
d,
and
then
known
dh
If
the theorem
definition
eg
bf
is
h,
same as the
and >=!-:
ae
or
Book
'f=g
'*
This
the
to
x=d
x=
dh.
v/,
y-
as ex cequali in Geometry.
If four quantities a,
Geometry.
b,
c,
:;;
PROPORTION.
If a
(1)
For - = -
then b
d,
therefore
a=d
=1
=
If
(2)
For
acZ
b=c
be
d,
then a
a
If
(3)
lor
7-
-,
s-
a+
+1 =
is
a+ b
or
If
(4)
For
= -,
=-
"
d,
-,
+d
d.
[Componeudo.']
+d=d
c
+d
:
d.
= c- d
1 =- - 1
d
a
7 = -=
d.
[Divideudo.]
bc-d
a-b
If
For by
/
and by
.
by
J
d.
is,
(5)
.'.
therefore -
or
a-b
then
that
a+b
that
d, tlien
therefore
=
;
-,
or
[Alternando.]
c.
is,
d.
j =
therefore
[Invertendo.]
a=d
that
a
b
c.
d'
is
-_
-r-
or
=-
-f-
d'
that
=c
15
df,
-j
-d
d.
+6 a b=c+d:c d.
:
bcd
^-j
+&
division,
a+
or
r = -j-
(3)
(4)
.
then a
This proposition
is
+d
a-b c-d'
a-b = c + d c-d.
:
usually quoted as
Componeiuh
a) id JJivi-
dendo.
may
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
16
The
When
there are
the second is
fourth
25.
of
the
to
the excess
four proportionals,
is to the fourth.
We
shall
now compare
is
as follows
said to be proportionals
when
if
any
equi-
multiples whatever be taken of the first and third, and also any
equimultiples wJiatever of the second and fourth, the multiple of
the third is greater than, equal to, or less than the multiple of the
fourth, according as the multiple of the first is greater than, equal
to, or less than the multiple of the second.
Four quantities
according as p>a
I.
qb,
a,
b,
p and
c,
are in proportion
q being
any positive
when
p>c
= qd
integers tcJudever.
definition of proportion
from
a
-z
- -
by multiplying both
pa
2)C
qb
qd
sides
u
by -
we
obtain
pc = qd according as pa =
qb,
To deduce
c
~d'
qb, to
prove
PROPORTION.
If
is
-j-
Suppose
which
lies
not equal to -
>
-^
then
it
and
from
Hence
From
17
<p
some fraction 2
>
< ?
0).
(2>
pa>qb;
(1)
2)c<qd\
(2)
is
- =
which proves
the proposition.
It should be noticed that the geometrical definition of proportion deals with concrete magnitudes, such as lines or areas,
26.
next
article.
nB
a
(n+1) B
- > -^ and < *
/^
.
i,
then
that
-=
is,
lies
mp
between
so that
-j-
differs
H. H. A.
from
by
imp
and
And
since
we
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
18
Hence
we
will
m can
please,
28.
In
solving problems.
tions is greatly facilitated by a skilful use of the operations componendo and dividendo.
Example
If
1.
(2ma + 6mb
d are proportionals.
2ma + Gmb + Snc + 9nd _ 2ma + Qmb - Snc - 9nd
2ma - bmb + Snc - \)nd 2 ma - 6mb - Snc + 9nd
componendo and dividendo,
2 (2ma + Snc) _ 2 {2ma - Sue)
2~{Gmb + 9nd) ~ 2 (Smb - 9m/)
.*.
Alternando,
c,
Gmb + (.)nd
2ma
+ Snc
-
= = - - ,.
n
2ma-Snc bmb-vna
:
Ama _ \2mb
One
a
whence
or
Example
2.
lQnd
-,
d.
Jx+l _ 4a; +
+ l_
x-1 "
16a; 2
.r
*'
16a;
8a;+l
-24a; + 9
_ 32a; 2 - 16a; + 10
~ ~ 32a; - 8
2x
"
whence
16a;
16a; 2
-8a; + 5
16a;- 4
2
4a;
'
= 16a; - 8a; + 5
2
5
x = -.
'
PROPORTION.
19
EXAMPLES.
II.
1.
2.
3.
and
(1)
24,
3, 5, 27.
36'0a 4
(2)
X
-f
y
If
=c
4.
a2 c + ac2
5.
pa 2 + <?6 2
6.
a-c
7.
\/a 2 ~+"c2
If a, 6,
+ bd2 = (a + c) 3
*Jb
pc 2 qd2
+ d2
<
\/^+d^=jS /ac + ^
^Jbd+j.
11.
If b is a
10.
9.
+ ^=03 <?d+d\
3a-4d=2a 3 + 3b 3 3a3 -46 3
2a + 3(i
(a 2 + b 2 + c (b 2 + c2 + d2 = (aft + &c 4- c^) 2
8.
--
+ df.
(b
qb 2 =pc 2 + qd2
>a 2
b-d=*Ja 2 + c 2
c, o?
b 2d
- and
prove that
d,
II
'
and 250a 26 2
mean
c,
prove that
a 2_fr2 + c2
a- 2 -6- 2 + c- 2
12.
If
6=c
and
d,
ae + bf
/=#
h t prove that
ae-bf=cg + dh
cg-dh.
3^-^ + 507-13
13.
2afi-3afi+a;+l
2073-3072-07-1
14.
307 3
(m-\-n)x (a- b)
15.
(m-n)x (a + 6)
16.
If a,
&, c, o?
-072
-507+13*
(m + n)x + a + c
(wi n)x + a-c'
+ d=b + c +
a-
17.
If a, b,
c,
'
d, e are in
(a
K
b)(a c)
-.
(ab + be + cd + e&) 2 = (a 2 + 6 2 + c 2 + rf 2 ) (6 2 +
+ d + e2
2
).
22
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
20
18.
by x +
+ 1 days is
:
to the
work done
10, find x.
Two casks A and were filled with two kinds of sherry, mixed
20.
in the ratio of
in the cask A in the ratio of 2
7, and in the cask
What quantity must be taken from each to form a mixture
5.
1
consist of 2 gallons of one kind and 9 gallons of the other \
shall
which
wine; it is then
filled with water, then nine gallons of the mixture are drawn, and the
cask is again filled with water. If the quantity of wine now in the cask
be to the quantity of water in it as 16 to 9, how much does the cask
hold?
21.
full of
tions in 1871.
more
compare a and
b.
of brass.
CHAPTER
III.
VARIATION.
Definition.
One quantity A is said to vary directly
as another B, when the two quantities depend upon each other in
such a manner that if B is changed, A is changed in the same
29.
ratio.
The word
Note.
and
said to vary
is
as B.
For instance
if
The symbol
30.
on
is
read
so
that
varies as B, tlien
If A.
31.
"A
oc
constant quantity.
a,
lt
6,
TT
Hence
that
is,
-=
= =* = y^=
62
a3 ...,
a
b
= =-
Inen, by deimition,
/. s-i
a,
,.j-
63
any value
r
.
7u,
b 2 , b3
,
x
a
b
=
^ K
...
are corresponding
b
-r
and
so on,
of
==
b,
where
.'.
is
is
constant.
A=mB.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
22
any pair
If
the constant
of corresponding values of
m can be
For instance,
determined.
^=12,
we have
=m x
A and B
if
are known,
A = 3 when
12;
A = \B.
and
Thus
if
A = -^
varies inversely as B,
The following is an
do a certain work in 8
where
m is
constant.
:
If 6
men
men would do
By
supposition /x=
where
if
m is constant.
if
Tit
Putting x = 8, y = 3, we have
.*.
=n>
?;t
= 18,
v
*jx
and
a;
18
r
,
= 512.
of miles
P aD
2
we have
where k
is
P*=kD 3
or
some constant.
whence
4x4x4
365
_4 x 4 x 4
" rp2 ~ 365 "
.
'
VARIATION.
23
pa^i^ili x 66 x 66 x 6G
For Venus,
3 b.)
P = 4x66
whence
/264
::
365
= 264 x a/*7233,
= 264 x -85
approximately,
= 224-4.
Hence the time
33.
3 -i.
versely as C,
when A
then
is constant,
is
varies as -^
7/*A varies as
35.
when
Definition.
cent.
and
in-
when C
tvill
is constant,
BC
vary as
and
A varies as C
ivhen both
B and C
vary.
B and partly on
these
latter
Suppose
variations
that of C.
to take place sepaturn
producing
its
its
own
effect on A
rately, each in
also let
a, b, c be certain simultaneous values of A, B, C.
The variation
of
"=2.
Let
be constant, that
changes to c ; then
intermediate value
From
(1)
and
A must
a' to its
(2)
x
'
that
(1)
value b, while C
change and pass from its
is,
complete its
final value a, where
- =
a
A = =-
is,
BC,
be
or
varies as
BC.
illustrations of the
theorem proved in
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
24
36.
the last
article.
of
Let h and r denote respectively the height ani radius of the base
measured in feet also let V be the volume in cubic feet.
;
Then
By
V=mr
where
h,
m is
constant.
770 m x
supposition,
2
7 x 15
22
m=
whence
.*.
by substituting
V=
132, r = S,
we
get
22
132=- xOxft;
X
whence
and therefore the height
37.
case in
7i= 14
is
14
feet.
two
variables.
2? oc
t,
when v
is
constant
, ,
VARIATION.
and
From
we should have
cc
when
constant.
is
we should expect
these results
variable,
cc
25
or
that,
when both
and v are
the formula
pv = kt, where k
is
constant
found to be
this is
the- case.
We have
t oc
and
*!l
oc
whence
or
t oc
7- where
k is constant.
we have
_ k x 18 x 25
~
2
jm
1
that
is,
Hence
25x36"
^cdT
2o 36 Jq
v/lO
t,
c,
710x16x21
60" 25x36^2
28
that
is,
n/10x 16x21
s/q=15x28
/
whence
q
of coal
is
,-
=5^10,
-=- = 6|.
6|cwt.
'
of the
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
26
EXAMPLES.
If
2.
If
3.
If the square of
varies as y,
varies inversely as Q,
4.
varies as
and
i?
If .4 varies as C,
each vary as C.
5.
6.
If J. varies as
7.
8.
If
a'
(^
and
find
P when
x3 when y = 4,
if
A=2
when # = - and
10
C=
= 3.
and
i? varies
BC, then
find
when # = 3,
C jointly;
as C, then
Z? and
J.
\/
AB will
Z>
varies inversely as -7
Q and
varies directly as
R =
^ = - and
P=7
and
x when y = 10.
find
when #=-y-
when A = 54 and
find
and
1.
III.
R\
inversely as
also
P = o~
when
x2 +y 2
varies as
x2 -y\
find
11.
in terms of x.
If
and
C=g
12.
4=
A=
+-
between x and
z,
provided that
=2 when x =3
and
y = \.
varies as Z> 2 ,
and
If
When a body falls from rest its distance from the starting
15.
point varies as the square of the time it has been falling if a body falls
through 402^ feet in 5 seconds, how far does it fall in 10 seconds ?
Also how far does it fall in the 10th second?
:
VARIATION.
27
The weight
18.
At
19.
The
diamond
Two
The
that
Hence
coal per hour is 2 tons if the price of coal be 10s. per ton, and the other
expenses of the engine be lis. 3c/. an hour, find the least cost of a journey
of 100 miles.
:
CHAPTER
IV.
ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.
Quantities are said to be in Arithmetical
Definition.
Progression when they increase or decrease by a common dif38.
ference.
Thus each
Progression
15,
3,
7,
11,
8,
2,
-4, -10,
a,
a+
a + 2d, a + 3d,
d,
we examine
a,
we
is
notice that in
a+
d,
any term
Thus the
?i
in the second it
a+
2d,
the coefficient
is
in
we have
a + 2d;
6 th
term
term
is
a + 5d ;
is
a+
I9d',
is
a+
40.
To find
of terms,
the
=a+
is
always
less
by one
seiies.
is
th
p term
. .
of d
term
n be the number
term,
a + 3d,
3 rd
20 th
If
the series
th
it is d.
If
39.
forms an Arithmetical
series
The common
the series
the following
of
and
(n 1)
\)d.
if
denote the
last,
or
d.
sum of a number of
terms in Arithmetical
Progression.
number
first
of terms.
term,
Also
d the common
let I
and n
term, and s
difference,
ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.
sum
the required
8
= a+(a +
29
then
d)
+ 2d) +
(a
...
(I
2d)
+ (l-d) +
l;
= I+
(I
d)
(I
- 2d) +
'
= (a +
l)
...
+ (a + 2d)+
(a + d)
a.
series,
(a
= n (a +
I),
= ^(a +
l)
l)
+ (a + l)+
...
to
n terms
(1);
l~a + (n-l)d
and
.-.
In
(2),
= -^{2a + (n-l)d\
(3).
we have
tlie
last
article
sum
2 x
GJ, 8,
to 17 terms.
(3),
+ 16 *li|
= y (11+20)
17x31
~2
= 263.
Example
400
If
2.
find the
whence
(5
(1)
+ 4r>);
n = 10.
the
sum
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
30
If
d be the
common
difference
45= the
16
term = 5 + 15d;
th
d = 2f
whence
42.
If
an Arithmetical Progression be
of
Example.
23
rd
of
an A. P. are - 61 and 64
find the
term.
If
a be the
first
common
difference,
and
d=
whence we obtain
term = a + 3d
th
5
-jr, a = Hh.
Thus a
44.
is
the arithmetic
To find
Let a and
Then
the arithmetic
mean
betiveen
since a, A, b are in
A. P. we must have
b - A = A a,
common
a
A
whence
difference
Art. 43, the terms thus inserted are called the arithmetic means.
Example.
Insert 20 arithmetic
67.
Let d be the
then
common
difference
is 4, 7, 10,
7, 10, 13,
61, 64, 67
58, 71, 64.
ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.
To
46.
two
31
insert
betiveen
given quantities.
Let a and
= the
then
whence
d=
(n
71+
2)
th
term
'
a+
Example
their squares
n+l
n+l
293
a)
2 (b
a+
=-'
The sum
1.
is
of three
find them.
numbers
nib a)
_-
'
n+l
in A.P. is 27,
common
difference
numbers are a -
a-d + a + a + d = 27
Hence
.-.
d, 9,
+ d.
+ (9 + d) 2 = 293;
d=5;
whence
and the numbers are
w"'
4, 9, 14.
of the first
p terms
term
By
putting
.-.
respectively,
term = 2,
last
term =3p 1
EXAMPLES.
1.
Sum
2, 3|, 4J,...
2.
Sum
3.
Sum-,
-,
o
to 20 terms.
we obtain
,...
to 19 terms.
IV.
a.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
32
Sum
4.
-, If,... to n terms.
o
3,
3'75,
7.
Sum
Sum
Sum
8.
Sum
-.-
9.
Sum
-j=
Sum
Sum
5.
6.
10.
11.
35,
1-3,
12
3 x/3, -75 ... to 50 terms.
4
-tt
2a -
6,
+6
Sum -n
12.
16 terms.
3-25,... to
V5
4a -
tt
a,
to 25 terms.
;-..
6a -
36,
3a-6
^
56,.
. .
,,
,...
to 40 terms.
. . .
n terms.
to
,
to 21 terms.
13.
Insert 19 arithmetic
14.
Insert 17 arithmetic
15.
Insert 18 arithmetic
means between -
16.
Insert
17.
first
18.
In an A. P. the
term
as
arithmetic
first
36.17
and
S.v.
1.
n odd numbers.
is 2,
sum
155;
The sum
19.
ence
is
20.
find the
an A. P.
is
600,
differ-
The
sum
third term of an A. P.
of 17 terms.
The sum
21.
504
of 15 terms of
is 18,
of three
numbers
in A. P.
of three
numbers
in A. P. is 12,
is 27,
is
30
is
find them.
The sum
22.
cubes
is
408
their
find them.
23.
24.
25.
26.
series
series
series
whose p ih term
whose n th term
is 4?i4- 1.
is
is
^ + 2.
+ b.
ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.
33
when both
no difficulty
In some cases
is
How many
-6, -3,...
must be
n--ln-U = Q,
is,
(n-ll)(n+4)=0;
or
.'.
If
we take 11 terms
sum
of which
?i=ll or -
of the series,
- 9, the
-9,
Here
that
sum may be
n.
6,
4.
we have
21
is 66.
we begin
at the last of these terms and count backwards four terms, the
and thus, although the negative solution does not directly
answer the question proposed, we are enabled to give it an intelligible meaning,
and we see that it answers a question closely connected with that to which
the positive solution applies.
If
sum
is
also 66;
We
The equation
to determine
is
dn 2 + (2a-d)n-2s =
(1).
Since in the case under discussion the roots of this equation have
The last
opposite signs, let us denote them by n and - n
term of the series corresponding to n is
.
a + (n l
we
beirin
at
this
yi.,
|{2
and we
shall
H. H. A.
shew that
+ ,-!</) +
(,
this is equal to
-!)(-</)}
6-.
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
34
=-
=
^ 1
2a + (2n
n l)dl
2
2an2 + 2n n 2 d - n 2 (n2 +
x
1)
= ^ I 2n n 2 d - (da* - 2a - d .n2 )\
x
= l(4s-2s) = s,
since
n2
satisfies
dn 2 + (2a d)
2s
0,
and n n 2
is
the
When
the value of n is fractional there is no exact number of terms which corresponds to such a solution.
49.
How many
Example.
amount
to 71
n
~ {52 +
Here
that
5)i2
is,
be taken to
(n-l)(-5)} = 74;
- 57u + 148 = 0,
(n-4)(5n-37) = 0;
or
.*.
is greater,
50.
We
Example
ratio of
a,
7?t
terms
is 4.
or 1%.
It will
sum
of 7
terms
common
difference of the
|M^*
+
"
We have
Now we
=4
1.
+l
of
sum
?i
have
series be
a v d x and
+1
{n-l)d 2
2a 2
two
4?i
+ 27
tttt',' hence,
a 2 + l0d 2
by putting
n21, we
x
obtain
2^ + 20^ _ 148 _ 4
"~ 3
2a 2 + 20d 2 ~ 111
thus the required ratio
Example
series whose
1, 3, 5, 7,...
2.
If
is
Su S2
3.
first
#L + <Sf2
+3 +. + .
..
ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.
S^
We have
{2
(n - 1)}
= nAH+D
?i
sum=
the required
- {(n
m
l)
(3n
+ l) +
(2/>- 1
n+
1)}
?l
(n
+ 3n + 5n +
.2p
-1
;/)
+ p)
= {n(l + 3 + 5+...21>-l)+p}
= r2
(l>
+P)
EXAMPLES.
a=
1.
Given
2.
How many
make 208
.5
terms of the
= 100,
IV.
b.
find n.
must be taken
to
is
first
4.
respectively
5.
2n
The
;
31 st
*1
and
respectively
last
-6j
last
6.
A man
7.
2 an even number of
of these means exceeds their
is
8,... is !>">0
find
n.
32
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
36
Sum
9.
the series -
If the sum of 7
find the sum of n terms.
10.
11.
If the
th
that
12.
find
13.
945
-_
terms
...
to
terms.
is 49,
is
289,
th
r ih terms of an A. P. are a, b, c respectively, shew
q
(q-i')a + (r-p)b+(p-q)c = 0.
,
The sum
. ,
P. is q,
of four integers in A. P.
is 24,
and
is
their product is
find them.
Divide 20 into four parts which are in A. P., and such that the
product of the first and fourth is to the product of the second and third
in the ratio of 2 to 3.
14.
15.
tb
The p th term
of an A. P.
is q,
is
find the
term.
16.
How many
terms of the
must be taken
to
make 306?
17.
'in
If the
sum
of
n terms
If the sum of
18.
2
?i
to
, shew that the
of an A. P.
2n + 3n 2
is
m terms of an A. P.
m term is to the n
th
is to
th
the
find the
sum
term as 2m
of
tth
?
n terms as
1 is to
20.
If 5 = n (pn
find the
term.
2n
is
1.
equal
p th term.
The number
22.
P.
and the sum of each set is 15. The common difference of the first set
is greater by 1 than the common difference of the second set, and the
product of the
the numbers.
first set is
find
Find the relation between x and y in order that the ,th mean
between x and 2y may be the same as the th mean between 2x and y,
23.
?-
n means being
24.
that
its
If the
sum
for
for
CHAPTER
V.
GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION.
Quantities are said to be in Geometrical
Definition.
Progression when they increase or decrease by a constant factor.
51.
Thus each
gression
3,
G,
12,
24,
3'
9'
ar 2 ar
a, ar,
-I
27'
3
,
In the
the second
first of
it is
in the third it is
common
ratio is 2
in
r.
o
52.
If
we examine
the series
3
ar2 ar
a, ar,
we
notice that in
tlian the
any term
the
Thus
index of
the 6
term
is
is
the 20 th term
and, generally,
If
term,
the
n be the number
we have
ih
p term
ar
ar
is
is
of terms,
l
r is
always
less
by one
the series.
the 3 rd term
th
ai A ,
ar
a?^
and
19
;
-1
.
if I
denote the
last,
or
n ,h
= ar"~\
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
38
To find
the geometric
Let a and
Then
mean
_G
G~ a'
b
common
G 2 = ab;
G = Jab.
.-.
whence
To
54.
insert
ratio
Let a and
In
all
series of
we have
= the
r"
"
first
and
to find a
b
the
last.
(n
2)
th
term
+1
;
~a'
i
""
Hence the required means
value found in
Example.
We
are
<
of,
a?- ,...
ar
(1).
Insert 4 geometric
sixth.
Let r be tbe
common
ratio
= 160?'5
.
*
whence
~32'
'
r= o'
80, 40, 20, 10.
is
5.
the
first,
and 5 the
GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION.
55.
To find
the
sum of a number
o!)
of terms in Geometrical
Progression.
= a + car + ar +
~2
n the number
+ ar"~
of
we have
r,
+ ar"~ 2 + ar"" +
= ar + ar 2 +
rs
Hence by
n
+ ar
ratio,
ar*,
subtraction,
s = ar n a
rs
.-.
(r-l)s = a(r"-l);
,..-5fe^a
r
(i).
.-?S=*3
1 -r
Note.
for
s.
using
It will
(2)
Since ar'^ 1
1,
the formula
(1)
may
S=
a form which
Example.
is
sum
be written
rl-a
7--T
sometimes useful.
Sum
The common
the
(2).
ratio
the series 3
= --
-1, -,
to 7 terms.
hence by formula
(-23
2187]
II
2
~3
403
128
2315
128 * 5
(2)
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
40
111
56.
r,
1,
^-2
~3
2
The sum
to
n terms
>-
-H
27
2
.22
-i
From
njr-^i
this
result
sma U a s we
as
it
please.
Thus by taking a
In the next
From
57.
article a
we have
Art. 55
by as
differ
of
is
number
sufficient
little as
we
please
discussed.
\ -r
1
a
1
Suppose r
n the
smaller
therefore by
n terms
we
ar"
'
is
is
the value of
making n
?",
and consequently
from
of
we can make
sufficiently large,
ar'
sum
the
by as small a quantity as
is
the
sum of an
infinite
is
more
briefly, the
Example
product
is
1.
sum
a
to infinity is
1-r'
is
19,
and whose
216.
the
of
please.
This result
or
and
numbers are r
6, 6r.
a,
hence a = 6, and
'
GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION.
6
-
+ 6 + 6r=19;
6-13r + 6r2 = 0;
.-.
whence
sum
The sum
2.
of their squares
45
-r
common
the
their squares is
of terms in G. P. is 15,
ratio
(1)
by
(2)
and
(1)
l
z
(3)
+r
(1),
= 5;
...
20
10
o
y
,
EXAMPLES.
112
1.
Sum -,-,-,...
2.
Sum
3.
Sum ^t,
l,
3,...
to 8 terms.
-4,
8,...
to 10 terms.
6.
Sum
Sum
Sum
7.
4.
5.
V.
to 7 terms.
2,
Sum
3,
-4,
8.
Sum
1,
N/3,
9.
Sum
,...
terms.
to 2n terms.
o
3,...
-j/2
v
to
25,...
1,
-2,
to 12 terms.
8
-jr
s '2
,...
to 7 terms.
2)-
(3),
-r*
a2
45
_ 72 =
~=
-z
,=15
1 - r
Dividing
and
ci^
Hence
and from
number
term,
first
6, 9.
of an infinite
is
= - or
'
(l
terms
are 4,
41
a.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
42
11
3
3, -j,.- to ^ terms.
10.
Sum -~,
11.
Insert 3 geometric
12.
Insert 5 geometric
13.
Insert 6 geometric
Sum
14.
|, -1, ?,...
15.
-45,
16.
17.
3" 1 3~ 2
18.
3,
19.
7,
20.
The sum
the
first
v/3,
1,...
3 terms
The
term of a G. P.
40|.
-
64
-015, -0005,...
N/42,
3-',...
6,...
is
9 times the
sum
of
is
24; find
and the
21.
fifth
is 81,
the series.
The sum
24.
of three
numbers
in G. P.
is 38,
is
If
26.
p the
sum
Sp
/Op
27.
If the
th
th
,
that
ad
inf.,
and
+ Sp == ^*ij'2p'
r th terms of a G. P. be a,
a- r 6 r -*c*-=l.
b, c
respectively, prove
is 4,
and the
infinite
28.
sum
58.
Example.
"423.
423 =-4232323
~ io +
23
iooo
~io + IP +
23
iooooo
10
5+
+
;
'
GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION.
-3-
that,*,
10
23 /
_4
io V
23
10
1033
10
io
43
+
io-*
:: '
_ _1_
10"
100
23
4_
"io" "!^3
1
~~
"
99
_23
+
10 990
_419
"
990
The general
rule.
Tojind
the value
of a recurring decimal.
Let
D = 'PQQQ
10>xD = P'QQQ
.-.
and
10T+'
therefore,
that
*D = PQ-QQQ
is,
1)
.
'
'
D = PQ - P
>
D = PQ-P;
;
PQ-P
D _ (10''- 1)10'''
Now
For
the
numerator subtract
nonrecurring fgures from
the
the integral
the integral
number
number
consisting of
consisting of
non-recurring
and
r;
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
44
To find
60.
the
(a
a,
sum ofn
d)
(a
r,
+ 2d)
(a
+ 3d)
3
,
then
n
dr(\-r
^
=a+
(a
+ n~^ld)r"-'
S in
)
=
l-r
involve r n
can
-z
1-r
be
7^
(1
In this
made
(a
+ n-lct)
+ n - Id)N r
'
(a
(l-r)*
case,
n~ld)r\
T^r
small as
we
assuming that
so small that
they
please by taking
all the
may
infinity.
J
If
series
+ 2ar + 3x 2 + 4x 3 +
to infinity.
S = l + 2a; + 3a: s + 4a s +
Let
.-.
we
shall refer
terms which
be neglected,
We
XXI.
r"
'
T^r
r" as
Example
'
_ ( a + n~^\d )
-r)
In summing to
(a
v
dr"
(l-ry~
sufficiently great.
the form
dr
dr(l-r"+
l-r
(1-r) 2
Write
Cor.
obtain
+ dr""
'
if
subtraction,
2
S(l - r) = a + (dr + dr +
then
...
ar + (a + d)r2 +
rS=
By
xS=
x + 2x* + 3x*+
S(l-x) = l + x + x 2 + x*+
1
~l-x
a-
GE0METK1CAL PROGRESSION.
Example
Sum
2.
the series 1
S== ii
Let
+i+
to n terms.
Sn-2
_..
3n - 5
52
+ 53+
+ -57^-+
/3
. .
5*-
"
o-
_+
_7 + 10
+ +
0"*
-,
1
f
45
3n-_2
+5-j
3n-2
1
"
7-"1
3n-2
"
"~5~
"
,
DN
'>-i
'
12w + 7
~ 4 5*
.
~4
6
'*
1\
"
I (1
5
3-2
- -5.-
12/t+7
35
16
16
5"- 1
'
EXAMPLES.
2a 4- 3a2 + 4a 3 4-
V.
1.
Sum
2.
Sum 1 + - 4-
3.
4.
Sum 1 + - 4-
5.
Sum 1 + + + Q +
2
4
o
6.
Sum l + 3^ + 6 f
1 4-
-,
lb
3
-
+ ^,
+ zoo
c^rr. +
64
+
to
4
-3
n terms.
31
15
7
77.
. . .
b.
. . .
to
. .
to infinity.
to infinity.
n terms.
-7
...
to infinity.
whose first term is a and common ratio r is equal to the sum of n of a G. P. whose first term is b and
common ratio r 1 Prove that b is equal to the sum of the first two
terms of the first series.
8.
The sum
of
2n terms of a G.
P.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
46
9.
and
+ (l + b)r + (l + b + b
)r 2 +
{l
+ b + b 2 + b 3 )r3 +...,
The sum
10.
The
11.
4,
two terms of an
first
of three
be multiplied each by
find the numbers.
the
infinite series
is
3 times
series.
Sum
12.
.r+a,
13.
14.
+o
15.
2
3
16.
454545
17.
If a,
,v
+ if)
(x
..
+ ^2 +
3 - -
72 +
33
73
b, c,
+ 34 +
-
n terms.
to
+... to 2p terms.
ha +
. . .
2
35
+ p + --
74 + 75
76
to mfinity-
.,
to llifinity-
19.
series the r th
term of which
is
(2r-f-l)2'\
21.
a,
If
Sn
and common
22.
If
whose
first
Sv
r,
terms are
2' 3' 4
23.
If r
<
and
'
'
'
and
^Ti
+ S2 + S3 +
positive,
(2i
sums
are the
1, 2, 3,..,j2,
&\
S3 ,...SP
prove that
is
ratio
JS2 ,
sum
denote the
l)r
. . .
and
wl
+ Sp =f (p + 3).
m is a positive
(l-r)<l-r
is indefinitely
small
2wi
integer,
shew that
+1
.
when n
is indefinitely great.
CHAPTER
VI.
THE PROGRESSIONS.
DEFINITION.
61.
Three quantities
Any number
are said to be in
a, b, c
of
Progression when
monical Progression.
62.
are in
A rithmetical
By
Progression.
definition, if ,
b, c
b
}
~c^~b^~c'
.'.
a(b
c)
c (a
b),
1111
c
a'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
48
64.
To find
Let
a,
then -
11
7tiean
H their
-~
harmonic
the
harmonic mean;
A. P.
T are in
b
''11
a~b
IV
11
+
H~ a
&'
2ab
,,
a+b
Example.
Here 6
common
is
Insert 40 harmonic
means between
na
term of an A. P. whose
the 42
difference
and ^
first
term
is -
=^ +
41d ; whence d
2
are -
41
---
7
*
b,
a+
b
(!)
~Y~
G = Jab
(2).
H=^
a+b
a+
Tr
All = -
is,
Therefore
From
is
the geometric
these results
.
A-
and harmonic
we have proved
A=
that
d be the
3, 2\,...~.
_,
let
= -.
65.
then
6
we
2ab
.
a+b
(3).
v
'
= ab = G 2
7
//.
see that
b- 2 Jab
~ a+b
= a + g-^_
G=-~-Jab
,-z-
HARMONICA! PROGRESSION.
49
which
is
positive
if
Also from the equation G*--A1I, we see that G is intermediate in value between A and 11; and it lias been proved that
A>
G, therefore
G>
harmonic means
order of magnitude.
hints useful.
If the
1.
the terms of
the same common difference as before.
[Art. 38.]
2.
3.
same
same common
If a,
4.
ratio as before.
portion^ since,
by
d...
b, c,
[Art. 51.]
definition,
bed
'
may
in
Example
H. P.
1.
By adding
a*
that
.-.,
is
ab
If a
2
,
+ ac + bc
+ ab + ac + bc,
{a
+ b)
(a
that
is,
H. H. A.
+c
b
+ c,
+a
+ a,
a
a
+b
+b
c,
+ a, a +
see that
2
c'
+ ca + cb + ab
+ c)(b + a), (c + a)
+ b)(b + c) (c + a),
-.
we
+ ba + bc + ac,
{b
shew that
are in A. P.,
to each term,
b2
+ c),
are
(c
+ b)
are in A.P.
are in A. P.
m A. P.
are in H.
P
4
are
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
50
of
Example 2. If
n terms of an A.
d = 2a.
Since the given relation
is
a=
Hence by
then
(d-2ay- = 0;
d 2a.
.-.
Example
q, q
If the
3.
th
th
,
th
th
terms of an A. P. are in G.
shew that
P.,
r - s are in G. P.
r,
we have
a+
LAlt bb
-
^V(q^lJd-^T^l)~d-aT(^l)d
.*.
= s.
8ad = {d + 2a) 2
substitution,
or
p-
(4)J
'
=
Hence p -
p-q^q-r
q-r
q, q
natural numbers
the
first
r,
8
s
are in G.P.
The numbers
67.
n terms
68.
- \a + (r- 1) d}
d] - {a + {s - 1) d\
d]
the
is
To find
1,
th
3,
- (n +1).
sum of
the
the squares
of
the first
numbers.
=l
n3 - (n -
We have
+
a
l)
3'
then
+n
= 3n - 3n+
2
n _ \y _
3
(w - 2) -
similarly
_
(71 (n
3
2
1
3
3
= 3( - l) 2 - 3(w 2
3
3) = 3(w - 2) - 3(n 3
2)
-2 =3.3 -3.3+l;
-l 3 =3.2 -3.2 + l;
-0 =3.1 -3.1 + 1.
3
1)
2)
n natural
;;
51
Hence, by addition,
^3 =
3(l
6b
2
+ 3 + ...+')-3(l + 2 + 3 + ...+n) + *
3n(n + l)
+ it.
a
.
=n -n+
3aS
--
= n(n +
S=
C9.
To fiml
1 4- ;;);
n(n+ l)(2n +
l)
sum of
the
1) (n
cubes
the
of the frst
n natural
numbers.
=l +2
3
We
have
4
(n - 1 ) - (?* w _ 2) 4 - ( w (
n*
(n
3
2
1
then
',
+ 33 +
+n\
- Gn 2 + 4n - 1
4
3
8
2) = 4 (n - 1 ) - 6 (n - 1) + 4 (n - 1) 3
3) = 4(ra- 2) - 6 (n- 2) + 4 (n - 2) 4
l)
4?i
Hence, by addition,
.\
w'(n + l) a
g
_
*
'
Tims
"
_f W (n+l) )'
~
Me
The formulae
of this
applied to find
of the terms of the series
,
a+
d,
a+
2d,
42
;;
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
52
series
1*
l
+ 2* + 3* +
+ n by
. .
...
+ 2 3 + 3 3 +...
2,n
+na by %n*
+8 by 2n
3
;
1.
Sum
of all terms of
the series
1
+2
+3
4+
.to
n terms.
the
_w(m+1)
(2m + 1)
n(n +
l)
'
n(n+l) j2n+l
n(n + l)(n+2)
3
Example
2.
Sum
to
n terms the
series
whose M th term
1_1
is 2'
1
_ 2"
"
2- 1
8m 2
+ 1) 2 _
4~
(m
~~
6m ( m+1)(2m +
1)
= 2 - 1 + (m + 1) {2m (m + 1) - (2m + 1)
= 2' -l + n(n + l)(2n 2 -l).
l
EXAMPLES.
1.
2,
(2)
2,
2J,
21,
(3)
2,
2f,
VI.
a.
3i,...
3,...
3i,...
2.
means between
3.
means between
2
- and
o
and
11.
2
13
+ 8m 3 - 6m 2
EXAMPLES OX THE
ively,
53
and 9 l are the geometric and harmonic means, respectbetween two numbers, find them.
If 12
4.
riiOGltESSlOXS.
6.
be in H.
b, c
P.,
a
lh
If the
7.
shew that
ab=a+ c
term of a H.
iii
P. be equal to n,
8.
th
that
If b
9.
th
<7
(<j
is
equal to
111
+ =-+o a
b
a
c
c
,
i.
mn
m+n
j-
the harmonic
is
a c.
series
c,
prove that
whose n th term
is
10.
3n*-n.
11.
ns +^n.
12.
(+2).
13.
2 (2+3).
14.
3" -2".
15.
16.
If the
and
P.,
on,
(4' l
+ 2; 2 )-4/i
i
:J
.
(m+iy\
term
in the A. P. is
sum
of n terms of a series be
the nature of the series.
If the
18.
term and
a + bu + cri2
find the
19.
20.
If
nth
is
21.
If
and q the
be the
first
of
first
of
that
it
lie
between p and
p.
P.,
and shew
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
54)
To find
71.
number of
the
pyramid on a square
arranged in a complete
shot
base.
Suppose that each side of the base contains n shot then the
2
2
number of shot in the lowest layer is n in the next it is (nl)
2
and so on, up to a single shot at the
in the next (n-2)
;
top.
.-.
S^n
=
2
+ (n-l) 2 + (n-2) +... +
n(n+l)(2n + l)
6
To find
72.
pyramid
the base
number
(n
1)
n(n +
V
that
is,
+ (n 1)
number
the
2)
1
2
or - [n
In
then the
n+
xi
+ n)
n 1, 2,
for n,
layers.
S=i($n* + 2,n)
>(n + l)( + 2)
M
.-.
To find
73.
pyramid
Let
the base
m and
the
number of
of which
is
shot
[Art7a]
arranged in a complete
rectangle.
n be the number
and short
side
and
n+1
so
on
consists of
a single row of
m (n l),
shot
n + 2);
number
is
number
is
3 (in
number
is
n (m n + n).
(in
n+
3)
or
AND
PILES OF SHOT
SHELLS.
.-.
= (m - n) (1 + 2 + 3 +
(wi
- n) n (n +
1 )
...
n) + (l + 2
w (n +
l)
...
+n(rn-n + n)
...
+ n2)
n (n + 1
){3(m-n) + 2n +
_n(n +
=
55
(2n +1)
1)
(3m- n+
l}
1)
'
To find
74.
2>yramid
the base
Let a and
top layer,
the
number of
of which
is
b denote the
the
number
an incomplete
shot arranged in
rectangle.
number
two
of shot in the
sides of the
of layers.
of shot is ab
number
is
(a
1) (6
1)
number
is
(a
2) (b
2)
and so on
in the lowest layer the
number
is
+ n --
1) (b
ab + (a + b)(n-l) + ()i-l)
or
.-.
+n
1)
2
.
abn
| {6ab +
3 (a
6
b) (n
In numerical examples
following method.
75.
1)
it is
(w
1) (2m
1)}.
we
If
the base,
.*.
pile of 16
place on the given pile a square pile having 11 shot in each side of
we obtain a complete square pile of 27 courses;
number
11 x 12 x 23
number of shot
= <)'.)30
= 506;
[Art. 7
.]
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
56
EXAMPLES.
VI.
b.
2.
3.
and
5.
An
if
its
The number
and
pile
its
side, respectively, of
half the
angular
pile.
number
If the
CHAPTER
VII.
SCALES OF NOTATION.
for instance
25-2
4705 = 4
+ 5;
3
10 + 7 x 10 2 +
x 10
x
10 +
5.
like
a r +a
,r
+a
y~~ +
a/
a,r
+ a,
less
than
r,
of
Hence
fae,
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
58
'
'
It
is
'
'
',
'
ten
'.
worthy
especially
',
itself.
in question.
Example
530225
371532
136473
136473
1226235
275166
27
4200115
After the first figure of the subtraction, since we cannot
Explanation.
take 3 from 2 we add 8 thus we have to take 3 from ten, which leaves 7 then
6 from ten, which leaves 4 then 2 from eight which leaves 6 and so on.
;
Again, in multiplying by
7,
we have
therefore put
down
and carry
2.
7x7 + 2 = fifty
Next
put down 3 and carry 6
one = 6x8 + 3;
In the addition,
3
we
therefore put
down
and carry
1.
+ 6 + l = nine=l x 8 + 1;
6 + l + l = eight = lx8 + 0;
Similarly
and
and so on.
Example
+ 6 = nine = lx8 + l;
2.
9)15<?20
lee96...G.
Explanation.
we put down
Also 8 x
we
Since 15 = 1 x
and carry
T + 5 = seventeen = 1 x9 + 8,
8.
therefore put
down
and carry
8;
seven = e x 9 + 8
and so on.
is
completed.
SCALES OF NOTATION.
Example
3.
Find the
.square root of
59
442641(646
34
134 1026
G02
1416112441
12441
EXAMPLES. Vila.
1.
Add
2.
3.
4.
From 3^756
5.
five.
scale of six.
6.
7.
8.
9.
11.
12.
13.
tttt
scale.
15.
16.
The
nary
following
numbers
rules,
ordi-
(1)
(2)
79.
by the
scale.
N=
We
10
lt
a,, "_...",,
is
to be
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
60
Divide
N by
r,
+ a711 r
a nr"
by
+a
...
is
the remainder
r,
and
is
is
a
a2
i
is
no further quotient.
Thus
all
Example
1.
7)5213
7)7447
7)106.
7 )15.
Example
2.
e)21125
e)1244T
~e)Gl3.
.-.
the required
number
is 3t0t.
In the
Explanation.
first line
of
work
21 = 2x7+l=fifteen = lx<?
therefore on dividing
Next
by
4x7 + 1 = twenty
therefore
we put down
nine = 2 x
e
;
+7
and carry
so on.
In scale
of ten
4.
and
scale ten,
+ 4;
7215
to scale ten by
scale twelve.
f)7215
working in
JL2
)874.
80
t)t^.
12
t)10.
.4
1033
12
1.
.2
In scale
of twelve
1 12401
Thus the
1 x 12 + 5 in
calculation is most readily effected by writing this expression
in the form [{(7 x 12 + 2) } x 12 + 1] x 12 + 5
thus we multiply 7 by 12, and
add 2 to the product; then we multiply 86 by 12 and add 1 to the product;
then 1033 by 12 and add 5 to the product.
Explanation.
scale ten.
The
SCALES OF NOTATION.
f>l
5
2
+
10*'
10
,
-=
25 in scale r denotes
^
G
5
r
~
r
Let
To
express
>
than
of
r,
scale.
scale.
Let b
then
left
b 3 ,...
b
b
^
F J-Xr + A+
r r3+
We
6 p b2
rF=b+-
Hence
then
+ -l+
63 ,
rF
and,
if
we denote
we have
H-i. + J +
the integral part
of rF ; and similarly by successive multiplications by r, each of
the digits may be found, and the fraction expressed in the pro
posed scale.
is
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
62
If
Example
Express
1.
-^ as
13
six.
13x3
7.
x6= -8- = 4 + 8'
ft
16
7
7x3
Kj.
lx3
I..
^x6 = 3.
4
.-.
13
=g + ^+ p +
= 4513.
Qi
Example
2.
We must
and the
to scale five.
5 )16064
5 )2644 ...
5)440...
1*44
5)71. ..3
J>_
2-64
5)13... 2
2...1
4-04
5_
0-24
After this the digits in the fractional part recur; hence the required
number
is
212340-1240.
S=a
r .tf-S=a
+ a n _ + an
+ a +a 2 +
(r-l) + a 2 (r--l)+
+ _, (i*- - 1) + , (f - 1).
x
SCALES OF NOTATION.
Now
iV-S
=-
*
.
that
r-
is,
when; /
is
some integer
03
is
by r
divisible
an integer
y
6
;
-=/ +
r
which proves
'
tlie
proposition.
divisible
by
when
the
By
on
this property.
The
rule
may
be thus explained
and 9c
-f
d,
and
as -^
s?nn
multiplied together.
Example.
of 31256
The sums of the digits of the multiplicand, multiplier, and product are 17,
21, and 31 respectively; again, the sums of the digits of these three numbers
= 8x3 = 24, which has 6 for the sum of the
are 8, 3, and 7, whence
digits; thus we have two different remainders, 6 and 7, and the multiplication
is incorrect.
denote
the scale of'r, and
the difference, supposed positive, between the sums of the digit* in the
odd and the even places; then
or
+
is a multiple, of
84.
If
denote
any number in
N D
r+
1.
N D
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
64
Let a
!,
a n denote the
digits beginning
with that
JV= a +
a,r
+ a r 2 + ar* +
Ar -a + a -a + a3 -
-1
+ a
,r"
+a
r".
+ a 3 (r3 + 1) + ...;
n
and the last term on the right will be aw (r"+l) or a n (r 1)
Thus every term on the right is
according as n is odd or even.
hence
divisible by r + I
.-.
...=<*,
(r+1) + 2
(r
1)
NOW
a0~ a +fl 2~
CC
= is
.'.
= an
'-
mteo-er.
^D)
an integer;
sum
the
by r +
sum
1.
Example
whose radix
1.
is
=4+- +
r
in
any
scale of notation
then
4-41
Example
number
is
i=(2 + -Y;
rz
rj
In what scale
is
the denary
213?
Let r be the scale
then
13
+ 2=2-4375=2-^;
7
2+ -
whence
that
"
16
r-
7r 2 -
16r-48 =
(7r+12)(/--4) = 0.
is,
Sometimes
Example
by 101215 ?
3.
is 4.
it is
The required scale must be less than 9, since the new number appears
the greater
also it must be greater than 5
therefore the required scale
must be 6, 7, or 8; and by trial we find that it is 7.
;
SCALES OF NOTATION.
65
The volume
264-734 cub.
The
We
area
is
364-^i? cub.
ft.,
scale of twelve is
ft.
is
46^ 4
sq.
have therefore to
3<-08.
3*08)26473-4(7-e
22*48
36274
36274
is 7ft. lliu.
EXAMPLES.
VII.
b.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
five.
scale.
five.
10.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Transform
14.
Express
15.
16.
17.
18.
ttteee
scale.
12.
scale.
1552
20.
In what scale
is
21.
In what scale
is
H. H. A.
25
-
denoted by -0302?
5
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
66
Find the radix of the scale in which 554 represents the square
22.
of 24.
progression ?
26.
is
what
scale will
it
be denoted by 17486?
Shew that
27.
radix
is
is
28.
is
148'84
greater than 4
same four
is
digits.
32.
radix
is
is
q, r, s
are
?*,
St
be the
sum
of the digits of a
number
and 3#2 be the sum of the digits of the number 3iV, prove that the
is a multiple of 3.
difference between aS^ and
2
Shew that in the ordinary scale any number formed by
38.
writing down three digits and then repeating them in the same order
is a multiple of 7, 11, and 13.
JV,
>S'
number be even.
If n be odd, and a number in the denary scale be formed
40.
by writing down n digits and then repeating them in the same order,
shew that it will be divisible by the number formed by the n digits,
and also by 9090... 9091 containing n- \ digits.
the
CHAPTER
VIII.
it is
proved that
-rr
r-
Jb + Jc
rationalised
can be
to the denominator.
Jb + Jc + Jd
surds, we may by
'
first
(b
- d) 2 Abe,
12
Simplify
3+^/5-2^/2
The
me expression
12
_
+ y/5 + V*)
(3+ ^ 5)S _
(V2 )
+ 6^5
v/5+ 2^/2)^5-1)
U/5+l)U/5-l)
2+V5+V10-V2
= 1+^5+^/10-^2.
52
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
68
To find
86.
the factor
mial surd.
Case
I.
xn and y
x,
- $b.
]a
n be the
Let ZJa =
is
l.c.m. of
p and
n
xn y is divisible by x - y for all values of n, and
~
n ~'
+ y"" ).
+x n 2y + xn Sf +
ar- _ y" = (x-y) {x
Now
Thus the
rationalising factor
is
~2
n
y + x ~y +
n
and the rational product is x y'\
+ xn
.X'""
Case
Let
(1)
II.
+ y"~
x, y,
Ja +
is
l
;
fjb.
as before; then
Thus the
rationalising factor
l
is
x"
y"
is
(2)
If
is
odd, x"
n
n
x +y =
Thus the
(x
y) (x
n~1
divisible
by x + y, and
- xy n ~ 2 + y n ~').
- xn Sj +
x"
is
-x y+
is
n~2
+ ay"-'- 3
rationalising factor
Example
n~
-xy n
+y
-2
+ y"-
n
.
+ ^/5.
Let x = 3 2 y = 5 5
,
and
y,
541
3223
53+
32
32
32-9.
55
+
6
53
13
or
32
is
32
32
32~.
is
14
53+ 32
14
53
53,
- 5 s = 3 3 - 5 2 = 2.
"
).
is
ur -ary +
and the rational product
then
(&+&) *
Express
2.
69
\5 5 -9s )
To
34
=y
-y A = [x -
x4
then since
is
5-
+ 52
denominator
rational
/
..
+Vl
the expression
i\
5
V5
3*
+ 3~4
2
.
3
.
3~4
.
'
'-
52 + 2
12
2
3^ + 5+ 3 V\& + 5
4
_
+ 5]
- 3-* = 5 2 - 3 = 22.
52
is
12
1
3-*
is
+ xhj + xy 2 + if')
y) (x*
and the
which
5 2 .3 j
+ 2.
3\
+3
'
13
5 .3 4"+2.5 5 .3 j
,J
+3
22
113
_l l + o 2
3j +
5.3 2 +5 2 .3 j
11
We
87.
a+
Ja + Jb + Jc + Jd = Jx + Jy + Jz
Jb + Jc + Jd = x + y + z +
If then
Jxy =
Jxz =
Jb, 2
Jxy +
Jc, 2
Jxz +
Jyz.
Jyz = Jd,
Assume
.'.
21 -
V 21 - V 5 + V 3 - V 15 = slx + Jy - slz
Put
by multiplication,
whence
of 21
satisfy
it
follows that
xyz = 240
,Jx = 2j3,
Jxyz=4 s/lo
Jy = 2, Jz = s/5.
that
is
x+y+z
= 21,
the required
;;
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
70
Jh = x + Jy,
88.
If J a, +
For,
by cubing, we obtain
ci
Jb=x
then
ivill
a,
Jh = x Jy,
= 3x 2 Jy + y Jy
a- Jb = x3 - 3x2 Jy + 3xy -y Jy;
a = x3 + 3xy, Jb
.'.
that
J a - Jb = x Jy.
is,
Similarly,
it
may
by the help
be proved that
of the
if
Ja + Jb = x + Jy,
where n
is
any
Ja - Jb = x- Jy,
then
positive integer.
By
Ja + Jb = x + Jy
Suppose
Ja- Jb = x- Jy.
then
Jtf^b=x -y
2
.-.
(1).
article,
3
a = x + 3xy
The values
In
(2)
of
suppose that
obtain
(1)
we
(2).
Ja
b=c; then by
a = x3 + 3x (x 2
that
If
trial,
kx 3 3cx
is,
from
(1)
and
(2).
substituting for y in
c)
a.
x can be determined by
obtained from y = x 2 c.
the value of y
is
We
do not here assume sjx + sly for the cube root, as in the
extraction of the square root; for with this assumption, on cubing we should
have
Note.
a + Jb = xjx
hand
side is irrational
we cannot equate
Example.
Assume
By
multiplication
(1).
72 - 32^/5 = .c 3 - fkcPJy
(1)
and
(2)
72 = x
72 = x
:i
is,
By
= x'--y
whence
From
x 5 = a; 2 - y
^5184 - 1024
is,
Again
that
-'62^5 = x - ^/y
sf 72
then
that
71
ar
trial,
we
+ Sxy - y^'y
+ 3.t//
(2).
+ Sx (x- - 4)
-3x = 18.
is
When
3-^/5.
Example.
By
.-.
article,
=*J3
we
find that
/-
= v/3+v/2.
91.
We
'Example
1.
surds.
The expression
3 - 33
fj
(J + l)
l3 3 + l) (3 3
-3 +
iMi]-3
~d
3
+1
ri
+l
+1
"
l)
NV9-^3
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
72
Example
2.
The expression = \
{3x - 3
+ 2 J(2x + l)(x-4)
Example
Given
3.
^5 = 2-23607,
is
J2 + J7- 3J5'
Multiplying numerator and denominator by >J2,
^6-2^/5
the expression
2
+ ^14-6^/5
+ 3-^/5
n/5-1
EXAMPLES. Villa.
Express as equivalent fractions with rational denominator
1
i
L
-
2
A
+ V2-V3'
3.
J2+J3-J5'
^^
*Ja-l-\/2a + *Ja + l
(j3 + x/5)(j5 + ^/2)
^10 + ^5-^/3
Find a factor which
fi
will rationalise
i
7.
10.
#3 -a/2.
3
N/3-l.
8.
11.
^/5
+ ^/2.
+ 4/7.
9.
12.
06+6*.
4/5-^3.
73
*/3
16
v 8 + ^4
17
of
19.
16-2 N /20-2
21.
23.
a+36+4+4^/a-4^6-2V3oS
24.
21+3 N /8 - 6 N /3 - Jl - v'24
v/28 + 2 N /l3.->.
24+4^15-4^21-2^35.
5- x /10- N /15 + N /G.
20.
+ ,/12-^24-,/8.
22.
(5
- N /56 + 2 N /21.
28.
10+6 JZ.
38^14-100^2.
26.
38 + 17^5.
27.
99-70^/2.
29.
54^3 + 41^5.
30.
135^3-87^6.
a + x + \J%ax + x2
33.
35.
If
36.
If
32.
34.
l+(l- 2 )" 2
+ 2 + (l+a 2 + a 4 ) 2
= j-
i
.
= -i
jl'jl
y = /|z7^
72 +
1 1
ab -
lb'
~ 5j y + 3^-
V26-15J3
5V2-V38T573'
V33-19 N
39.
41.
(28
6 + 2V3
/3-
"
- 10 N/3) - (7 + 4 v/.3)
2
2
.
40.
(26 + 15 s fzf
_>
- (26 +
N/18
- a/3+V5
N /8
x*+ 1 + 3# #2 by * - 1 +
42.
Divide
43.
44.
Evaluate
V^'
-1
,
x-s/x*-\
when
(b 2
2.r;
+ V3 - V5
*/2.
= Ja+ -i\'"
15 N/3)
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
74
Imaginary Quantities.
Although from the rule of signs it is evident that a
negative quantity cannot have a real square rootlet imaginary
quantities represented by symbols of the form J- a, J- 1 are of
frequent occurrence in mathematical investigations, and their
92.
We
on the use
93.
By
J- I
definition,
.-.
that
of real quantities.
Ja.J-l
J-I = -
1.
J-l^a^l);
Ja.
is,
J a J- 1) = - a.
.
J a J 1 may
be regarded as equivalent to
J a.
symbol
J- 1
thus
JZjtf = Jja
We
1)
= a J7 J-T.
shall
deserves notice.
Since
b)
75
ab,
we have
root,
J- a x J- b = Jab.
Thus
a and
J b
would appear
it
J -a x J- b = J a J-
x \/b
J-l
= - Jab.
96.
It
is
imaginary
to all expres
'
a+bjl may
be taken
Here a and b
quantities.
+b
J - 1
Example
1.
Example
2.
The product
+d
(c
J-
1)
= a c + (b d)
J - f and
of a 4 b
J-
1.
+ dj-l
= (a + bj^l)(e + dj^l)
= ac - bd 4- (be + ad)
98.
For,
If a + b
J 1 = 0,
2/tew
0,
1.
em( b
0.
J^\ = 0,
bJ\=-a;
a+
if
then
6" = a";
.'.
.'.
Now
a=
*/
a +
= 0.
2 and
and
= 0.
99.
For, by transposition, a
tlierefore,
that
is
by the
c+
last article,
a=
c,
1,
then a
= c, andh
d) J- 1 =
a c = 0, and 6 ^ = 0;
and
(b
</.
<I
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
76
is
the
be equal it
equal,
and
be equal.
1 is
J 1.
conjugate to a + b
^2 + 3^-1
conjugate to
is
J - 3 J- 1.
'2
For
(
Again
= a + b2
102.
2
a +
is
a +b
103.
J 1
and a
the
1.
The modulus of
sions is equal to
Then
product = ac
bd +
(ad
a+bj 1
+ bc)
and c+dJ\.
J 1,
which
is
an
= J(ac -
bd)
+ (ad +
be)
J (a
Ja
(c
dr)
2
2
Jc + d
it
If the
denominator of a fraction
is
of the
1.
77
For instance
dj - 1
a + b J=l
c
(c
dJ-\)(a-bJ -\
~(a + b J~i)(a-bJ-T)
be) J
ac + bd + (ad
a +
+ bd
a + b~
72
ad be
v
a' + b
ac
-i
To find
of a + h
1.
J a + b V 1 =x + y s/ 1,
Assume
By
therefore,
bj\=x -y
2
a+
squaring,
by equating
real
x2
(x
.-.
and imaginary
-y =
^!/ =
+y
2 2
)
(x
From
(1)
and
.
(3),
x s + if =
we
-*Ja
parts,
(2);
- ff + (2xyY
(1),
=a +
.
+ 2xy J
Ja
2.2
6"
(3).
obtain
+2b 2 + a
is
Ja +i b -a
2
."=*
obtained.
Also from (2) we see that the product xy must have the same sign as
hence x and y must have like signs if b is positive, and unlike signs if b
negative.
(3)
is
;;
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
78
Example
1.
of
- 24
J-
1.
J- 7- 21*/- l = x + y J- 1
Assume
-7-24 N/T l =
then
* 2 -?/ 2
and
-^
2a;?/
-2/
+ 2^
N/
T l;
=-7
=
(1),
-24.
= 49 + 576
= 625;
.\ar + 2 = 25
(2).
2/
From
(1)
and
(2),
x- = 9
and
.-.
is
x-
Thus the
that
negative,
4.
we must take
y = - 4 j or # = -
3 - 4 / - 1
2.
To
and -3 + 4
Assume
?/==
3,
*J
?/
= 4.
7 - 7 - 247"TT= (3 - 4 J ~i).
is,
Example
It
roots are
3,
= 16
x= 3,
2
?y
- 64a 4
\/ *J -
1.
70
(7-1)^1,
symbol
it
or
1.
It is
thus
i*=ij
it
?',
We
now
investigate the properties of certain imaginary quantities which are of very frequent occurrence.
107.
shall
x - ^1
Suppose
that
.
(x
is,
either
whence
then x 3 =
(x
or
0,
or
1,
x+
-W-3
x=
1)^0.
x2 + x +
35=1, or
x3
may
roots,
-1-733~'
-l+JZTs
"'
two
of
ft
of the equation
x2 + x +
=0.
that
aft=
is,
.
that
is,
other, it
2
aft = a
= a2
ft
since a
Similarly
108.
we may shew
that a =
= 1.
ft
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
80
Also
the equation x + x +
satisfies
a)
that
is,
the
sum of the
to
+ w2 =
w =
Again,
to
o>
it
must be
If
of the
n be not a
3m
form
and w for,
and to" = w3m
to,
;
multiple of
KO
that the
notice
It is useful to
109.
integral powers of a> are 1,
3, it
if
successive positive
n he a multiple of 3,
1.
must be
of the
form
3m +
or
3m + 2.
n
n = dm
+ 1
O
w = om +-,
-rt>
It
3m +
Wn
o>
=to
3m
.to
to.
We now
Example
1.
Reduce
4.
1 \2
to the
form A +
2 + N/-l
The expression
Bj - 1.
4-9 + 12^-1
2
+ v/ :=~l
(-5 + 12 N/Jl)(2-V^l)
(2+
J-l)(2-J-T)
-10 + 12 + 29
4+1
=2+
5
which
is
W-
1;
Example
2.
x 3 + if =
Since
.'.
for
29
J~l
(x
+ y)
-xy + y 2)
(x + toy) (x + ury)
(x 2
+ y 9 = (x + y)
w + w2 = -1, and w 3 = l.
x*
: ;
3.
Shew
(a
+ wb + arc)
that
Zr
and
+ w2 6 + toe) - a 2 + b2 + c 2 -
(a
In the product of
the coefficients of
81
+ wb + arc and
are or, or 1
60 - ca
- ab.
+ orb + wc,
= w2 + o>4 = or + o> = - 1
coefficients of ca and a& = 2 + o> = - 1
(a + cob + arc) {a + urb + wc) = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 - be - ea -
the coefficient of be
the
o>
.*.
Example
Shew
4.
that
+ ->)'-(l-M+U?)*=0.
(l
Since
1
(1
ab.
+ u- w 2
3
)
+ w + o> 2 = 0, we have
(1
- w + wa)3=( - 2m2) 3 -
- 2o>) :J
= -8o> 6 + 8a/
= -8 + 8
= 0.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Multiply 2 \/~~3 + 3
2.
Multiply 3
3.
Multiply
AT
4.
V 3^
V ^7 - 5 V^
VIII.
b.
by 4 *J^3- 5 a/^2.
by 3
V^+ 5 V^.
e^ -1 +e'^~ 1 by e^ _1 -e -V-*.
l+V 3^
IX'
Multiply
I
a;
l-V^
=
by #
3-V-2
,
3+2
+ V-l)a
.v-V-1
(.f
o.
V~l
2-5\/
g
3 a/~2~ + 2 *J~-h
5V :r l'
(W- l)^
.r
12.
\/
l) 4n
a+rV^l
a-xf-i
a-WisT-i
a+a?V^-l"
(a +
V-lja-Cft-V-l)^
(a + \/-l) 2 -(- V-l) a#
ia
+ V-1
3V-2-2V-5
3-2 V^l
11.
H. H. A.
3
,
when w
is
a positive integer.
Jd + 40 V"-T+ V9 - 40 V -?.
(j
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
82
-S + ISV^L
14.
-ll-COV 17
16.
-SV^l.
17.
a 2 -l+2a^^l.
18.
ab-2(a 2 -b 2 )*/^T.
2-3r
09
a + O8
If
2
1, co, g>
15.
-47 + 8V-3.
A + iB
ZU>
zu
2V3-i\/2'
(^ + ^)
9<*
1-T
(-^) 2
a ib
!".
a + io
24.
(l+co 2 ) 4 = co.
26.
(1
- co)
27.
(2
28.
(l-co
29.
Prove that
(1
25.
co-
(1
- CO 4 )
(1
(l-co + co 2 )(l+co-or)
= 4.
- co 5 ) - 9.
+ co 2 )(l-co 2 +
co
)(l-co 4 + co 8 )... to
2>i
factors = 2 2 .
x=a+b
If
y aw + Z>co 2
s=co 2 +
6co,
shew that
(1)
(2)
(3)
31.
If
shew that
xyz=a3 +b3
+ 2 + 5 2 = 6a6.
a3 +y3 +s3 =3(a3 +&3)
ax + cy + bz = X, ex + by + az = I", Zu- + ay + gs = if,
2
+ 6 2 + c2 - be - ca - ab) (x2 +y2 + z2 -yz- zx - xy)
= X 2 +Y2 + Z - YZ- XZ- XY.
^- 2
?/
CHAPTER
IX.
111.
(1),
of the equation is
x=
We
Jtf^iac
\2a
(2).
v
'
shall
propositions connected
all
is
the type.
112.
ax 2 + bx +
tiro roots.
have three
Then since each of these values must
different roots a, f3, y.
satisfy the equation, we have
For,
if
c~0
(1),
(2),
ay 2 + by + c =
(3).
aa 2
2
afi
From
(1)
and
(2),
-t-
ba +
+ bp +
by subtraction,
a(a 2
divide out
-p
2
)
+ b(a-P) = 0;
by a fi which, by hypothesis,
is
a (a + ft) + b = 0.
Similarly from (2) and (3)
a
..
{fi
is
y)
a (a - y)
by subtraction
which
impossible, since,
not equal to
y.
is
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
84
In Art. Ill
113.
/3,
let
so that
,
'
2a
a and
(2)
If b
If b
- Aac
is
Aac
is
positive,
equal, each
77-
2a
negative, a
and
ft
is
'
(3
2a
'
b- Jb Aac
=
2
2
Jb - Aac
-b +
/3
unequal.
By
1.
cannot be
satisfied
x.
a=
Here
2, b
= - 6, c 7
so that
Example
2.
If the equation
The condition
a?
+2
(k
l\
+ 2) 2 = 9,
fc2_5ft + 4=0,
(fc-4)(fc-l)=0j
.-.
Example
Shew
3.
k = A, or
1.
x 2 - 2p3 +p 2
-q 2 + 2qr- r2 =
are rational.
2
2
2
roots will be rational provided (-- 2p) - 4 (p - q + 2qr-r2) is a
2
But this expression reduces to 4 (q -2qr + r2), or 4:(q-r) 2
perfect square.
Hence the roots are rational.
The
- - ,
114.
D
Since
we have by
a=
+ Jb 2 - Aac
?=
'
-b- Jb
- Aac
'
2a
addition
-
+ Jb 2 - Aac
^
__M_b
2a
-b- Jb - Aac
2
2a
0);
85
4ac
~4a
J~r^
* qUadratiC
4**5d?
in the
e(
uation
form
'
**" **
the roots
is
(ii)
coefficient
is
__ =a+
Since
- a; + - =
of
the first
may
term
with
and
be written
(1).
(2).
(1)
we have
(x-a)(x-p) = Q
We
may now
Example
1.
The equation
or
easily
Form
is
x 2 -(a + f])x + ap =
Again, from
(3).
and -
roots.
2.
(*+ 2)=0,
-*- 6=0.
When
metnou.
is
(2).
unity,
its
_ j,/r^-c)
may
these results
(_.
it is
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
86
Example
Form
2.
We have
sum
of roots
+ ^3 and
2 -
^3.
= 4,
product of roots = 1
.
the equation
x-
is
by using formula
(2) of
- Ax + 1 = 0,
By
roots.
Example
1.
Form
3,
and ^
o
2,
satisfied
#-2=0,
therefore the equation
# + 3 = 0,
--7 = ();
must be
(*-2)(*+3)(*-|)=0j
that
[x
is,
or
5a;
Example
2.
Form
-2a; 2 -37a; + 42 = 0.
x=-a, x=}
it is
x
that
, j
by
to be satisfied
x = 0, x = a.
therefore
0,
(x -J- a) (x
- a)
x--
- a 2) (bx - c) = 0,
bx 4 - ex 3 - a~bx- + a-cx = 0.
x
is,
or
The
117.
(x 2
results of Art.
generally sufficient
In such questions the roots should never be
roots of quadratics.
considered singly, but use should be made of the relations obtained by writing down the sum of the roots, and their product,
in terms of the coefficients of the equation.
are
Example
(l)a 2
1.
If
a and
+ /3 2 (2)a s + /3 3
We
/3
x--px + q = 0,
a + (2=p,
have
a(3
.-.
a2
= q.
;{
+ ft = (a + /3)
(a 2
+ p" 2 -
87
a/3)
a
=i>{(a + /3) -3a/3]
=*(?- 89).
Example
If a,
2.
p"
sum
mx + 7i = 0,
find the
p
"We have
/.r'-'-|
a
of roots
product of roots =
ap
a.
-=1
p a
.-.
apx2 -
or
(a
is
+ p~2 + 0/3 = 0.
As
in the last
example o2 +j8B =
and
a/3
,.
.,
.*.
the equation
?ji
Example
When
3.
it
will
.r
x+
n /x- 2 -
or
?i
= 0,
it
- 2nZ) x + nl = 0,
be unaltered
-2wZ
-=
x-
is
--
if
2x 3 + 2x 2 -7x+l'2
be substituted for
x.
Form
the
sum
2x 2 -6x + 17
is
is
=3
of the roots
17
=
.*.
2.r 2
6.r
+ 17 =
3*5^/-"!
,
values
Now
2a* +
2.t
- Ix + 72 = x
(2.r 2
C>.c
17)
+4
(2.r
- Cx + 17) + 4
=xx0+4x0+4
= 4;
which
is
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
88
To find
118.
2
ax + bx +
in sign,
Vie condition
that
roots
the
of the equation
and
opposite
(2) reciprocals.
in sign
if
_-=
a
or b
0,
= 0.
i
= 1.
or
The
is
= a.
these results is of frequent occurrence in Analytical Geometry, and the second is a particular case of a more
general condition applicable to equations of any degree.
first of
We
(1)
have
have
+ B=
(1)
a8=-
both positive,
a/J is positive,
and therefore
and a
like signs.
Also, since a
+ fi
is positive,
is
signs.
is
and
ft
should be
and therefore
like,
and
a have unlike
and a have
it is
negative,
and
there-
like signs.
(X
is
EXAMPLES.
Form
4.
72
N /5.
5.
2/3~5.
IX.
a.
p-q
p+q
6.
p+q
py
-p2s/Tq.
like,
-35l
10.
-3, |, i.
13.
Prove that
(
(2)
14.
-aib.
8.
11.
tlio
|,
-b).
12.
2/3,
4.
x2 - 2ax +a a - 6a -
c2
- b + c) r- +4 (a -
(a
i(a
9.
-|.
0,
89
If the equation
- 0,
6)
.v
+ (a - b - c) = 0.
x2 - 15 -m(2x-8) =
lias
values of m.
15.
m will the
equation
x2 - 2x (1 + 3//0 + 7
have equal roots
16.
(3
+ 2m) =
x*
m- 1
m+ 1
bx
ax-c
If
a, /3
ax2 + bx + c = 0,
18.
,+.
19.
aW + aV.
20.
(|-f)
= 1 + 2/.
21.
a3 + s2 - X + 22 when
22.
23.
.t-
.r
3+ ?
-= 1 - J - 3.
a
x*+px+q=O
25.
26.
I f
.'-, ,
x%
+ b)- 2 + (x + b)- 2
(1)
(ax l
(2)
(ax^byt+iaxt+b)-*.
= 0,
>f
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
90
27.
shall
be
If
a, (3
roots are a
+ /3 and o~
2
+/3
-2
Form
2x* + 2
30.
sum and
(m + n) x + m2 + n 2 =0.
px2 + qx + r = 0.
The following example illustrates a useful application
119.
of the results proved in Art. 113.
Example.
can have
If
is
all
lie
between 2 and
x- + 2x
11
-.
6.
y, so that
a 2 + 2:r- ll_
2(s-3)
~ y;
+2.r(l-?/)
+ 6f/-ll = 0.
This
is
For
120.
the
Case
I.
a,
except
+ bx+c has
2
equation ax +bx + c =0
expression ax 2
them.
ax 2 + bx +
are real
tlie
same sign as
are real
of x
ft,
and
let a
be the greater.
Then
((.r
bx +
x* + -
= a {x2 = a (x -
Now
(tt
X+
+
91
aj
ft)
X+
aft
- ft).
a) (x
x
and
is
II.
If a
Case
greater than
if
and
ft
a,
ax 2 + bx +
(x - a)
and
is
= a(x
a)
2
,
hence ax 2 + bx +
a.
Case
III.
ax 2 + bx +
alx*
{-
4a
4c
is
is positive,
x + ^-
&)
Aac
lias
a\
iae-b')
hence
\a 2
2
therefore ax + bx +
This establishes the proposition.
=Q
same sign as
is
x+
b\-
(/
But
iac-b*
has the
From
ing as a
is
positive or negative.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
92
Example.
lie in
order that
ax 2 - Ix + 5
5x 2 - Ix + a
may
be capable of
x being any
all values,
real quantity.
ax -lx + 5
_
Put
i-
(a-5?/)a:2 -7.r(l-?/)
then
=v;
rr
+ (5-a?/):=0.
may
be real, the
expression
49
(1
- y)'2 - 4 (a - 5y)
(5
- ay) must be
positive,
is,
(49
positive.
Now
(2a2 +
1)
2 (a 2
that
is,
- 20a) 2
(49
is
- 10a + 25) x 2
4 (a -
according as
(a 2
o) 2 (a
+ 10a - 24)
is
negative or zero
- 2)
is
negative or zero.
+ 12)
(a
This expression is negative as long as a lies between 2 and - 12, and for
such values 49 - 20a is positive; the expression is zero when a = 5, - 12, or 2,
but 49 -20a is negative when a = 5. Hence the limiting values are 2 and
- 12, and a may have any intermediate value.
EXAMPLES.
IX.
b.
1.
lie
in order that
the equation
may have
real roots.
If
2.
x be real, prove
that
x
^2
3.
Shew
4.
If
and
5.
that -=
x be
.77
4-
x
x bx + 9
l
'-
x- + x+\
lies
prove
that
x
must
between
and - r^
11
all real
values of x.
71
=
=- can have no value between
x++34a?
2# 7
3
^
1
9.
6.
lie
sb
real,
'-
-5
If
a, /3
x2 px+q=0,
(1)
atitfp-i-fl + ptfPa-i-a),
(2)
-p)-* + (P-p)-\
-b
find the value of
8.
If
x be
except such as
9.
real,
lie
nx+n=0 be in
the expression
between
2)i
q prove that
t
admits of
r
n
2 (x - n)
.
all
values
and 2m.
the ratio of p
!>:{
+ 2Ux+C=0
be
a-ffi
and
fi
+ d,
and
(3,
and
prove that
b*-ae_ B*-AC
~~a 2
10.
values
A2
is real,
provided
'
will be capable
of all
L
p + 3x - 4x*
that p has any value
between
and
7.
.#4-2
11.
12.
Shew
that
if
is real,
(x 2
the expression
-bc)(2x-b-c)~
(a
will
+ c) (ax 2 + 2bx + c) = 2
be impossible, and
14.
Shew that
c.
ax2 + 2bx + c =
If the roots of
the roots of
13.
b2 )
(.r
+ 1)
vice versa.
the expression
- -
{-)-
,!
a) (ex a)
and c 2 d 2 have the same
fl
(ox
values
when x
is real, if
a2 - b 2
sign.
We
*122.
shall conclude this chapter with some miscellaneous
It will be convenient here to introduce
theorems and examples.
a phraseology and notation which the student will frequently
meet with in his mathematical reading.
Definition.
Any expression which involves x, and whose
value is dependent on that of x, is called a function of X.
Functions of x are usually denoted by symbols of the form f(x),
F(x),<f>(x).
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
94
An
pendent variable
%
123.
An
is
known.
pjs"
n
+p x
+ pjf
+ pn _ x + p n
t
*124.
function is said to be linear when it contains no
higher power of the variable than the first ; thus ax + b is a linear
function is said to be quadratic when it
function of x.
contains no higher power of the variable than the second ; thus
ax2 + bx + c is a quadratic function of x. Functions of the third,
fourth,... degrees are those in which the highest power of the
Thus in the last
variable is respectively the third, fourth,
th
degree.
article the expression is a function of x of the n
...
ratic,....
We
may
To find
y)
where
2
z
f{x, y) = ax +'2hxy + by + 2gx+ 2fy +
c.
powers of
this in descending
and equate
x,
95
it
to zero;
thus
ax*
+ 2x (hy +
+ by 2 + 2fy +
y)
we have
2fy
c)
,
<
ax + hy + g =
>v
Jy
(h*
+ 2y
ab)
(hy
a/)
(g
ac).
Now
hence
- a/) 2 =
(kg
which
is
(h-
we obtain
a,
af
2
by
ch
This proposition
To
*128.
is
of great
may have
ax 2 + bx +
common
0, ax 2
f b'x
root.
+ ba +
- ac).
ab) {<f
satisfied
by x
then
0,
= 0;
by cross multiplication
a
a"
be
To eliminate
equate
it
ca c'a
b'c
ab
'
(ca
.'.
is
ab'
a,
which
(ca
c'a)
ca) 2 =
2
(be
b'c)
(be
b'c) (ab'
'
(ab'
ab)
'
ab),
is
a common linear
factor.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
06
^EXAMPLES.
1.
m will
IX.
c.
the expression
2
y + 2xy + 2x + my - 3
3.
If the equations
common
root,
shew that
x2 + p'x + q' =
must be
it
p'l'-p'q nr
q-q
5.
either
9-q
p-p
may have
6.
common
l'x2
+ m'xy
-f-
If the expression
2Pxy + 2y 2 + 2ax - 4y +
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2
may
n'y'
linear factor.
%a? +
7.
+ mxy + 3y 2 - 5y - 2
2.v
factors.
x2 + px + q = 0,
have a
a'x2
+ 2k'xy + b'y 2
Shew
-mx, my + x.
x 2 - Zxy + 2y 2 - 2x - 3y - 35 = 0,
for every real value of x there is a real value of y,
value of y there is a real value of x.
9.
If
will
lie
between 3 and
6,
by the equation
- 20y + 244 = 0,
and y between
and
10.
10.
may
92.r
and
CHAPTER
X.
MISCELLANEOUS EQUATIONS.
In this chapter we propose to
129.
consider some miscellaneous equations ; it will be
seen that many of
solved by the ordinary rules for
quadratic equJtions, but others
require some special artifice for
their solution
the^l
Example
3_
Solve
I.
Multiply by
.r
2n
8x 2n
-8x~^=63.
(a?"-8)(8x^+l) = 0;
2n = 8,
or--;
8'
2n
=(*)* (-p)*;
.-.*=, or
Example
2.
Solve
/-+
A.
^
6a
6
/- =
..%+! = * +
(2ay~&)(ty-3a)=0;
3a
&2
4a
H. H. A.
9a 2
"l
'
&a
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
98
Examples.
(*-5)(a:- 7)(
Solve
We have
(x
+ 6)
(*
- x - 20) (x 2 - x - 42)
- x) 2 - 62
.-.
(x2
(x2
130.
Any
- x) + 336 =
-56 =
-7.
8,
may
Putting y =
be solved as follows.
Let a and
x, gives
or a2 -a;
x = S, -2,
whence
= 504
-a:-6)(x2 -x-56) =
X *- X -Q =
.-.
+ 4) = 504.
ft
J ax
+ bx +
c,
we
obtain
J ax
+ bx +
= a,
Jax
+bx + c = ft
"When no sign
is
ax2 + bx +
p J ax +
2
bx + c =
q,
Add
Solve x2 - ox + 2
3 to each side
rc
Jx 2 - 5z + 3 = 12.
then
2
-5a; + 3
+ 2 N/^-5a; + 3 = 15.
Putting
whence y = 3 or -
=
x^
:
x2 - 5x -2
The
satisfies
first
5.
first
pair of values
the equation
MISCELLANEOUS EQUATIONS.
99
division.
We
Example.
have
The
now
factor *J x - 2a can
-5a- Jx + 3a = Jx - 2a
sjx
.'.
x - 5a + x + 3a - 2 *J(x - 5a)
(x
+ 3a) = x - 2a
3ar-8aa;-60a 2 = 0;
{x
trial it will be
10a
Jx - 2a, we
On
and
obtain x = 2a.
thus
2a.
The following
Solve J'3x- -
Example.
We
artifice is
4.x
sometimes useful.
+ 34 + JSx'2 - 4x -
11
=9
(1).
have identically
(3x--4a; + 34)-(3a; 2
Divide each
member
of (2)
J'dx- -
-4x-ll) = 45
4.r
+ 34 - JSx2 - 4x -
11
(2).
(1);
thus
=5
(3).
Now (2) is an identical equation true for all values of x, whereas (1) is an
equation which is true only for certain values of x hence also equation (3)
is only true for these values of x.
;
From
(1)
and
(3)
by addition
2
v/3x -4a;
whence
as
+ 34 = 7;
= 3,
or
--.
77
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
100
133.
The
ax4 bx 3 ex 2 bx + a =
0,
Equations of this type are known as reciprocal equaand are so named because they are not altered when x is
quadratic.
tions,
changed into
its
reciprocal -
Example.
12a; 4
Solve
- 56x 3 +
89a; 2
+ 12 = 0.
56.x
12/W- ) -56^+^+89 =
2
x + -=z: then
x
Put
.-.
12
whence we obtain
By
(z 2
=-
2)
we
6a; 4
Solve
We have
6(a;
.-.
x-
-=-
13
a;
13-
find that x = 2, -
25a; 3
+ 12a; 2 + 25a; + 6 = 0.
2
(^ +^i) - 25 fx - -\ + 12 = 0;
whence
+ = z 2 -2;
-56^ + 89 = 0;
or
a;
0.
-25
(a;
(^--^-3 = 0,
whence we obtain
a;
= 2, - -
1+24 =
or 3
3,
0;
fx- -]-8-0;
- -
MISCELLANEOUS EQUATIONS.
Example.
This
is
Solve
+ a) - 2a
a-) {x
may
is
3.
2jx + 2x
5.
3"+6=5#.
(1
+ a 2 ) = 0,
X.
2.
6a?*~7**-8a7
6.
3.f 2n
JL
6 x/a=5a
-13.
11.
32*+ 9 10.
13.
2 2* + 8 + 1
15.
,/*+-*
3*.
= 32.2'.
-.rri -2=0.
1+8.^ +
12.
5 (5*
14.
2 2* + 3 -57 = 65(2*-l).
16.
^.-#=5A-
19.
20.
21.
A'
22.
23.
3a2
24.
8+9
25
^- +s
18.
(x
- 7)
(.v
+ 2 >/a + 6a = 24 - 6x.
2
-7 + 3
(N
/3sa -16a? + 21
J(&v -1)
2
- 3) {x + 5)
(a-
(x
-2)
= 16a;.
= 3.c 2 -
/,,,_- 5 , +3=
9^ =
10.
+ 1 = 1 680.
(x + 9) (x - 3) (x - 7) {x + 5) = 385.
x (2x + 1 (.v - 2) (2a - 3) = 63.
17.
*.
\/S + \/?'
>/;+Vj-"*
_J
9.
+ a- 4 = 10a--'.
4.
a.
is
=5-
= 0.
a- 2 -2x~ 1 = 8.
ar)
be written
EXAMPLES.
1.
clearly a.
is
2ax- + (1 - a 2 ) x - a
101
7a.
^:.
0.
+ 5-*) = 26.
2*.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
102
26.
7.-^hsi_c
x
x
\*j
.Y.
j
Jx2 - 9.
27.
J4x2 -7x-lb -
>Jx2 -3x=
28.
>/2^2 -9^ + 4 + 3
29.
V 2^ + 5^-7 + V3(a;
30.
s/a
31.
32.
2
2
x/3^ - 2x + 9 + x/3.r -
33.
V2^ 2 -7a;+l -
34.
>/ 3^
35.
o^ + a?-4o;2
36.
x*
38.
10(o7t +l)-63a?(a;2
J7x2 -6x-l = 0.
-7a; + 6) -
./2a;2
- 7^ - 30 -
2o;
-4 = 13.
-9a; + 4 =
*/2o; 2
- 7x -
1.
a?
-5
+ a;+l = 0.
3*+l-3(s +#)=2tf*.
37.
-l) + 52a;2 = 0.
x+J\2a-x _*Ja+\
a;
+ sjx 2 - 1
x + a/^ 2 -
^/.r 2
42.
>/^+#I
=
Jtf-x
44.
2*
46
2 2* = 8
^/a?-5
|.
2
48.
49.
>/a;2
50.
^B+--^El.
##+
a2 *(a 2 +
= (a?* + a*)a.
I)
2a;+l
_ 250 V^+T
"
3n/7^3
(a
- a;2 )"3
V^'
45.
2
a;
18 (7a; - 3)
- *) = 5
.v
./.
".+
-l
V#
'
51.
43.
'
(a + a;) 3 + 4 (a
"
- 2.v3 + a; = 380.
\/a'2
'
= V3a?-7
x-b
3a;-7
= 8x jx 2 - 3x + 2.
1.
J'a2 - 4x2 _ bx
a+2x- J a 2 - 4a;2 ~
a;
x - sjx 2 -
a + 2a; +
sJct-V
x - <Jl2a-x
41.
8a
52.
27^ + 2U- + 8 =
MISCELLANEOUS EQUATIONS.
We
136.
two unknown
Example
now
shall
108
discuss
quantities.
Solve
1.
(z
Put x + 2 = m, and y + 3 = v
then
u+v + Juv = Sd
(1),
w + v + wv = 741
2
(2),
we obtain by
(2),
division,
u + v - Juv = 19
From
(1)
and
(3)
u+t?=29;
(3),
Juv = 10,
and
wv = 100;
or
whence
w = 25,
thus
Example
2.
or 4; v
Solve
.r
= 4,
or 25
+ y*= 82
(1),
ar-y=2
(2).
# = w + t>, and y = u- v;
Put
then from
(2)
we obtain
Substituting in
v
(w
(1),
.-.
whence
= l.
+ l) 4 + (u- 1) 4 = 82;
2(m4 + 6m2 + 1) = 82;
u 4 + 6u 2 -40 = 0;
w2 = 4, or 10
;
u= 2,
and
or
>/~ 10*
Thus
ysal, -3,
JEa;ampZe3.
e
-li^-10.
- ^ = 2A
f^
Sx-yx
+
Solve
(1),
10
7x + 5y = 29
From
(1),
15
(2a;
.-.
Hence
or
(2).
129o;
-29xy-38?/
y*)
= 0;
{Sx-2y)(iBx + 19y)=0.
Sx = 2y
43# = -19y
(3),
(1).
of
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
104
= y __7x
= + 5y
From
(3),
29
= 1,
.-.
Again, from
by equation
x = 2, y = 3.
19 ~ ^43 ~
(4),
(2).
7x + 5y
- 82
29
= -gg, by
*'
~
82
82 ,V
x = 2, y = 3; or
Hence
Example
4.
Solve
(2),
_ 1247
551
X~
equation
x-
"
1247
551
= -^-
11
4# 3 + 3a; 2 f/ + ?/ 3 =8,
2z 3 -2a; 2?/ + ?/ 2 = l.
(1).
z 3 (2-2m + m2) = l
(2).
*'
4 + 3m + m z _
2-2m + m2 ~
(/;i-l)(?/i-3)
is,
.*.
(i)
Take
From
m = l,
and substitute
# 3 = 1;
(2),
(m-4) = 0;
or
or
3,
4.
in either (1) or
.*.
x = l;
y=mx=x=l.
and
(ii)
m=l,
'
-12 = 0;
m3 -8i9 +19m
that
Take
m = 3,
and substitute
in (2)
3
/l
thus
5:r
x=
\/
and
y = vix = 3x = 3
*/
-.
/I
(iii)
Take7?& = 4;
= l;
.*.
k'->
3/1
we obtain
10.r 3 =l;
and
Thus
.-.
/
x=^-;
y = mx = 4x=4. /r^.
(2).
MISCELLANEOUS EQUATIONS.
Hence the complete solution
is
* =1,
"
V5'
=1
s
'
Note.
L05
\/l>
To*
\/^*
may
of solution
Example
5.
3 lx 2 y 2
Solve
-7y 4 - 112^ + 64 =
(1),
x 2 -7xy + 4y 2 + 8 =
From
(2)
3\x2 y 2 - 7# 4 +
.-.
that
{x 2
and, substituting in
- Ixy + Ay 2 +
{x 2
(1),
- Ixy + 4 j/")- =
31x-y 2 - 7 j/ 4
.-.
Uxy
('2).
s*-10sy+9y4 =0
is,
.'.
(x2
-y 2 )(x 2 -9y 2 ) = 0;
x=y,
hence
(3).
ov
x=
3y.
(2),
we obtain
x = y=2;
x=-y= ^J
x=3, y=l\
3
>/-17'^ =T \/
yj
Example
6.
Solve
(x+yft+2
{x
- ?/)* = 3
{x 2
(1).
y*fi
3x-2y=13
(2).
i
(1)
by (x 2 - y 2
or {x
x +y\s
\x-yj
+y)*
+2 (-~
\.v
Y=3
+ gj
(x
y)
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
106
This equation
is
+ v\ a
[x
a quadratic in
y-Y = 2oTl;
(
\x-yj
whence
^=8
x-y
(2),
we obtain
13
x=9, y = 7;
or x = -^,y=0.
EXAMPLES.
Solve the following equations
3x-2y = 7,
2.
a,
X.
bx -y = 3,
+ #y+2/ 4 = 931,
7.
+y 2 =2275.
3#2 -5y 2 = 7,
8.
9.
Zxy - 4y 2 = 2.
16.
.r
+y 4 =706,
x+y = 8.
,r+i = l,
y
4
14.
17.
11
^3
+y = ie.
3
= 84,
20.
+ 165 = 16.ry,
7^y + 3y 2 = 1 32.
3.r
#2 + y 2 -3 = 3.zy,
12.
2x2 - 6 + y2 = 0.
xA +y* = 272,
+-,
x
2
y
3
x +y = 1072,
10.
15.
33
^- 2
18.
+y
=65.
= 5.
|+t
2
5
-2 + -5 = 7;5
= 1.
11
xy^+yx^=20,
^-y = 992,
x-y = 2.
x-y = 2.
e
?/+-=25.
19.
+3/
bxy - 6x2 = 6.
ocy
x +y = 7 + \A?y,
x2 +y 2 = l33-xy.
5y 2 -7^ = l7,
11.
x - *Jxy+y =6.
x + Jxy +y = 65,
#2 + #y
4^-3^ = 1,
3.
x2 +
5.
x2 xy +y2 = 19.
6.
b.
2
2
y - 6# = 25.
xy = %).
4.
7x = 9y, or y = 0.
.'.
1.
or 1
find,
11
# +y2 = 5,
2
21.
6(.i?
11 =
2
+y
5.
MISCELLANEOUS EQUATIONS.
22.
Jx+y+J7-y = 4,
23.
y+
24
JZ+JZ^,
25.
f~f
27.
28.
4i- 2
29.
9. c
30.
(.-v
31
2.v 2
32.
y-%
+
+
26.
107
Jx 2 - 1 = 2,
+
v^
= i_7
tf*
7#-lly = 17.
+ 5y=6+2Qay-25ya + 2.v,
- y2 )
(.r
- y) = 1 6a^,
- xy +y 2 =2y,
(.r
y)
% =
(#-y) 2
(a4
- y4
-o8
5.v
-4xy + 2x 2 ) + 8 = 0.
34.
3a-3
35.
2
2
y (4v - 108) = x (x3 - 9y 3 ),
36.
6xi + x 2y 2 + l6 = 2x(\2x+y 3 ),
37.
x (a + x)=y(b+y),
38.
xy + Z> = 2ax,
39.
fir_
40.
6.v3
41.
- 8ay2 + if + 2 1 = 0,
\y
6.r
a2
(y
- x) = 1
2x 2 + 9xy + y 2 =
ya
108.
x2 + xy-y 2 = 4.
xhf + a2 b 2 = 26 2y2
>
x(j/ 2
ax + by = (x + y) 2
+ .lzi
= _J
b2
xb
= 10a
- y 2 ) = 64Ga?y.
- 7y = 4.
2
y(y -3.r#-.r2 ) + 24 = 0,
a2
(a3
- ovy = 18.
2x 2 + 4xy = 5^.
33.
at?
ab
=0
ay 3 = 10ab 2y + 3b 3x.
+ 3a3y,
xj
2a
a*
Example
1.
Solve
From
(2)
and
Put u
for
x+y
(3),
;
+ y +z =13
.7^ + 2/2 + 22 = 65
xy = 10
(x
+ yf + * 2 = 85.
u*+z*=85.
(1),
(2),
(3).
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
108
Also from
u +z =13;
(1),
whence we obtain u = l or 6;
=6
x+y=
Thus we have
or
7,1
#?/ = 10
Hence the
7.
+ ?/ =
and
6,
acy = 10
solutions are
x=5,
or
2,'|
y = 2, or
5,1
=6
.r
= 3db\/-l.,
y^W^T,
or
z=l.
Example
Solve
2.
(a;
{y
+ y) {x + z) = 30,
+ z)(y + x) = 15,
[z+x)(z+y) =18.
Write
m,
1;,
for
?/
+ 2,
viv
as,
30,
a;
+y
respectively
tvu = 15,
thus
mv = 18
(1).
wVu>2 _ 30 x 15 x 18 = 15* x 6 2
.*. uvw = 90.
Combining
u = 3, v = 6, w = 5\ or w = -3, v = -6,
Example
ce=4, y = l, 2
3.
Solve
= 2;
or
+ ys + 2 2 = 49
+ z:r + a; = 19
x* + xy + y 2 =39
2
Subtracting
(2)
from
(1)
and
(4)
and
(5),
by division
y-*- 3
-
whence
(3).
(4).
(3)
[z-x){x+y+z)*=10
Hence from
(2),
(y-x){x + y + z) = 30
is,
Similarly from
(1),
(1)
y
that
w=-5;
y+z=-S,\
y + z=3,\
z + x = $, > or z+x = -d>,\
x + y = -5,i
x + y = 5))
.-.
whence
we have
= 3z-2x.
(5).
MISCELLANEOUS EQUATIONS.
Substituting in equation
(3),
10f)
we obtain
z*-8xa+8zs =13.
From
x 2 + xz
(2),
z~
= 19.
a;=2,
jc= -ts,
or
Example
Solve
4.
= 3 and
;
2= -t^
.t
y, 2,
.r
(1)
and
(2),
a;
-zx = 6 2
z2
xy = c 2
and add
respectively
then
(1).
//
z, x,
then
+ c-y + a*z =
(2).
by cross multiplication,
~^c = V^W =
2
^W =
2
k su PP se
a 4_^2c 2
+ b 6 + c 6 - 3a2
^4_ c
Z>
c 2)
ft2
C 4_
'
then
=1
11
1
i
a 7/j
EXAMPLES.
Joh
= 5
+ 2 + & 2z =
b2x
From
y^
we obtain
y= T -,
and therefore
-yz = a 2
therefore y
4, Art. 130,
*Ja*+b*+c*-3a?tP<?
X.
c.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
110
9.
10.
11.
#VW=8,
x*y*zhi=\%
aPy*z=12
^-
x*yz2 u2 =
l,
ay+#+y=23,
xz+x + z = 4l,
yz + ij + z = 27.
2^-4?+2/ = 17,
3yz+y-6z = 52,
xz + 3s + 2#= 29.
12.
13.
14.
.r
15.
16.
3xy 2z2 u 2 = 4.
+y 3 + ^3 =a3 ^2 +y 2 + 22 = a2 # + # + s = a.
^2 +y 2 +22 =3/^ + 2^ + .y = 2 3.r-# + 2 = a*/3.
#2 +y2 -M2 = 21a2 ys + ^-.ry = 6a 2 3x+y-2z = 3a.
3
Indeterminate Equations.
Suppose the following problem were proposed for
138.
tion
solu-
Let
x,
y be the number
of horses
23a;
+ 16^ =
then
461.
unknown
number
of
simple form.
INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS.
Example
1.
Solve 7# +
Divide throughout by
12j/
= 220
x + y+^-~
5y-S
=31
= integer
...
(1)
that
thus
we must have
l%-9 =
and therefore
y+^ =31 + -;
x+
.-.
Ill
in positive integers.
7,
integer
*-=-= integer;
%-l+ w-2
is,
1/-2
and therefore
integer
=p
suppose.
y-2 = 7p,
y = lp + 2
.-.
or
(2).
(1),
+ 7p + 2 + 5> + l = 31;
x = 2-l2p
.r
that
is,
.(3).
The complete
solution
may
be exhibited as follows
p=
0,
= 28,
y= 2,
a:
Note.
to
make
artifice
When we
obtained
1,
2,
16,
4,
9,
16.
5y-S
integer,
we multiplied by
3 in order
the integer.
Example
2.
14x -
x+
3x-7
11
Sx
11
i/-2 + ir
= 2 - x + y = integer
11//
= 29.
(1).
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
112
12 - 28
hence
= m teg er
.
^ = integer
*>
g*
that
x - 2+
is,
' ^
Qfc
.-.
X = \\p +
.*.
and, from
(1),
14p + 5 !
This
any
and y
is
thus we have
p = 0,
1,
= 6,
y = 5,
number
Example
3,
.t
the
2,
33, 47,
19,
In
then
5^ + 4y = 200;
x +y+\=
5 ;
x
2 integer = 2^ suppose
.
.'
x=4p,
.*.
and
= 50-5p.
Example
4.
man
paid
there of each?
each
The expenses
5s.,
each
woman
Eliminating
The general
z,
we obtain
+ 5?/ + 2z = 229.
8x + By = 143.
is
x=Sp + l,
y = 45-8p;
INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS.
Hence by substituting
in
(1),
p=
x-
113
we obtain
z = 5p-3.
zero, but
may have
1,
2,
4,
5;
4,
7, 10, 13,
16;
5;
2=2,
3,
EXAMPLES.
X.
d.
of
1.
3.i
+ 8y = 103.
2.
5#+2y=53.
3.
7.>;+
4.
l&P+lly=414
5.
23a?+25y=915.
6.
4L>;
+ 47y = 2191.
least values
x and y which
5.v-7y = 3.
7.
8.
I7y-13#=0.
10.
12y=152.
11.
6a?-13y=l.
9.
19y-23a?=7.
13.
14.
In
8#-2ty=33.
77y-3Qa?=295.
12.
What
16.
pay
in shillings
and sixpences,
15.
to
may
be a multiple of 8
5.
is
105. 6d. to
the simplest
another
way
who has
for a person
only half-crowns
What
16,
is
only?
Divide 136 into two parts one of which when divided by 5
leaves remainder 2, and the other divided by 8 leaves remainder 3.
19.
20.
at
17
if I
my
many
of rams at 4, pigs at 2,
of each do I buy ?
and oxen
H. H. A.
CHAPTER XL
Permutations and Combinations.
Each of the arrangements which can be made by taking
139.
some or all of a number of things is called a permutation.
Each of the groups or selections which can be made by taking
some or all of a number of things is called a combination.
Thus the permutations which can be made by taking the
letters a, b, c, d two at a time are twelve in number, namely,
ab,
ac,
ad,
be,
bd,
cd,
ba,
ca,
da,
cb,
db,
dc
a,
letters.
letters
ab,
ac,
ad,
be,
bd,
cd;
letters.
From
following
ways
abc,
and
acb,
bca,
bac,
cab,
cba,
140.
discussing
the
general
115
propositions
of
this
proceed to
the
and
first;
so,
ways
of per-
m x n.
There are 10 steamers plying between Liverpool and Dublin;
in how many ways can a man go from Liverpool to Dublin and return by a
different steamer?
Example
1.
There are ten ways of making the first passage and with each of these
there is a choice of nine ways of returning (since the man is not to come back
by the same steamer) hence the number of ways of making the two journeys
is 10 x 9, or 90.
;
may
Example
2.
in how
different hotel?
hotels;
easily be
The first traveller has choice of four hotels, and when he has made his
selection in any one way, the second traveller has a choice of three ; therefore the first two can make their choice in 4 x 3 ways and with any one such
choice the third traveller can select his hotel in 2 ways hence the required
number of ways is 4 x 3 x 2, or 24.
;
To find
141.
the
number of permutations of
\\
dissimilar things
taken r at a time.
we
disposal.
The
things
first
may
place
be
82
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
116
n (n- l)(n
and the r th factor
new
factor is introduced
at any stage the number
places filled up, we shall
to r factors
2)
or
1),
n r+1.
n{na time
The number
(n-
2)
(n-r +
of permutations of
things taken r at
1).
n things taken
all
at
is
or
is
142.
to
factors,
3.2.1.
of
1)
n (n - 1) (?i - 2)
n(n Y)(n2)
It
is
n (r
Cor.
up
We
Also n\
is
n things taken
r at a time
by the symbol
"Pr = w(w-l)(w-2)
"P =
also
number
n
\n,
which
is
\n.
of permutations
so that
(n-r + 1);
\n.
a time
The number
may
also be
of permutations of
n things taken
r at
117
With
By
rl
writing
"P_ = '^
1
x(n-r-f2),
_2
= 'Pr _a
'P
similarly,
we obtain
x (n
-r+
3),
=7l.
Example
seats
in
The
= n(n-l)(n-2)
(n-r+l).
may
in
six
person
Example
2.
1, 2, 3, ...9?
Here we have 9 different things and we have to find the number of permutations of them taken 6 at a time
;
=9x8x7x6x5x4
= 60480.
To find
taken r at a
144.
tilings
the
number of combinations of n
dissimilar
time.
Then each
of these combinations
ways.
[Art. 142.]
consists of
a group of r
themselves in
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
118
Hence "C r x
things taken
\r
rata
number
equal to the
is
time
that
of arrangements of
is,
*C x\r = "Pr
r
=n
(n 1) (n
2)
(n - r + 1)
tt(w-l)(w-2)...(w-r+l)
|r
'"
n
This formula for C r may also be written in a different
form ; for if we multiply the numerator and the denominator by
\n r we obtain
Cor.
n (n -
1) (n
2)
\r
...
{n
-r+
1) x
nr
\
nr
\n
.'.
"C r =
(2).
Note.
If in
formula
(2)
we put r = n, we have
\n
n
~jn|_0" |0'
is to
of
ways = n C4
1 1x10 x9x8
~ 1x2x3x4
= 330.
selection,
we
119
of
ways = n C6
_ 11x10x9x8x7
1x2x3x4x5
= 462.
145.
equal
to
is
n-r
things
r at a time is
n r at a time
.-.
"C r =
_r
proved as follows
also be
\n
=
nr n
(n
- r)
[Art. 144.1
n
n
The
tt
we have
called complementary.
C = n Cn =l.
just proved
is
useful in enabling us to
Out
of 14
men
in
eleven be chosen?
14 x 13 x 12
1x2x3
= 364.
If
we had made
uC
to reduce
each contained 11 factors.
au
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
120
Tojind
the
ra
Note.
different
If
ways
\7b
of subdivision is -
[9
for in
147.
new
groups containing m,
of
possible
is
distribution.
m + n + p things can
p things
n,
it
number
severally.
\m +
can be done
is
-r=
\m
n+p
n+p
\n+p
tively
is
of
n,
n p
ways in which the subdivision into three
things can be
m + n+p
n+p
in
Note.
If
n+p
x
made is
\m + n + ]>
or
,
5
\n \p
\n \p
Ira
J3wi
r=-|
as different all the possible orders in which ~th.e three groups can occur in
any one mode of subdivision. And since there are 13 such orders cor-
is
771
Example.
The number
of
ways in which 15
r^fm
771
r^
|3
115
--;
of
15
121
Example
1.
be formed; in
"We have to
Americans ?
choose 2 Americans and 4 Englishmen.
the
first
the required
number
of
hence
ways = 4 C 2 x 7 C4
li
\1
|~2"[2
TTJ3
17
= 210.
'J^
|2|2|3
(2)
2, 3,
or 4 Americans.
"We shall exhaust all the suitable combinations by forming all the groups
containing 2 Americans and 4 Englishmen then 3 Americans and 3 Englishmen; and lastly 4 Americans and 2 Englishmen.
;
17
|4
X TTT^
[4
j_3
TK X rl ^ + 1 X
j_3
|3|4
[2)5
Example
made each
2.
Out of 7 consonants and 4 vowels,
containing 3 consonants and 2 vowels?
The number
number of ways
be
number
of words = 7 C 3 x
~|3|4
C2 x
Jo
= 5x|7
r
= 25200.
[2]2
"
may
be arranged
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
122
How many
Example
3.
Here we have
number
the
first
Hence
=|3x[4
of words
= 144.
In this Example the formula for permutations is immediately applicable,
because by the statement of the question there is but one way of choosing the
vowels, and one way of choosing the consonants.
EXAMPLES
XI.
a.
3.
4.
How many
25
7,
different
24
5
<74
19
,
CU
word equation ?
How many
How many
How
8.
9.
10.
If 2n C3
n Oj
= 44
3,
find n.
How many
letters of the
13.
Out
14.
be made
capital
23
15.
16.
If n
C12 = n Cs
17.
In
arranged,
find n C17 ,
22
<7n .
From
18.
chosen
if
(1)
officer?
In how
10 persons
19.
Cr = ls Cr + 2
If
20.
find'<75
many ways
In how
23.
persons
many ways
26.
In how
27.
boat
is
eight men, of whom 2 can only rowon stroke side; in how many ways can
manned by
to be
There are two works each of 3 volumes, and two works each of
2 volumes in how many ways can the 10 books be placed on a shelf so
that volumes of the same work are not separated ?
28.
29.
that the
In
befit
be arranged so
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
124
30.
men,
not
steer.
men
if
two of the
32.
If
56
Pr +
54
6
Pr + = 30800
3
1,
find
r.
different signals can be made by hoisting 6 differently coloured flags one above the other, when any number of them
may be hoisted at once ?
33.
How many
34.
U^C
2r
24
:
C2r _ 4 = 225
11, find
r.
Suppose we have to find all the possible ways of arranging 12 books on a shelf, 5 of them being Latin, 4 English, and
the remainder in different languages.
150.
The books
may
be regarded as belonging to
one class, united by a common characteristic ; but if they were
distinguishable from each other, the number of permutations
would be )12, since for the purpose of arrangement among themin each language
'
125
however, the books in the same language are not distinguishable from each other, we should have to find the number
of ways in which 12 things can be arranged among themselves,
when 5 of them are exactly alike of one kind, and 4 exactly alike,
of a second kind a problem which is not directly included in any
of the cases we have previously considered.
If,
things
time,
may
be
when p
of
alike
a,
q of them
permutations.
Similarly,
number
the
if
x
In
we
like
would be
of permutations
x \p x
|<7.
\q x
letters c
\r
by
r unlike letters,
permutations.
But the things are now all different, and therefore admit
permutations among themselves. Hence
x x
that
\p
is,
\q
~.
\p \g
which
is
Any
the required
number
r-
\n;
of permutations.
treated similarly.
of \n
all
different
may
be
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
126
Example
letters
We
1.
How many
have here 13
different
letters of
which 4 are
s,
3 are a, 2 are
i,
and 2 are
n.
~|^[3|2j
= 13.11.10.9.8.7.3.5
= 1001 x 10800 = 10810800.
Example
How many
2.
1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1,
The odd
so
digits 1, 3, 3, 1
digits
way s
(1) -
l^2
The even
digits 2, 4, 2
y^
Each
of the
ways
in
(1)
ways
(2).
-j^
= 6 x 3 = 18.
Here we have
to consider the
(2).
13
number
of
things r at a
up
to
ways in which r
any arrangement.
The first place may be filled up in n ways, and, when it has
been filled up in any one way, the second place may also be filled
up in n ways, since we are not precluded from using the same
thing again.
Therefore the number of ways in which the first
The third place can
two places can be filled up iswxn or n2
also be filled up in n ways, and therefore the first three places in
.
n3 ways.
Proceeding in this manner, and noticing that at any stage the
index of n is always the same as the number of places filled up,
we shall have the number of ways in which the r places can be
filled
up equal to n r
127
Example. In how many ways can 5 prizes be given away to 4 boys, when
each boy is eligible for all the prizes?
Any one of the prizes can be given in 4 ways; and then any one of the;
remaining prizes can also be given in 4 ways, since it may be obtained by the
boy who has already received a prize. Thus two prizes can be given away in
4a ways, three prizes in 4 ways, and so on.
Hence the 5 prizes can be given
away in 4 5 or 1024 ways.
:!
To find
153.
to
make a
Each
the total
selection by taking
some or
all
of
it is
possible
things.
\\
may
2x2x2x2
But
to
which
This
of
all
number
is
of
number
ways
is
left,
2"-l.
of combinations"
things.
A man
has 6 friends
more of them to dinner?
Example.
He
ways
factors.
is
2s
1,
in
invite one or
or 63.
therefore the
= 6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1 = 63.
154.
of
n things
Since
r at
"C
a time
=
^( ?l -
- 2)
1.2.3
)( n
n(n-l)(n-2)
= nC
it
(w-r +
2.3
r+
(w-r + 2)(n-r +
(r-l)r
l)
2)
(r-1)
1
The multiplying
which shews that
number of combinations
is greatest.
1.
"C
r the
factor
may be
decreases as r increases.
written
Hence
1,
as r receives
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
128
the values
in succession,
1, 2,
continually increased
is
71 4- 1
until
becomes equal to
or less than
1.
Now
1^1,
r
71+1
>z
so long as
that
is,
We
>
r.
this inequality.
(1)
n+
-2
and
Hence by putting
combinations
is
"Cn
2m +1
up to
m=
we
than
number
r.
of
(2)
=-5
n+
and
2m +
up to
m+ 1
*C.= n Cm
mi+I
+ li
:
'
that
inclusive this
is,'
"C n++ 1
same
in the
two
then
greater than r
the multiplying factor becomes equal to 1, and
but when r -
2m +
or
is
C7il
of combinations is greatest
when the
cases.
eaeli
of
w~ l
is
n~
b is
120
x
:
tin
Tlierefore
which
similarly
number
contain
of combinations
b,
*c= n - cr x-.
x
By
writing
1
i
.,
and r 1 instead
of
n and
ni
r respectively,
r-l
-V^ = ^G _ x -2
Similarly,
n r + 2/~1
2
and
n - r+1
finally,
_n-r + \ri
^i
>.
C = -r + 1.
1
"C
n (rc-l)(n-2)
To find
156.
to
make a
selection
r(r-l)(r-2)
(n-r+
l)
the total
it is
-possible
+r +
so on.
H.
II.
A.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
130
But
taken
ways
may be
1) (r
1)
which none
case,
the
total
number
of
is
(jp
+ l)fe+l)(r +
-1.
.l)
but a
Example. Find the number of ways in which (1) a selection, (2) an arrangement, of four letters can be made from the letters of the word
proportion.
There are 10
may
Three
(1)
p,
one
(3)
(4)
alike,
alike,
r, t, is
The
selection can be
of the three pairs o, o; p, p;
(2)
made
r, r.
(1)
letters
one of the
select
total
number
of selections
is
+ 3 + 30 + 15
Thus
we
for
two out
Thus the
all
r; t; i; n.
be classified as follows
The
n,
r,
different.
Two
Two
(2)
(1)
alike,
gives rise to 5 x
(2)
(3)
gives rise to 30 x
or 360 arrangements.
(4)
gives rise to 15 x j4
number
is,
53.
we have
to
permute in
or 20 arrangements.
(1)
the total
that
-=,
or 18 arrangements.
or 3G0 arrangements.
of arrangements is 20
+ 18 + 360 + 360;
that
is,
758.
EXAMPLES.
XI.
131
b.
1.
letters
independence,
(1)
superstitious,
institutions.
(3)
In how
(2)
many ways
if
7 of
4.
the digits
2, 3, 0, 3, 4, 2,
3?
7.
In
9.
there
is
10.
persons
11.
many ways
In how
can
five
in the expression
a z b 2 c* when written at
full
length?
13.
How many
eight digits
numbers
1, 2, 3, 0, 4, 5, 6,
less
92
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
132
17.
A telegraph has 5
In how
many ways
is it
21.
n equal
many
From
selec-
mn
things into
groups.
There are
How many
28.
letters of the
29.
word examination ?
1, 3, 5, 7, 9,
all
all
CHAPTER
XIT.
Mathematical Induction.
Many
Example
of the first
1.
Suppose
it
is
n natural numbers
equal to
<
sum
of the cubes
'J-
We can easily see by trial that the statement is true in simple cases, such
as when re=l, or 2, or 3 and from this we might be led to conjecture that
the formula was true in all cases. Assume that it is true when n terms are
taken that is, suppose
;
13
Add
13
the (+
+ 23 + 33 +
+ 2 3 + 33 +
l) th
to
term, that
to
itteims=|
(n+
is,
n + 1 terms =j
1)
^ +1
)j
to each side
^
|
H ( ;t+1
then
+(n+iy\-
= {n + iy-('j+n + l\
(n+l) 8 (na +4n+4)
4
\
-\
(n
+ l)(K + 2)
)\
'
which is of the same form as the result we assumed to be true for n terms,
n + 1 taking the place of n in other words, if the result is true when we take
a certain number of terms, whatever that number may be, it is true when we
increase that number by one; but we see that it is true when 3 terms are
taken therefore it is true when 4 terms are taken it is therefore true when
Thus the result is true universally.
5 terms are taken; and so on.
;
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
134
Example
To determine
2.
x + a.
By
actual multiplication
(x
+ a)
(x+a)
(x
(x
+ b)
+ b)
(x
we have
(x
+ c)
(x + d)
= x*+(a + b + c + d)x 3
+ (ab + ac+ ad + bc+ bd + cd) x~
+ (abc + abd + acd + bed) x + abed.
The number
1.
of terms
on the right
is
left.
2.
The index of x in the first term is the same as the number of
binomial factors and in each of the other terms the index is one less than
that of the preceding term.
;
The
term
is
unity
Assume that
p 1 = a + b + c+
where
...h;
= ab + ac + + ah + bc + bd+
p 3 = abc + abd+
p.2
...
p n_x = abc...h.
Multiply both sides by another factor x + k
(x
= x n + (p + k)
x
Now
^i
p.2
n~l
+ a)
...
+ (p.2 +p x k)
thus
(x + h) (x + k)
n~* +
n
(p 3 + pJc) x
~3
+... +l^ n- x k.
a, b, c,...k;
+p k=p.2 + k (a + b + ... + h)
1
= sum
n
p.A
(x + b)
letters a, b, c,
...
k;
+ ah + bc + .)
+p.2 k =p 3 + k (ab + ac +
= sum of the products taken three at a time of
. . .
the n letters
2? n _ 1 A*
= product
a, b, c,
...
k;
b,
c,
...
k.
all
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION.
135
If therefore the laws hold when ?t-l factors are multiplied together
they hold in the case of n factors. But we havo seen that they hold in the
case of 4 factors; therefore they hold for 5 factors; therefore also for 6
factors and so on thus they hold universally.
Therefore
;
[x + a) (x + b) {x
where
S^the sum
<So = the sum
+c)
(x
...
+ 8n
Js;
...
S n =the product
Theorems relating
159.
b, c
may
to divisibility
often be esta-
blished by induction.
Shew
Example.
values of
By
J
if
-l
-l
.-c
x
division
by
divisible
is
x-1
n.
therefore x n
4,
that
1 is
~l -
x-1
divisible by x -
z'
l
by x -
l-1
-l
x-1
*;
also divisible by x - 1.
therefore x - 1 is divisible by x - 1 ; there1
1, and so on ; hence the proposition is established.
1 is divisible
1 is divisible by^r
= xn ~
1,
then x* - 1
is
will be
From
EXAMPLES.
Prove by Induction
+ (2n-l) = n 2
1.
1+3 + 5+
2.
l2
3.
4.
+ o~q + q-~T +
T~o
1.22.33.4
5.
even.
+ 2 2 + 32 +
+ 22 + 23 +
XII.
+ n 2 =i?i(n+l)(2tt+l).
+ 2 = 2(2'
-l).
ton terms =
.r
yn
is
-^
n+1
divisible
by
x+y when
is
CHAPTER
Binomial Theorem.
It
161.
may be shewn by
XIII.
+ a) (x + b) (x + c) {x + d)
= x4 + (a + b + c + d) x3 + (ab + ac + ad +
+ (abc + abd + acd + bed) x + abed
(x
bc
+ bd + cd) x*
(1).
We
the term x
is
letter
x out
of each
of the factors.
out
letters a,
6, c,
(5)
, b,
c,
is
the product of
all
the letters
+ 3) (x - 5) (x + 9)
= x 4 + (- 2 + 3 - 5 + 9) z 3 + (- 6 + 10 -18 -15 + 27 -45) a 2
+ (30 - 54 + 90 - 135) x + 270
= x4 + 5a; 3 - 47.<c 2 - 69z + 270.
Example
1.
(x
2) (x
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
Example
137
2.
of the quantities
coefficient
b=c=d=a, we
we suppose
obtain
(x
a)
= x4 + iax* + 6a
V + 4a
as
+ a4
We
it is
it.
shall in the
To find
the
n
expansion of (x + a) ivhen n
is
a positive
integer.
the
number
+ a)
(x
+ b)
(x
c)
(x
k),
of factors being n.
n
in the
from the remaining factor thus the coefficient of x
final product *is the sum of the letters a, b, c,
k; denote it
1
by^.
~
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
138
n~r
And,
r
x"~ in the final product is the sum of the products of the letters
a, b, c, ...k taken r at a time; denote it by Sr
.
The
last
Hence
is
abc
...
k; denote it
by
(x + k)
+ a)(x + b)(x + c)
+ SjxT* + + rx"~ + ...+Sn ,x + Sn
12
(x
n~l
= x n + Sx
Sn
is
in
S2
number of terms
the
is
Now
"Ca:
suppose
b,
S, becomes "C\a
(x
a)
k,
...
c,
2
= xn + n C ax n
-il
n
n
(x+a) = x"+nax
we
...
2,
n(nl)
n+
~2
+ "C^aV" 3 +
+ "Ca"
obtain
- r-^oV
_J
\)(n2)
n(n
/v
v
l
1
a 3x n
+...
+ an
terms.
This
is
C a xn
is
164.
By
we can
The
165.
find
in the expansion of (x
coefficients
a)" are
n
very
n
C3 ... C n
conveniently expressed by the symbols "C,, "C 2
shall, however, sometimes further abbreviate them by omitting
With this notation we have
n, and writing (7,, C 2 C 3 ... C n
,
We
(x
If
(x
+ a) n =
we
x"
+ C ax
write
+ C 2 a2 x n
~2
-l
2 n
x
+ Ca
2
(-a) 2x
-2
+ C3 a 3x n
we
in the place of a,
n
-a) n = x" + C\(- a) x
= xn - C,axn
n~
n-2
~3
+ Ca\
...
obtain
+C
3 n ~3
- C,a
x
+
3
3
(-a) 3 xn - +... + Cn (-a)
...
+ (- IYG na\
\
n
Thus the terms in the expansion of (x + a) and (x a) are
numerically the same, but in (x - a)' they are alternately positive
and negative, and the last term is positive or negative according
as n is even or odd.
n
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
Example
By
1.
*/
?/
Example
-
2.
2x) 7
?/
G
,
C2
6
,
C3
= a7 - 7C
a c (2x)
'
(a
2.r) 7 .
+ 7 C2 a 5 (2a;) 2 - 7 C3 a 4 (2a;) 3 +
39
the formula,
{x
[a
+ y) 6
{x
to 8 terms.
the coefficients up to
Cr 7 C<x \ and so on.
Hence
(a
- 2x) 7 = a7 - 7a B
{2x)
+ jp| a 5 (2xf -
\^-\ 4 (2a;)
= a 7 - Ua 6x + 84a5
Example
3.
a;
(2a;)
+ la
(2s) 6 - (2.r)~
128a; 7 .
1)".
We have here the sum of two expansions whose terms are numerically
the same ; but in the second expansion the second, fourth, sixth, and eighth
terms are negative, and therefore destroy the corresponding terms of the first
expansion. Hence the value
= 2 {a7 + 21a 5 (a2 - 1) + 35a 3 (a 2 - l) 2 + la (a 2 = 2a (64a 6 - 112a 4 + 56a 2 - 7
l) 3 }
).
In the expansion
of (x
a)
Cjrw,
or
(-l)("-2)-(
+,,-,,.
t
In applying this formula to any particular case, it should 1><>
observed that the index of a is the same as the svffix of C, and
that the sum of the indices ofx and a is n.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
140
Example
1.
Find the
fifth
term of
+ 2a; 3 ) 17
(a
= 17 C4 a13 (2a; 3
4
)
17.16.15.14
1.2.3.4
= 38080a 13 x 12
Example
2.
xl6ft13 .T 12
(3
a) 15 .
= 15 C13 (3) 2 - a) 13
= 15 C2 x(-9a13
= - 945a 13
[Art. 145.]
(1
x)
= l+ H C x + "C2 x 2 +
n(n-\)
1
^
1
1.2
+ nx +
4- r"
+
zri ar
'
(n-r+
n(nl)(n2)
1)
tb
to
depend
{x
+y
yJ(X (i + l)J
= xn (l + z) n where
,
Example
1.
Find the
coefficient of
We have
(a;
2a;)
a;
10
16
= Vx
in the expansion of
a;
20
(1 - -
a;
20
1 -
coefficient
= 10 C4
10
2)
1.2.3.4
xl6
= 3360.
In some cases the following method
is
10
.
2\ 10
we have in
J
2a;)
V
/
and, since
(as
simpler.
BINOMIAL THEOEEM.
Example
Find the
2.
coefficient of
x r in the expansion of
tlio
The
(p
term
1)'
(p
+ l) ,h
./-
141
-
term.
= n Cp x"' -*".
1
But
this
2n-5p = r,
2*1
or
p=-
Thus
g(2n-r)
Unless
2n
= (3n
?)
i'
is
the expansion.
of
term
To prove
161).
the
is
used
of the expansion of
(a
method
+ c+
)".
Binomial Theorem.
(x
since
a)
=x
4-
C X*- a +
1
C,,x --a
to unity.
C x"-a +
r
...+
a",
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
142
EXAMPLES.
Expand the
(#-3) 5
4.
(l-3a 2 ) 6
2.
(3^ + 2y) 4
5.
{a?+x)\
g*-js)'-
13.
15.
The 12 th term
The
of
18.
The
19.
The
V th
13
.
- 1) 13
(a
\
U
+ 96
J
/
term of (2a -
term of (^' -
The
5 th term of
{Zx-yf.
6.
(1-^j/) 7
12
-
NT
14.
The 10 th term
of (1 - 2x) 12
16.
The 28 th term
of (5x + 8y) 30
10
.
b\ 8
.
-J
^-Y
5.
20.
3.
5)
of (2#
4 th term of
th
(a?
(H'-
17.
a.
following binomials
1.
">
XIII.
- V-
(V^^+^-CV^3^-^)
24.
(2-Vr^) 6 + (2 + v I^^) 6
21.
(x + s/2y +
23.
25.
26.
27.
Find the
coefficient of
a.
28.
Find the
coefficient of
x 18
29.
Find the
coefficients of
30.
v/2
(x-j2)\
+ l) 6 -( N/2-l) 6
cV\ 10
-+\x a
- "
18 in L'V2
in (axA
bx) 9
x 32 and #~ 17
in
1\ 15
( A
x - -g
a3\ 9
5
-
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
If
Ux -
\-\
lx+-\
....
eihcient
in
b3
1 \
/
;/;
-x2
x -.,
1\'-'
/
xp occurs in the expansion of ( xr+-
3i
.
prove that
its co-
\2n
-
is
(4
"-^ \@n+p)
j3
170.
In the expansion of (1 4- x) u the coefficients of terms equidistant from the beginning and end are equal.
The
coefficient of the
(r
l)
th
is
"C..
Tlie
n-r
terms before
it;
th
follows.
171.
(l + x)
The
To find
the
greatest
term of
By
Art. 154,
when n
in
coefficient
(1
the
+x)"
expansion of
is
this is greatest.
is
and we
is
"C n
and when n
is
odd,
it
is
"C
,,
or "C
these
two
coefficients
being equal.
172.
We
To find
have
therefore, since
the greatest
(x
a)"
= x" (l +
-Y
n
x multiplies every term
a)".
in
( 1
+ -j
it
will
be
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
144
Let
the r th
The (r+l) th
.
The
that
is,
by
\
Vh
factor
decreases
[Art.
166.1J
L
increases
as
hence the
(r+l) th term
until
is
1
- becomes equal
x
to
/n +
Now
n+
so long as
1
1
J x
1
.,
>
n+
is,
or
x
a
>-+
1.
1j
>-
..
that
or less than
1,
1,
>r
( 1 ).
a
If
-+
a
be an integer, denote
it
by
j>
then
71+1
- +
])
the
If
if
its
is
equal to the
integral part
by q
is
q\ hence the
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
Example
If
1.
Denote the
?"'
and
(/-
+ l) tu terms by Tr and Tr 1
9-r
9-r
so long
as
(1+
to
respectively; then
->1;
36 - 4r > 3r,
is
3G>7r.
or
The
is
of
T7^. > Tr
hence
that
its
is
value
3i4
243~
Example
2.
(3-
2^ = 3^1
|J;
(2rV
-
1
Here
-*r+i
= 9-r+l
10 - r
^r,.
10 ~ r
so ilong as
Tr
...
numerically,
x ->
20>5r.
is,
Hence
Tr+1 > Tr
iience
that
2*
-~o~
up to
3,
but
if
r=4, then
these are the greatest terms. Thus the 4"' and 5 th terms are
numerically equal and greater than any other term, and their value
=3"xC,x f|
H. H. A.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
146
173.
To find
of (I +x)".
In the identity
put x =
sum of
the
(1
+ a?)n =
+ C x + G 2 x 2 + C3 x 3 +
expansion
in the
the coefficients
. . .
+C
af,
t
thus
2*=l + Cx + C2 + C3 +... + Cn
= sum of the coefficients.
+C +C +
12
Cor.
C\
174.
...
q
3
number
To prove
the coefficients
Cn =T-l;
'
of combinations of
n things"
equal
is
to the
x)
is 2"
sum of the
1.
sum of
the
coefficients
In the identity
put x = - 1 thus
x)
+ C x + C2x2 + C 3x3 +
...
+ C x\
...
+ 1+ c4 +
;.....
-0
+'Ca + C.+
(sum of
all
the coefficients)
n-l
175.
The Binomial Theorem may also be applied to
expressions which contain more than two terms.
expand
Example.
Regarding 2x -
+ 2x- l) 3
(x z
expansion
(2x - l) 2 + (2x -
2 2
176.
Example.
If
and
The
series (l)
is
l)
on reduction.
instructive.
+ x) n = c + c x x + c#? +
+c n xn
c + 2c 2 + 3c 2 + 4c 3 +
+ n +l)cn
2
2
c 1 + 2c 2 + 3c 32 +
+nc n2
(1
(1),
= {c + c + c 2 +
+ c n + (c x + 2c 2 + 3c3 +
)
=2 w +
?i
Jl
+ (/t-l) +
= 2 n + n(l + l) n ~
-2n +w.2-1
.
J_L
(?).
+nc n
+ il
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
To
(2),
+ 3c 3 x* +
+ ncn x n
8>
* +
+ *-}
we have
1
&++!*+
X
X'
X
s
cQ
IT
Also
we proceed thus
+ ^=!(i
+ i)*n
(s) .
+ en z% =(l+z) n
(4).
X \
+ c 1 x + c.2 x 2 +
xj
we
)l
term independent of x in
= coefficient
= ?ix 2n -
of x n in
(l
+ x)-'
'1
+ .r) 2>l-l
(1
1
<
i2n-l
n-1
In-
EXAMPLES.
XIII.
3.
when #=11, y =
- 3y) 28 when x = 9, y = 4.
( 2x
(2a + b) u when a =4, 6 = 5.
4.
(3
1.
2.
(x
y)
is
b.
30
+ 2x) lb when x -
ss
5.
6.
(1
+ x) n when x = -
+ #)* when a= s
n = 6.
.r
= -,
??=9.
102
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
148
7.
middle term of (l + x) 2n is
of the coefficients of the two middle terms of
coefficient of the
sum
equal to the
"- 1
(1+tf) 2
.
If
8.
10.
11.
12.
Find the
+ 2x - x )\
(Zx 2 -2ax + 3a
sum
2n +
in the expansion of (1
.3.5...(2n-l)
sn
hi
If c
Cj, c 2 , ...
<?
c,
18.
io
iy.
+
+i- 4-
c.2c
M
21.
a
2c
H
+
2 2c,
ncn
cn _
(c n
+ c =
cn
c,c,
1 2
= --
O
A
. 1 + cn )
n{n+\
2 4c,
+ CjC r + + c 2cr + 2 +
j
2 3c2
f+c +c2 +
1
n+
= 2 -l
n+l
n+\
cn
+~
Cl + c 2
+ 2 i+
c cr
C2
cx
(co+ej
3c8
1
20.
23.
c,
-2 4-
22.
+ncn =n.2n - 1
^ + 2^ + 303 +
(n+l)'-H
n +-p^
2n +
cn
l
3' 1 +
-1
-=-..
n+l
|2w
i
7i
]^
th
and
+x) 2n
is
prove that
17.
l)
coefficients
240, 720,
14.
n
)
2 3
(]\
x--j
16.
of the
(1
r th
the
(x+y) n are
th
2 nd, 3 rd , 4 terms in the expansion of
1080 respectively ; find x, y, n.
The
9.
+cn _ r cn = --
\2n
=~~
(1
+x) n
CHAPTER
XIV.
Binomial Theorem.
Any
Index.
In the
Since,
common
type,
last
it
By
(1
actual evolution,
(1
+ ^ X - - X2 +
yr.
x3 -
division,
- x)~ 2 =
7^
xa
+ 2x + 3x* + ix 3 +
[Compare Ex.
and
to
we have
+ xf = V 1 + X =
and by actual
(1
+x)
attention
number
of terms
is
1,
Art. CO.]
unlimited.
rational quantity.
and
mx+
l+n.v +
m (m v
g
l
1 )
'x-+
m x(m -
/x(m
1 )
K
J -
>x-+-
]
2)
,
'a?+
a?
in ascending
(I
).
(2).
xx
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
150
The product
two expressions
cending powers of x\ denote it by
1+ Ax +Bx2 + Cx3 + Dx4 +
of these
are functions of
and n,
in any particular
and therefore the actual values of A, B, C,
and n in that case. But
case will depend upon the values of
the way in which the coefficients of the powers of a; in (1) and (2)
combine to give A, B, C,
is quite independent of
and n ;
in other words, whatever values in and n may have, A, B, C,
If therefore we can determine
preserve the same invariable form.
the form of A, B, C,
for any value of
and n, we conclude
that A, B, C,
will have the same form for all values of
then
it
is
clear that A, B, C,
and
n.
The
We
shall
make
To prove
179.
the
the
index
is
positive fraction.
+ mx +
m (m ^- 1)-x-
m (m-Y) (m 2)
' v
s
3
'
...
+ nx +
n(n l)2
\
'
x +
n(n l)(n
' v
v
2)
'-
....
we
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
f(m) xf(n) but when
and n are
x)
x (1
+ a?)" =
(m +
n)
+ x) m+ \
(1
(m + n I
This then
1.51
-,
(1
ANY INDEX.
1)
+ x)"
"
Also
x/( p)
=f(m + n +p),
Proceeding in
f(m) xf(n)
tliis
x/(j;)...to k factors
that
=/( + n +p
?i,
similarly.
+...to k terms).
be equal to =
j),
rC
but since h
but
y*
(
is
a positive integer,
f (h) = (1 + x)
,,
.*.
k\k
vi
a;)
h
T
x+
k \k
x
J
/
x-
1.2
for
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
152
180.
To prove
the
the
index
any
is
negative quantity.
It has
and
Replacing
n.
in
by n
(wliere
is
we have
f(-n) xf(n)=f(-n + 7i)
=/(0)
=%
since all terms of the series except the first vanish
/( - n)
'
but/(w) = (l +
x)'\ for
or
(1
+ (- n) x +
.)-
of n;
+ *)"" =/(-*)
+ (_ W )
=
L
'-f,
1
...
'
(1
/hr
a.
ar
*>
in the
two preceding
articles
may
now
dif-
we
refer.
is finite
when
BINOMIAL T11EOUEM.
ANY INDEX.
153
Example
Expand
1.
2.
- xf2
to four terms.
,.J(H(S-)
Id- 1 ),
Example
(1
Expand
(2
+ 3a;) -4
(2
to four terms.
4
182.
formula
m(w-1)(w-2)
written in full
when n
is
for the
(n-r +
l)
xr
fractional or negative.
Also the
numerator
zero; the series will thereterm, when n r + 1 is zero ; that is, when
fore stop at the r
r=oi+ l but since r is a positive integer this equality can never
Thus the
hold except when the index n is positive and integral.
expansion by the Binomial Theorem extends to w+1 terms when
n is a positive integer, and to an infinite number of terms in all
other cases.
th
its
is
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
154
Example
1.
of (1 +x)'\
L
r
(-2r + 3)
-5)
af.
2 r lr
of factors in the numerator is r, and r - 1 of these are negatherefore, by taking -- 1 out of each of these negative factors, we may
The number
tive
(-i)~
-<-V
Example
The
(r
2.
+ 1)'- term =
V"
"
E
w
Example
1) (2
(_1)-
3.
i)r-i
(1-r-l.n)
(_
1)
l)r-i
3'(- 4 >'-_5
~
by removing
= (_ i)2r-i = _ 1#
1.2.3
(1
- x)~ 3
-,)r
(r
+ 2)
(1)ffa,
X
r
(r+l)(r+2) .
*
1.2
like factors
....(^l.n-l)
)^-(- 3 -'-+ 1
= (1)r 3.4.5
~
(r-l.n-1)
(n-l)(2n-l)
The(r + irterm=<-
(n
since
i)r
- )r
l(l-n)(l-2n)
(1-F^Un)
= !(!-) (l-ar.)r
(l-nx) n .
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
ANY INDEX.
EXAMPLES. XIV.
Expand
1.
a.
(l+xf.
155
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
156
and,
not,
if
be used as
its
-x)~ =
r
(1
(-l)~
+ x + x2 + x 3 +
may
=l+2
is sufficient
n(n-l)
~
l+nx+
(1)
v
'
1
-z
(1);
+ x) n
in all cases.
sum
that the
to
we know
x2 +
'
x*
obtain
series
x)
we have
l; then
we then
gression,
true equivalent.
Now
(1
of
- xr
x
r
x
1 - x
and,
large
when x
we can make
number
sufficient
little
is
we
as
-X
1,
by taking r
sufficiently
we
as small as
that
of terms the
please from
please
But when x
is,
by taking
to differ as
numerically
is
greater than
1,
the value of
x
^
r increases with
1 - x
of
is
JL
any number
r.
and therefore
obtained by taking
vC
+ X + Xs + X3
4-
It will be seen in the chapter on Convergency and Divergency of Series that the expansion by the Binomial Theorem
of
But
if
is
greater than
a?
is
+ nx
n(n-\)
H
x"
.j
in-
1,
the series
,
always arithmetically
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
ANY INDEX.
157
We
184.
may remark
that
for
('*!)'
'(ff.
simplest
form
first
or second of these
the
The
(r
l)
th
(-
term
n)(-n-
I)
(-71-
2)...
(-n-r+1)
(-*y
+1 Hw + 2) -(** + = (- iy (*
= (_ I)*
From
(1
-x)~*
(n
ttv*+l)(tt+2)...ytt +
1)
(n + 2)
this it appears
...
(n + r
1)
1)
r-l )
xr
is positive.
t
only in the case of positive indices.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
158
Example.
The
(r
= (l-3x)
of
- 13
+ l) th term
1.4.7
(3r-2) 3rrr
1.4.7
(Sr-2)
^H
r
_i
formula for
+ Sx)
If the given
(1
186.
(1
- x)' = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 +
- x)~ 2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + x 3 +
(I
+ xr +
(1
(r
1)
r+
xr +
J%K +
n
when n is unrestricted in value, will be
expansion of (1 + x)
found in Art. 189 ; but the student will have no difficulty in
applying to any numerical example the method explained in
,
Art. 172.
Example.
2
x=3
when
and n 20.
We have
fi j_
<t'
^V+i
-
19+r
"
'r+l >
,xxTr
r
numerically,
-'r
>
2 (19 + r)
so long as
that
38 >r.
is,
Hence
up
to 37,
we have
jrr+1
>Tr
but
if
r=38, then
ANY INDEX.
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
159
Some
Example
Find the
1.
first
Theorem are
i
r
(l
+ 3*) -(l-2x)
/3
=1 +
13
-Q
X+
/8
2\
55
72
3.
we have
X "'
of decimals
Example ^='002,
it
would be
x, neglect-
x in
2.
J( + xJ*
Since x- and the higher powers may be neglected, it will be sufficient to
retain the first two terms in the expansion of each binomial.
Therefore
i
the expression
_tll
b(i+|.)
-K-S-).
the term involving x- being neglected.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
160
Example
3.
x/47
_i
--
-^ = (47)
--
1 /
*=(7*-2)*=-(l-n)
1/
:L_
75
7+ ""
2 *7
we proceed
1)1
7
-142857
-020408
-002915
-000416
=t,
'
= 7-3,
= ^;
000059
and we can
term -
as follows
=1
is
5 ciphers.
-i-
.-.
\/47
= 14586,
and
Example
4.
(126)3
= (5 3 + l) a
1
~5
3"5
V
1
~
~
_
= 5-1^
~
5
2
J.
'
55
3*"l0
-04
=5-f -013333
= 5 '01329,
9'10 + 81
h
81 *5 7
-00032
...
\
'")
_1
1^1^
2
9'5 + 81*5 9
:J
1_
'
"
W_
"
*10 7
-0000128
81
- -000035
...+...
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
ANY INDEX.
EXAMPLES. XIV.
Find the (r+1)" term
!
4.
(l+#)
7.
10
-I
2
.
J3
2.
(l-.t-)
5.
8.
(a+fo?)" 1
11.
+ .v)
+ a?) 2 when
(l+3.e)
(l+.r2 )-3.
(i-2.v)~*.
(2-.r)~ 2
9.
:]
.
tt{rf-x*)\
f/
3/
12.
(l-3.^
V&Z^
,
in
4
x=
lo
when
74?)
(1
3.
15.
-5
7=A=.
14.
3
.
</T+2*
13.
b.
(l+#)
101
a?= 5
11
wheu# = -.
o
16.
(2a?
17.
(5
+ 5J/) 12 when
4.v)
~7
a?
=8
and y = 3.
when v=t
25
18.
(3-r2
Find to
19.
+ 4/) - n when x = 9, y = 2,
five places of
v98.
20.
1 5.
3/
4/998.
21.
\ 1003.
22.
\ 2400.
26.
tfilla
1
1
23.
^=.
24.
(1^)3.
27.
(l-7tf) s (l
+ 2a?)"*.
25.
(630)
*.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
162
V^+C+jj
31.
^T^-^1^
'
32
(1+5*)*+
33.
is
coefficient of sf in the
(4+|Y
expansion of (l-4r)
'
v2
31
Prove that
35.
Find the
(1
first
+*)*=2-
|l
-^ (f^
(1
36.
Find the
first
+ x) 2 Vl + 4x
(! + #)* +
37.
Shew that
the
of (1 + x)
nth
*Jl
+ bx
coefficient in the
expansion of
(1
- x)~ n
is
th
.
the expansion
Case
I.
that
is
by
is,
'n+ 11
-1
Or
(n+ l)x
.,
that
)- 1
> 1 + x,
is.
or
x >r.
* + 1
1+02
(n
'
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
(ll 4- 1
If
ANY INDEX.
103
be an integer, denote
it
by p; then
is
if
r=p,
the
equal to the
( 71 4,
If
is
and the
7,
integral part by q
its
(q
l) th
term
is
the
greatest.
Case
As
rm
Let n be a positive
II.
_.
(n +
term by
th
(r+
before, the
1
fraction.
term
l)
is
)x.
(1)
x be
If
(2)
less
As
multiplying factor
the
before,
will
be greater than
(n + l)x
-^
so Ions: as
1
( Jl 4-
If
\ X
- be an
the (p + l) th term
any other term.
( 7t 4"
If
the (q
^p
4-
Case
l)
th
Let n -
is
r.
by p
integer, denote it
th
equal to the
>
be not an integer,
term
III.
is
>
+x
then, as in Case
I.,
let q
be
its integral
part; then
the greatest.
Let n be negative.
in,
so
that
is
positive
nil _L
m-l
(
is
that
is
\
1
x.
112
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
164
If
(2)
If
x be
greater than
less
so long as
1,
(m that
II.,
x >
is,
- x,
(m\)x
> r.
I -x
or
-.
lyn.
If
be
x
1
CC
th
(p + l) term is equal to the
any other term.
(fjr
If
gral part
If
be
-x
C
then the
'-
th
by p
tlien the
'
it
(q
l)
th
term
be negative,
the greatest.
is
tlien
is less
than unity
and by
x,
we
190.
sions that
powers.
By
division, or
=
1
ax
1
bx
1
ex
2 2
3 3
+ ax + a x + a x +
+ bx +
+ ex +
x2 +
x2 +
x3 +
x3 +
ANY INDEX.
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
KJ5
Hence, by multiplication,
1
_ ax
aV +
(1
+ ax +
+ x (a +
...)
bx
+ bx +
(1
+x
...)
(a
b*x*
ex
+ ex +
...) (1
+ ab + ac +
b'
cx
+ bcc 2
4-
...) ...
)
.
.
+ S x + Sjfx? + Saxa +
Slt
SaJ
>S'.,,
b,
...
suppose
where
sums
are the
three,
of the
c,
To obtain
the
number
each
;
1, and the
l9
S
S
so
obtained
give the number of the
Sl9 2
homogeneous products of one, two, three,
dimensions.
equal to 1
values of
each term in
,
:i
S2 S
JS
Also
1
(1
n(n+
bx
or (1
a;)
ex
".
x)
S = coefficient
~
ax
becomes
Hence
:i
b, c,
now becomes
of
r
x in the expansion
(n+r-
l)(n + 2)
of (1
x)~
1)
jr
n + r1
\r
\n
In the expansion of
(at
+a )",
+ aB + aB +
I?'
+ n
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
166
From
192.
may deduce
n
a theorem
things.
up
...
to r times.
+r
letters,
n\
\r
That
number
1
-
or
of combinations of
n+r
*CT
things r at a time
when repetitions are allowed is equal to the number of combinations of n + r 1 things r at a time when repetitions are
excluded.
is,
the
We
193.
shall
it
laneous examples.
Example
Find the
1.
coefficient of
The
-4,4
(1
x r in the expansion of
+PyC +p^xr +
...
+p rxr + ...)
coefficient of
respectively,
But
p r =(- iy feafc9
coefficient
.
(
1)
(r+lHr + 2) _
4( _
1)r . 1
+ 4p r _ 2
suppose.
p r - x p r - by
,
1,
rJ^ + 4( _ ira I ^r
- 2a;) 2
(1
ANY INDEX.
BINOMIAL TIIEOltEM.
Example
2.
2 4-
= 2 + 3
5
2
z
2
2'
2
2
z
2
*3
:J
5
'
;!
2
2J
'3 :i+
34
14
7
'
~|3~
'3?*"
|2
-4-
Ll?
5.7.!)
-Q
|3.3
[2
5.7
3.5.7 1 3.5.7.9
1
- _1 +
+
+
3-
expression
v
|_2.
m
U
The
of the scries
Hi?
5
'
7
'
1)
'
24
*3 5+
]i~
'
2*2*2
2 2 2
/2V
/2\/2\
"~J2~
o-.r-ffl"
= 35 =V3
Example 3. If ?t is any
n
(3 + Jl) is an odd number.
Suppose I
I+f=3 +C
Now 3- N/7
is
a2 S
and
less
S"- s/7
positive
positive integer,
Then
and/
n~2
.
7+(78
than
1,
3*-^7) 8
therefore
(3
+ a/7)'
Add
together
-C
(1)
and
3' l
-V7 + C'
3' l
-2
(S-^)'
is
= an
But since/ and/' are proper
:\
1.
xm
fractions their
I=an odd
'
- xf
4 + 2a - a 2
(1
2.
an
3.
* in the expansion of
in the expansion of
sum must
integer.
coeflicient of
in the expansion of
and we have
even integer.
EXAMPLES. XIV.
Find the
(2).
X "T" X
c.
be
a proper
(1).
../' = 3 n
of
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
168
4.
Find the
xn
coefficient of
in the expansion of
2 4- x + X2
(
5.
1.3
+ 271
1
*
'
1.3.5
2*
2.4.6'2 3
2_
'
2n(2n + 2) (2n + 4)
3.6.9
+ 3 + _ 3T6~ +
3.6.9
Prove that
7'
(^-1) n{n-\)(n-2)
h + i7 ++ ^ 7.14
+ 7.14.21 +
?
n Ji
(2
.
j.
(*+!) , n( + l)(n + 2)
+
+
2.4
2.4.6
"
"7!
1+
(
10.
Prove that
~2
9.
V 3'
3.5.7
3^5
= 1 + 3- +
H t^~; H
+ \ \n+
4
4.8.12
4. 8
2n 2n(2n + 2)
+ ~3 + ~ 3.6 " +
8.
1-3.5.7 1^
2.4.6.8'2*
Prove that
N/8
7.
+ ^J
Prove that
1
6.
very small,
is
256'
\2
'
r6 'V
integral part of (5
+2
>JQ)
n is odd, if
n be a
positive integer.
11.
Shew
is
odd,
if
n be a
positive integer.
12.
Find the
coefficient of
xn
in the expansion of
of
xn
Shew
in the expansion of (1
14.
-Ax)
^"
- xf n + 3nx (1
1\ 4 1
'
x+-
is
2
.
)-*.
(1
the form
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
Prove that the coefficient of
15.
1,0,
according as n
ANY INDEX.
at*
3m -
(2)
l\
+.f)
n-l
If c
18.
(1
111
Prove that
17.
u
,
when n
n be an even
n-
\'S
\b\
or 3//<.+
1,
is
1.
number
the
(1)
of terms,
integer,
2"" 1
n-5
u-\
|rc
,1
'
C2 ,
(',,
if
the expansion
ill
is
L69
is
I//-1
-c l+ c 2 -c3+
a)
+(-mv-(-i)'-
1/
(2)
^-2^ + 3^-4^+
+ (_i)n (/i4
(3)
c*- c *+c-c*+
+ (-l)cn2 =0,
according as n
19.
20.
If
sum
= 0>
1)t M
.
(-1)^,
or
(l-;r)- 3 = ^ + %^ + ^.^+
(2)
2 (*! *, B + 82*2, _j +
1.3.5.7
fr-
2 .4. 6
(!)
?2n +
(2)
2 { ?2n
+V~
+...
j2^ + 4
+ 8n8n +
l)
= -
(2)i-l)
,
2n
P*>
+ 2n- \<ln + 2 + ?? +1 = 5-
+ <Mj + Man - +
1
- ?1 y,
(l
+ g^a.
that
+ - 1)" -
tj
n_
in
+4
n
If (7
/3, where n
v/3)
proper fraction, shew that (1 -f3)(p
23.
(1
# + J
coefficients
22.
(1)
T.
;^r_ 1
odd or even.
is
denote the
If *
If c
=p +
+#)*, where
is
?i
c2
c
.
integers,
and
|9
+ p) = l.
c^,
<?!,
rn
(-I) n_1 fn
,11
CHAPTER
XV.
Multinomial Theorem.
We
Example.
Find the
coefficient of
(a
+ b + c + d) u
The expansion
is
114
TTralg
3 5
[Art.
151.]J
L
412
This
is
To find
pansion of (a + b +
195.
..)
the coefficient of
aabPcyds
o ~f~^
p \y 6
\p
...
is
...
where
a+
j3
+ y+
...
=p.
MULTINOMIAL THEOREM.
171
Jn the expansion of
Cok.
(a
+ bx +
+ da? +
cx~
...
)'',
is
...
^L-.a-^^v^).
or
aWcyd5
iT5-Ht^t-
where a +
This
/3
+y+
may be
..
= p.
eallecl tlte
Find the
Example.
...
xfi+2y+M +
...
coefficient of * in the
expansion of
(a
+ i.c + ex 2
)-'.
of the expansion is
-ii-a
^V
+2?
(i),
where a + p + y = \).
We
which
the equation
= 1, and a = G;
putting 7 = 1, we have /3 = 3, and a = 5;
putting 7 = 0, we have /3 = 5, and a = 4.
Putting 7 = 2, we have
The required
expression
/3
sum
(1).
|9
19
19G.
the general
(a
vjhere
By
is
any
+ bx + ex 2 +
clx
n
.
.)
rational quantity.
n(n-l)(n-2)...(n-p + l)
,,_
where jp
is
a positive integer
is
+ rf +
^+
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
172
And, by Art.
+ dx 3 +
ex'
...)''
\P
\pjy_\o_
where
ft,
y, 8
is p.
is
where
/?
197.
sum
+y+
...
+ ex 2 + dx 3 +
Since (a + bx
= /?.
may
..)"
be written in the
form
6
A +-x
ail
a*
-x+-ar+
2
...
y
,
3
+ bx + ex 2 + dx +
(n-p +
(n-l)(n-2).
n
-
is
\p \v
where
Find the
.)"
^ +9f+u+
l)
bpcyd8
8
\
fi
Example.
of
+ y + &-\-...=p.
coefficient of
x 3 in the expansion of
The
general term
is
+o
S(S-0(t-)...(|-*
V
,.,
iO-sA-^e) /-^^
,,
We
(i).
have to obtain by trial all the positive integral values of /3, 7, 5 which
satisfy the equation j3 + Zy + 35
3 ; and then p is found from the equation
5.
The
required
coefficient will be the sum of the corresponding
2>=/3 + 7 +
(1).
MULTINOMIAL THEOREM.
173
= 0, p=l;
7 =1, 0=1, p=2;
7 = 0, 0=3, p = 3.
7 = 0,
8=1,
= 0,
5 = 0,
5
(1)
18
4_4_4
3
3~3
Sometimes
198.
more expeditious
it is
Theorem.
Find the
Example.
The required
coefficient of
x 4 in the expansion
of (1
- 2x + 3.r 2 ) -3
we stop
than
+ 3 {2x - Sx 2 + 6
)
at this
term
(2.r
- 3x2 ) 2 + 10 {2x -
3.r-) :J
+ 15
(2.r
required coefficient = 6
+ 10
(2)
+ 15
3)
(2)
-66.
EXAMPLES. XV.
Find the
coefficient of
(a-b c+d) w
1.
2.
a 2 b d in the expansion of (a + b c d) s
3.
4.
5.
x3
6.
xA in the expansion of
ry
7.
.'"
8.
A"
in the expansion of
in tlie
expansion of
in the expansion
(if
{cub
- by + cz)9
(l+3# 2a2 )3
+ 2.r + 3.r 2 10
2
(1 + 2.v - x
2
(1 - 2.r + 3# - 4.r'
(l
3.r
2 4
)
x*.
The
)'\
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
174
Find the
9.
.r
coefficient of
2x + 3x2 - x4 - .i/') 5
in the expansion of (1 -
23
-2x + 3x
10.
11.
12.
x8
13.
x* in the expansion of (2 -
in the expansion of (1
- 2x + 3x 2 - 4a3 ) 2
in the expansion of (1
in the expansion of
X*\
-X
+ )
~2
'-
4x + 3x2 ) ~ 2
14.
X in the expansion of
15.
x 12
in the expansion of (3
+ Ax + 1 Ox + 20^G ) " *
4
- 15x* + 18^') - l
Expand
16.
(1
- 2x - 2x
)*
as far as
x2
17.
Expand
(1
+ 3x - 6x*)
18.
Expand
(8
- 9^ + 1 8a4 ) 3
19.
If
as far as
x5
as far as
x8
4
"
+xP) n = a
(l+x + x2 +
+ a x + a.^v +
a xn
r>,
llf>
prove that
(2)
a1 +2a2 +3a8 +
If
20.
of
(1
+x+x
a
21.
+a^=(p+l)n
+a1 +aa +
(1)
2
)
a 15 a2
>
ft 3
+p.ap=5i>(p+l)*.
prove that
-a 2 + a 2 -a 2 +
If the
+x + x2 n
+ a x+a 2x2 + ... +araf +
expansion of
be
(1
...
+a 2n x2n
shew that
o + a 3 + a6
...
=a + a + a-+
l
...
= + a6 +a +
2
...
= 3 n_1
CHAPTER
XVI.
Logarithms.
The logarithm of any number to a given
Definition.
base is the index of the power to which the base must be raised
Thus if a x = JV, x is called
in order to equal the given number.
the logarithm of
to the base a.
199.
Examples.
(1)
(2)
Since
lO^lO,
1, 2,
is 4.
3,...
From
these equations
an identity which
Example.
is
N; x = \og
N.
we deduce
sometimes
useful.
to base 2 N/2.
by
definition,
(2
x/2) = 32 4/4
2
1
.-.
(2. 2*)*
=2
3
.-.
2*
2^ = 2 5 ^;
3
27
- x = -r
.'.
x=
o =
3-6.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
176
When
is
it
Any number
202.
logarithm of
TJie
For
= 1 for
may be.
the base
values of a
For a = a
1
therefore loga a
To find
201.
itself is 1.
let
suppose
a:
so that
a*
y = \oga J\T;
log. J/,
= M,
a*
= N.
MN==ax x
ay
= ax+y ;
whence, by definition, log a
MN = x + y
= 100^1/"+
and so on
for
= \oga M+
any number
low
N.
of factors.
log 42 = log (2 x 3 x 7
Example.
205.
Let
so that
M be the
-zz
the logarithm
fraction,
x=
ax =
\oga
of a fraction.
and suppose
M
i
1-0, whatever
of a product.
the logarithm
MN be the product;
therefore log
203.
Let
all
1 is 0.
2/
= loga iT;
ay = N.
LOGARITHMS.
Thus the
whence',
by
fraction
definition,
loga
*-=x y
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
178
Example
log
1.
a
^ m
terms of log
a, log b
and
c.
a2
Ja*
= 3-log-(logc + logfc
5
2
)
Find
2.
a;
sides,
.-.
we have
= (Sx + 1) log 6
(log a - 2 log c - 3 log b) = log b
x log a - 2x
log c
lo 2 6
log a - 2 log
- 3 log
EXAMPLES. XVI.
a.
2.
3.
stt. to
256
'0625 to base
5.
6.
/~*r
kI gp
to base
and 1000
4.
2,
'3
and i
4.
9.
to base -01.
to base 9^/3.
r~-^
*/
to base a.
a?
7.
l0g6
^,
log-frgj,
log3 43 49
'
log(N^)
fi
9.
log{Va 2
xyb s
).
10.
logflcFW).
"
LOGARITHMS.
179
11.
log^o^x^oJR).
12.
log(^a
13.
log
14.
logj^J +
15.
Shew
that log |f
'
^ = 1
VW7J2
logV
16.
Simplify
17.
72!)
logo - | log2
V63 -j-VP7a).
5
75
- 2 log - +
ffi
2
,
log 3.
9" 1 27 3
=
39
>g
1<
h .g
2.
o=c&*
19.
a2.63*=cs
90
U
^
- "&
&*-*
21
a 2*
m6
3*.62
a
=m10J
'
=a
and log- = 6,
22.
If \og(x'2y 3 )
23.
If
24.
a3 " *
V> x
(a*
= ax + \
b 3x ,
find log*-
and
'
log//.
- 2a*b* + b*) x - 1 = (a -
ft)
2*
(a + 6) -
-'.
Common Logarithms.
Logarithms to the base 10 are called Common Logarithms; this system was first introduced, in 1615, by Briggs, a
contemporary of Napier the inventor of logarithms.
208.
the equation 10 - JV, it is evident that common logarithms "will not in general be integral, and that they will not
From
always be positive.
For instance
'
.*.
log
3151=3 + a
fraction.
ion.
122
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
180
-06
Again,
.*.
log *06
=-
+a
fraction.
The
To determine
210.
number
the characteristic
10 - 10,
1
Since
10 =100,
3
10 -1000,
follows that a
Let
N be
number whose
digits;
then
J\T in(tt-l)+ a fraction
.*.
log
iV=
(n 1) + a fraction.
Hence the
10=
1(rs
10-8
1,
=iJcr
01 '
=i=' 001
>
LOGARITHMS.
181
Let
/)
.-.
Hence the
f)~(w + l) +
= (n +
log J)
characteristic
is
l)
thou
fraction.
+n
- (n+
fraction.
1)
that
is,
the characteristic
the logarithm
negative.
The logarithms
212.
in
to
is
From
Let
be any number, then since multiplying or
dividing by a power of 10 merely alters the position of the
decimal point without changing the sequence of figures, it follows
-~ 10 7
that
x 10''. and
where p and q are any integers, are
numbers whose significant digits are the same as those of N.
213.
Now
log
(N x
10 p )
= log J\r +p
Again,
log (AT -
- log N - q log
(1
1
= logiV-7
In
an integer
subtracted from log
(1)
is
added to
that
is,
).
logiV^,
(2).
and
in (2)
an integer
is
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
182
- 3-69897 - - 4 +
(1
- -69897) = 4-30103.
1.
In the Tables we find that 3859636 is the mantissa of log 2432 (the
decimal point as well as the characteristic being omitted) and, by Art. 211,
the characteristic of the logarithm of the given number is - 4
;
.-.
Example
2.
then
I
log
a-
= lg (-00000165) 5 =
= log (-00000165)
o
= i (6-2174839)
the mantissa of log -00000165 being the
characteristic being prefixed by the rule.
Now
- (6-2174839)
=-
(10
+ 4-2174839)
= 2-8434968
165,
and the
'
LOGARITHMS.
183
Thus
= -0097424.
a:
216.
Let
it is
to
base
re-
is
quired.
=N
log. (&")
that
= logJT;
ylog = log,JV;
is,
J log r X log
0u N.
a6
1/
'
k&^wK*
or
1U Oa
10
Now
since
Hence
to base b
it
known
we have only
J
log b are
1 )-
Tn equation
to multiply
r J
is
them
all
On
log/t x log 8 /j
Oa
this
is
log b
it is
thus
.
by
J
known
as the
put a for
N\
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
184
This result
may
also be
x = log/?, so that
Let
a*
=b
we have
b,
x \og b a = \ogb b
.-.
218.
loga 6xlog 4 a
l.
will illustrate
the utility of
logarithms in facilitating arithmetical calculation ; but for information as to the use of Logarithmic Tables the reader is
referred to works on Trigonometry.
4
Example
1.
Given
log 3 = -4771213,
27
The
required value
4
81
5
- log
- log 90
1Q
= 3 log j= +
-=
= 3(l<^3-l)+|oog3*-2)-|(log3*+l)
KM)"*a-K +
t)
= ^log3-5H
= 4-6280766-5-85
= 2-7780766.
Example
2.
= log 10 - log 2 =
= log
log (875 16 )
= -3010300,
digits in
log 7
= -8450980.
=47-072128;
is 48.
[Art. 210.]
log
875 1C given
= 16 log (7x125)
= 16 (log 7+ 3 log 5)
= 16(log7 + 3-31og2)
= 16x2-9420080
2.
and
its
LOGARITHMS.
Example 3. Given log 2 and log
value of x from the equation
.-.
.r (
(3
4.r)
sides,
- 4a) log G +
(log 2
+ log 3) +
find to
we have
(x
+ 5)
log 4 = log 8
= 3 log 2
(x
+ 5)
2)
= 10
.r
3,
185
2 log 2
- 10 log 2
+ 3 log 3
2 + 4 log 3
log 2
2 log
_ 4-4416639
~2-al054a2
= 1-77...
EXAMPLES. XVI.
1.
-87, -875.
b.
How many
write
down
the logarithms
numbers
1-4771213,
3-69897,
-56515
numbers
5-4871384.
-6910815,
= -8450980,
find
the
value of
5.
log 64.
6.
log 84.
8.
log -0125.
9.
log 14-4.
10.
log 4^.
logW
13.
logN/ 0l05.
11.
14.
log^l2.
12.
7.
log -128.
-i
15.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
186
16.
given that
log 37-203
= 1-5705780,
17.
find log
3,
//3 2 5**\
/( y )
18.
19.
given log
20.
2,
log
-f ^6).
/294 x 125 \ 2
'
V 42 x 32 J
log 7; also log 9076-226 = 3-9570053.
3,
given log
2,
log 3, log 7
log 11
also
= 1-0413927,
21.
22.
Shew
that
/21\ 100
(
is
x 28
23.
/1\ 1000
first significant digit
in
3*~ 2 = 5.
27.
2F = 2 2 * +
29.
2x + y
= 6
3*
=3
25.
1
.5 3
'
22,
5*
= 10l
28.
2*. 6*- 2
"I
30.
3l
32.
Given log 10 2 =
~l
= -84509,
55
and
log
~ 3 *=2* + 2
=5 2 *. 7
~ x - y =4-y
2 2x
31.
-.30103, log 10 7
log 3,
26.
-.
+ ij-
2,
7.
"*.
=3 3j/_a;J
and logV27.
CHAPTER
XVII.
SERIES.
220.
By
n>l,
if
K)"
=
nx(nx\)
v
+ nx - +
n
x (x
-
n"
1) (nx- 2)
J
~
-
1
.
x (x
nx (nx
*
-s6
(x -\
(i).
3
I?
By
putting sb=1,
we
obtain
(-')
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
188
hence the seizes
+ x+
(1) is
is,
rz
and
this is true
indefinitely
1+ * +
x2
]3
|2
The
is
x3
xA
/-'ill
1+
usually denoted by
+
e
let
hence
++
x-
X3
X4
for x, then
6** =
Now
n be
++
,=
Write ex
+
U
^ ^
|_4
series
If therefore
be.
CX 4
so that c
cV
tjj-
cV +
-ry
= log/*
by substituting
for c
we
obtain
a'
= l+x\og a +
e
Vo
If
This
is
lr
When n
Cor.
is infinite,
the limit of
+-
= e.
when n
is
it
indefinitely increased,
(,1+
x\ n
n)
=1+X+
X2
Y2
x3
]3
x4
\i
may
be shewn that
when n
Now m
is
l>y putting
+-
nj
V
the limit of
is infinite,
180
T
.
we have
H)--K)~={K)7
when n
(x\
is infinite;
infinite
Hence the
221.
= e~\
(1
(-.')'
limit of
In the preceding
no restriction
article
deserves
placed upon
[Art. 183.]
intelligible.
is
We
notice.
1\7
nj
the limit or
/
:)(
nj
is
infinite
r-V
2\
xr
is -r-
\r
for
is
is less
But there
*.
all values
\r
of r.
a!
Then
Since n
"3( ~3 {
1 /
= -lx
r 1\ =
H(*^)
z-
x-
a,
-^r) by
u
1
as
that
is,
r \
nr
we have
is infinite,
U
X
=
u
,
u ~ ur
r
,-x-;
that of
uA
is r^-;
x
is .r-
of
ut
x
is .
is
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
190
The
222.
series
111
ii
'
~@
When
From
found to be 2-7182818284.
Example
1.
-,
We
have
and by putting x = -
1 in
hence the
sum
= l + l+
" 1=1 -
of the series is
1+
2.
- ax x o
Find the
--
++
- (e
-rg
ex ,
i2-i3
+ e~
coefficient of
= (1 - ax - x 2
Example
infinite series
n-
x
).
x r in the expansion of
ex
e~x
*
n
n fi
= (l-a,-^)|l-,
+ -^-- +
(-l) rx r
...
+ L_L_ +
j.
coefficient required
r-1
-l) r
223.
7V>
From
expand
log, (1
r-2
{l + ar-r(r-l)},
ascending powers of
tt) ira
\.
Art. 220,
a"
=-
+ y 1< >g
r6
/r (loge a)
^ y
^
(log.
c
v
L
+x
lii
(-1)'--
(-l)'-ia
(-!)>
101
SERIES.
4+
'
'
for a; thus
(1 +x)'J
+ y log,
(1
f2 {log, (1
+ *) +
{log
+ *)} +
(i+y-i+ +
Now
g^*+ y fr-
,+ 1.3* +
1.2J
.
that
r**^
rp&
%K/
\K/
is,
Equate
This
is
Example.
known
If
+Ct')
1 >fr- 8)
rf+
(1).
(2).
'
y in
(1)
thus
we have
-- -+
+ x)} 9
in ascending powers of
1) (y
2)
(2),
y(y-i)(y-2)(y-3)
1.2.8
is,
...
we have
By
that
>*
= 7J--+
x < 1, expand
l0g t,(l
a;)}
1.2.3.4
2i
is
-- +
(1
1.2.3.4
we
.t.
^+
'
(y-l)(y-2)
y-1
+
1.2*
1.2.3
Thn8
{log.(l +
* +
(y
1) (y - 2) (y
"1.2.3.4
3)
*)P=2{^-i(l+l)^(l + l + l)*-
}.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
192
We
ithms
may
By
be constructed.
writing
obtain log.
writing
for
hence
n+1 )- lo& w =
lo S.(
By
we
for x
S"2? 3^"
x we obtain log e
n -
(1)
hence, by changing
From
(1)
log.("
and
log e (n
1)
= - + sa +
#7
3 +
(2).
by addition,
(2)
+ l)-log,(n-l) =
2(-
+_+__+
(3).
...J
From
by putting n =
this formula
Again by putting n =
we
we
obtain log e 10
log e 8; whence we
findloge 10 = 2-30258509....
we
multiply by
common
which
its
value
=-j=
system, and
is
is
^' oOJjOoDk) J .
we
modulus by
or '43429448...;
/x.
Thus from
(1), /x
loge (ra
1)
- /* log
?i
= _
^ + JL
-. ...
193
is,
log I0 ( M + 1)
Similarly from
l
From
log,
n=-
-t-
Jt.
(2),
^-lo >-l)^ + ^ + +
^
g]
we
ot one of
see that
if
(2)
the logarithm
constructed.
" ld
Sl
*"**
only needed
;
+^
to J2
calculate
the
logarithms of prime numbers, for the
logarithm
ot a compose number may
be
logarithms of
component
its
factors.
either 7^+
then find
or
n-l
We
log(n+l)
By
putting n = 10 in
1
2 log 3
(2),
of log
10-
log 9; thus
log 3 =-045757488,
log 3 = -477121256.
Putting M = 80 in
4 log 3 - 3 log 2 - 1
(1),
we obtain
3 log 2
In
the
next
article
we
shall
give
another
series
for
iog9
{7i
>
I
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
194
226.
log e (l
changing x into -
cc,
x)
x~2
3"-~-"'
we have
log.(l -)=-*2 ~
By
J"
subtraction,
Put
l-x
+
los*
oeV(n
Note.
log.
&e
x3
a /
so that
\);
+x
n = 2< 5
(2w +
-x
Zn +
x5
=
1
777^
we thus
va
+ l) 3
3(2?i
obtain
j-t=
^-r.5
5(2w +
...}-.
l)
is
not always
227.
chapter.
Example
that
If a,
1.
a 2 ,02
+ 8=
a/3
= - we
,
=a
log (a
(1
{a
+ B)x + aBx 2 )
+ cur)
+ px).
(1 + ax) + log (1 + Bx)
(1
- bx + ex 2 = log a + log
2
ffi
have
a - bx + cx 2 =a {l
.-.
Since a
subject of the
illustrate the
B2x 2
B3x 3
x
a
_ + a_-...
= loga + ax- a-x'
+ Bx-'^-+^--...
= \oga + {a + B)xExample
log (1
log (1
+ x + x2
2.
is
+ *+^
^^
or - according as
=log
1-x 3
+ x + x 2 = log-)
X6
X9
(1
is
or
- x'3) - log
(1
X 3r
of
is
...
xn in the expansion
not a multiple of
3.
x)
X2
X3
xr
of
'
'
'
a multiple of
is
from the
first series,
denote
3,
it
by
together with
g
coefficient is
If
is
- n
3,-;
fr
om
93
j,
_I
^ J
or _ ?
not a multiple f
is -
3,
first series,
therefore
To prove
228.
For
that e is incommensurable.
not, let e
if
= where m
^ui..
then
7i
If
(w
|n+l
"
'
m ^irJ
But
is
___J___
= integer + -i- +
w+1
L + _____J_____
n+
(n
it is
(n+])(jw.2)(n+S)
+ -"
l)(n+ 3)
(n+l)(n+2)
(n
+ 1 )~(^T2)^T3) +
*
greater than
and
less
'
than the
geometrical progression
_
n+\
that
is,
less
_i
(n+1)
i__
2
'
(n+iy\3 +
a fraction, which
is
absurd; therefore
'j
is
e is
incommensurable.
EXAMPLES. XVIL
1.
-02^3
+ 5-7
2.
+ 5~6
? -.-+...
2 . 22
^3
23
i72 4
25
"
*
'
15
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
19G
3.
Shew
that
a?
.+_+
hge (n+a)-logt (n-a)=2l-a + ^
a?
*\*&
/>o
</
4.
O"**
Shew
a
6.
4 +
^+
x =y +^- +
shew that
5.
*t/
%A/
y=*'-2 +-3 -
if
. . .
that
+ ~2
(-
+
)+^P
3 V
+...
' )
V~^" /
= log a-log
e
Z>.
of decimals.
7.
Prove that
8.
Prove that
e" 1
= 2 (/ .-1 +
iog,d + xr ( i -)'-'=
9.
2
.-=
+ nr +....)
( +
+)
-f
''- 2
j2
(-'
-#
4
)
|i
^-
//,m
-
11.
Shew that
12.
Prove that
logc (l
and
term of the
...
series.
Prove that
,
14.
ax2 and
+ 3a-+2^2 = 3.r-
13.
and
if
Expand
+ 3.?
term of the
5x2
S5X3
65.iT4
series.
x.
7, 1
15.
(e ix
+ e~ ix
in ascending
powers of
.r,
-where i'=
197
</
1.
25
16.
Shew that
17.
If a
and
/3
be the roots of
a 2 4- ft 2
of the series
log,
i\ n
A
=1
-)
(1 +
nj
the form
2( + l)
2.3(>4-l) 2
#,
Shew
3
-
if
De expanded in
3
3
coefficient of
n be
""
a series of ascending
o:
n is
n be odd,
if
form 4m.
of the
that
23
+
,
]2
33
43
(4
J3
+ - =5e
Prove that
2 log,
n - log,
Shew
that
ft
+1
1)
If log,
=
Yq
2 = 7a - 26 +
and calculate
log, (
_ 1)=-
2(?i+l) 2
1
1_
2?i
'
3c,
loge
=~
25
log, 3
=1
+ _+
"
3n 3
81
1()
?;
'
go
a - 36 + 5c,
3(7i+I) 3
24
<)
log,
+ l) 3
.t-
4m + 2. and
3.4(>t
24.
^,^^,2^
l+.r
+ .^ +
.,
powers of
23.
-,
If log,
20.
22.
ft 3
Shew that
19.
21.
Bum
18.
n 3 4-
= C sheW
'
log, 5
that
= 1 6a - Ah + Vc
8 places of decimals.
or of
CHAPTER
XVIII.
"We
terms
Value in
their ordinary arithmetical sense ; but instead of taking as the
rate of interest the interest on ,100 for one year, we shall find it
more convenient to take the interest on 1 for one year.
shall use the
230.
To find the interest
given time at simple interest.
Let
is
P be
year,
The interest
Pnr that is,
of
and therefore
for
n years
M=P(l+nr)
is,
From
or P,
?i,
231.
(2).
(1)
r,
To find
Let
(1).
M = P + I;
Also
that
=Pnr
P be
discount of a given
sum
interest.
the discount,
the present value,
for one year, n the number of years.
r the interest of
and
r, 7,
'
199
P=
V(\+nr);
+ nr
D=P-
And
+ nr
'
Pnr
1 + nr
The value of D given by this equation is called the true discount.
But in practice when a sum of money is paid before it is due, it is customary
to deduct the interest on the debt instead of the true discount, and the
money so deducted is called the banker's discount; so that
Note.
Pnr
True Discount =
+ nr'
Example. The difference between the true discount and the banker's
discount on 1900 paid 4 months before it is due is 6s. 8d.; find the rate
per cent., simple interest being allowed.
Let r denote the interest on 1 for one year; then the banker's discount
1900r
^~
1900
is
~~
''
and .
the *true adiscount*
i
is
i*
1900r
~3~
1900r
""
~3~
7~T~3
l
r
+i
1900r 2 =3
whence
*'
t,
_
~ 1 Jl + 22800 ~
3800
+ >-;
1151
3800
'
152
1
we nave faSui = o?
,
= 100r = 4.
Let
the
P denote
number
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
200
P at
The amount
of
PR R
M=PR";
I=P(R -l).
n
.'.
Note.
on 1
for
R = l+r.
In business transactions when the time contains a
233.
fraction of a year it is usual to allow simjyle interest for the
Thus the amount of ,1 in ^ year is
fraction of the year.
v
reckoned 1 + - ; and the amount of
in 4f years at compound
interest
n+
PR*
is
(1 + ^ r
Similarly
the
amount
of
in
m/
annual rate of
interest, the
amount
of
in half a year
is 1
of <1 is (1
r
+-^
+ -J,
so
that
the
true
annual
rate
of
interest
is
4
r
234.
r
-
In
(f
of
in
years, or
qn
intervals, is
times a year.
201
the
amount =
(l
since
is infinite
when q
To find
235.
is infinite.
stun
Let
is
time, will in
Since
P=VR
n
',
it
D = P(l-R-).
and
Example.
compound
log 2
= -30103,
log 3 = -47712.
Here
then
672=126
25
'
?ll0g
24
.
or
100
?ilog
96
.-.
is
i26-'
16
=logy
= log 16 - log 3,
n=
"
672
4 log 2 - log 3
2 - 5 log 2
72700
-01773
- log 3
Veiy nea y
'
'
if
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
202
EXAMPLES.
When
XVIII.
= -8450980,
a.
may
be used,
= 1-0413927.
1.
cent,
compound
At simple
3.
In how
compound
cent,
many
years will a
interest
sum
of
money double
itself at 5
per
In
5.
compound
6.
mean
how many
interest
Shew that
is
What sum
8.
amount
to
1000
log 106
= 2-0253059,
log 49697
compound
in
interest will
= 4-6963292.
A man
"What
is
the
Annuities.
*
we
payments annual.
An
203
it is
An
To find
237.
amount of an annuity
the
left
is
said
interest.
Let
the end of the first year A is due, and the amount of this
sum in the remaining n - 1 years is A + (n 1) rA ; at the end of
the second year another A is due, and the amount of this sum in
the remaining (a 2) years is A + (ii 2) rA and so on.
Now
is the sum of all these amounts
At
M
.-.
+ (A + rA) + A,
J/=Wil+(l +
= nA +
+ 3+
'-
+n-l)rA
rA.
238.
To find the amount of an annuity left
given number of years, allowing compound interest.
Let
the
be the annuity,
number
the
amount
M the amount.
of years,
unpaid for a
of <1 for
one year, n
the end of the first year A is due, and the amount of this
n~
sum in the remaining n 1 years is
at the end of the
;
second year another A is due, and the amount of this sum in the
n~ 2
remaining n - 2 years is
and so on.
At
AR
AR
.-.
M = AR
= A(l
m
R
=A
R^l.
+ AR"- +
+R + R
+AR
to
AR + A
n terms)
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
204
of annuities it is always
239.
(jiven
Let
is
AR~
in 2 years
is
AR~'J
due in 3 years
is
AR~
A due
of
A due
and so
in
year
3
;
[Art. 235.]
on.
Now V
is
the
sum
payments
V=AR- +AR1
.-.
= AR~
=A
Note.
+ AK- 3 +
tow terms
- R~"
l-R-
1-R-"
R-l
may
This result
Rn
also be obtained
[Art. 232.]
we
R-V
'
mA
In the case
of a perpetual annuity
1
m=r
mA
100
rate per cent.
hence
INTEREST AND ANNUITIES.
205
is
As
many Government
Debentures.
nished by the number of years' purchase of its Stocks ; thus the
2| p. c. Consols at 96} are worth 35 years' purchase Egyptian
4 p. c. Stock at 96 is worth 24 years' purchase
while Austrian
5 p. c. Stock at 80 is only worth 16 years' purchase.
;
To find
242.
commence
at the
value
present
the
of a deferred annuity to
continue for n years, allow-
to
Let
be the annuity,
the
amount
of
in one year,
V the
present value.
The
first
payment
made
is
at
the
end
of
(;>
l) years.
[Art. 236.]
of the
first,
.'.
= AR~ (p+1)
AR~ V
(1,+3
>+
...
ton terms
7?~"
A R- p -"
243.
A freehold
estate
~R-V
is
annuity called the rent ; and thus the value of the estate
to the present value of a perpetuity equal to the rent.
is
equal
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
206
The
years,
Let
for 6
'
20000^* ^ 5
.R
= l-05, we
have
'- 6
;
0o
A x (1-05) 6 = 1000;
log A -6 log 1-05 = 3,
.-.
log
.-.
A = 3-1271358 = log
A = 1310-096, and
1340-09G.
the rent
is
1340.
Is. lid.
p years and
to continue for
.
the fine
n years
AR-*
= -=
A1
EXAMPLES.
The
interest is supposed
compound
that
is,
AR- p n
A1
XVIII.
[Art. 242.1
b.
is stated.
person borrows ,672 to be repaid in 5 years by annual instalments of ,120; find the rate of interest, reckoning simple interest.
1.
log24-117 = 1-3823260.
be
may
120 a year
is
207
5.
6.
amount
If a
8.
When
9.
Find what
sum
will
at 2 per cent.,
years,
A man
log 2
= '3010300,
log 3
= '4771213,
log 7 = '8450980.
logl06 = 2-0253059,
14.
tinue n,
If a,
log4-688385 = '6710233,
log3'118042 = '4938820.
years' purchase must be paid for an annuity to conyears respectively; shew that
b, c
2/i, 3?i
a2 ab + b 2 = ac.
;
;
CHAPTER
XIX.
INEQUALITIES.
Any
245.
quantity a
quantity b when a -b is
because 2 - (- 3), or 5 is positive. Also b is said to be less
than a when b- a is negative; thus -5 is less than -2, because
5 ( 2), or - 3 is negative.
246.
If
a >
b,
then
evident that
it is
>
>
ac
>
be
a+
a
that
is,
+c
c
an inequality
247.
a-ob,
If
by adding
c to
each
side,
a>b+ c;
which shews that in an inequality any term
from one
If
may
be transposed
a >
b,
then evidently
< a
INEQUALITIES.
is,
If a
>
then a - b
b,
b) is
a >
b,
then
is
negative; that
and therefore
negative,
an inequality
b-a
and
is positive,
a < b
Again,
209
< b, and
ac <
be changed,
therefore
be
a.>b,,
If
a.
>
>b
a^>b.,,
boi
it
clear
is
that
a + a 2 + a 3 +...+ am >
l
and
11
If
a>b, and
=-
a'
that
is
b'
n
a~ <
than
is,
the arithmetic
their geometric
The
,>
mean of
>
is, a'
>
b'\
where n
is
any
b~".
2ab +
-^
Similarly
that
a2 +
b r
that
+ bm
>
<
...
if
Further,
+ b^+ba +
>h AK-'-
a a 2 a,--' a ,n
249.
6,
quantity
b)
>
is
is
positive,
positive
and
2ab.
> Jxy
mean.
when
equal.
251.
The results of the preceding article will be found very
useful, especially in the case of inequalities in which the letters
li
>
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
210
Example
If a,
1.
b, c
a 2 + b 2 +c 2 >bc + ca + ab;
2 (a 3 + b 3 + c 3 )>bc (b
and
+ c) + ca(c + a) + ab (a + b).
& 2 + c 2 >2bc
For
(1);
+ a 2 >2c;
a 2 + b 2 >2al);
a 2 + b 2 + c 2 > be + ca + a&.
c2
whence by addition
It
may
Again, from
b2
(1)
down
writing
2 (a 3
It
and that
Example
.r
+l
+ b 3 + c3
2.
If
if
+ c 3 >bc(b+c)
(3).
+ c) + ca
(3) is
+ a) + ab{a+b).
obtained from
(2)
by introducing the
[c
we obtain
which
is
no
the greater,
or x 2 + x.
x3
Now
[x
+l- (x 2 + x) =x 3 - 2 - (x - 1)
= (x 2 -l)(x-l)
= (.r-l) 2 (* + l).
l) 2 is positive,
hence
x3 + 1
+1
according as x
If
b3
be (b
b, c.
(2);
factor b + c,
longer hold.
-bc + c 2 >bc
.-.
By
is
1,
is
>
or
<
x2 + x
is,
according as x
>
or
<
1.
252.
Let a and b be two positive quantities,
and
their product ; then from the identity
their
sum
4a6 = (a + bf - (a - b)\
we have
iP = S - (a - b)
2
Hence,
given,
S is
if
least
is
given,
and S 2 =
is
greatest
P+(a- b)
2
.
when a b\ and
if
is
when
a= b;
if the sum of two positive quantities is given, their product
is greatest when they are equal ; and if the product of two positive
quantities is given, their sum is least when they are equal.
that
is,
INEQUALITIES.
To find
253.
211
of a product the
sum of whose
factors is constant.
c,
...
k,
...
k,
Tii
by the two equal factors
ii>
a, b
the product
is
increased
\nj
\n/
/a
a+b+
\
Cor.
If ,
b, c,
...
+k\
+k\"
...
k are uneqiud,
/a + b +
+
n
that
c+
c
+
n
,
'
+k\ n
...
> abc
...
is,
a + b + c+
...
+k
>
By an
(abc
...
k)".
mean
quantities is greater
r is
that (l r + 2 r + S r +
+ nr n > nn ( \nY
)
real quantity.
lr
c
Since
.'.
any
Shew
+ 2 r+Zr +
+nr
n
(
>(l r .2 r .3 r
>l r .2 r .3 r
r )'
n r that
,
is,
>(|)
r
;
result required.
142
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
212
254.
To find the greatest value q/'a b"cp
is constant; m, n, p, ... being positive integers.
. .
when a + b +
...
(-)
be &
greatest when
\mj \nj
expression is the product of
(
m )+ n ()
+p
\nj *
(
\mj
stant.
are
) +
that
is,
of
ni
np
sum
a+
Thus the
.,
is
is
+ c+
greatest
63
M4*4*+"
...\
(a - x)* is greatest
is
/a +
+
m+n+p +
when
hence {a + x) 3
whose sum
when
the
factors
...
this last
will
m + n +p +
or a
.. .,
But
greatest.
&
is
...
\pj
Hence am b n c p ...
all equal,
\pj
(a
is
when ^ =
.
*
84
greatest value is
a7
+ x) s
(a -a:) 4 for
(
J
^- J +
,
or
x=
any
is
--
real value
greatest
but
or 2a;
Example.
is
maximum.
2x = (2n +
1)
V^h + I) -^
2
and
11
INEQUALITIES.
213
but the quantity under the radical must be positive, and therefore y cannot
be greater than
value must be n-
(2/t
+ l) 2
+ n\
in
+n+-
or
n'
and since y
which case x = n+
1,
or n
is
and n+1.
256.
Example.
of
'
'
Put
c+x=y
..
the expression
'
+x
then
(a-c + y){b-c
+ y)
^-^
y
_ (a -
a~
is
- c)
c) (b
+y+a-c+b-c
~ C)
Jy
*J(a -
is */(
c) (b
c) {b
c)
EXAMPLES. XIX.
1.
2.
Prove that
3.
Shew
reciprocal
is
sum
If
5.
If 2 + 6 2 + c 2 =l,
of
any
real
a>
b,
-c.
a.
positive quantity
2.
l,
ax + by + cz <
If
c)
4.
6.
1.
8.
9.
7.
Shew that
(.r
that
+ c) (c + a) (a + b) > 8abc.
that the
a 2 + b2 =
is
a-c + b-c + 2
(b
zero
is
losr =
D.'-'-V - 2.
64
10.
11.
Shew that
b 2 c-
and
its
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
214
12.
Which
13.
Shew
is
that x3 + lSa 2x
>
hax* + 9a3
if
x>
a.
in order that
14.
may
7x2 + 11
be
maximum
16.
17.
Shew that
18.
19.
If
(x +y + ,s) 3
1
Shew
(2)
> 27^^.
5 .(2n - 1
. .
6.
. .
2?i< (w +
l) n .
).
>l+?iV2 ,7_1
2,
shew that
that
(1)
Find the
22.
?i
2 ft
21.
maximum value of
(7
- x) A
(2
+ #) 5 when # lies
between
and - 2.
no
We
To prove
m
+ b\
/a
>
*257.
am +bm
since
(5
off
Find xu
the minimum value
T7-
23.
have
is
m
a" + 6 =
1
less
and b are
a
that if
"
except
than
when
-y- +
xs
'"~2~ =
and
positive
unequal,
-^-J
-^
g-J
of
and
these
a" + 6
x)(2 + x)
+ =-*-*
1+*
m
/a + b\
v~2-J
[Art. 184.]
m (m - 1) (a + b\"- fa - b\*
1.2
\~r)
\~r)
m
(m - \)(m - 2)(m-3) fa + bV"+
1.2.3.4
"A
4
fa - b\
+ '"
j
12
INEQUALITIES.
(1)
all
215
is
a" +
>
If
(2)
and
positive
is
first
>
If on
and
\2~)
'
than
less
1,
all
the
terms on
a +
--
(3)
fa + b6 V"
s
b'
fr
fa + b\
<
m=-
put
positive,
where n <
then
76
fa +
{-2
m m
b \
)
1
'a
i
7l
fd" + b n \ nH
fa
(-2-)
+ bm \ m
(a*)
>
(b)
/ox
]j
2)
i
>
.*.
Hence the
b'"\"
>
a+b
> fi-7
=
proposition
established.
is
If
m = 0,
or
1,
the
*25&.
unless
m&
rt
Suppose
on to
and
1.
m
m
Consider the expression a + b + c" + ... + k"\ and suppose
that a and b are unequal ; if we replace a and b by the two equal
1
....
quantities
a+
_
altered,
a
+
-
..
the value or a +
-j
m
but the value of a" + b m + c +
1
...
k'" is
diminished, since
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
216
Hence
. .
a+
to
+k
...
of
m
a + b m + cm +
fa +
...
then becomes
.
+ k\ m
Hence when
+km
a, b, c,...k
are unequal,
am + b m + cn +...+le m
m
c + ...+fc
... + k\
/a + b + c+
> fa
n
If ?n lies
between
and
we may
in a similar
manner prove
is
as follows
except
when
*259.
lies
between
If a and h
and
1.
'
INEQUALITIES.
X
*2G0.
To prove
and y
if'x
/I
+
'I^-
>
that
i-x'
217
/ lh V
i-y
y.
/l+x
.71f
>flr<
For
,.
according as
+a
-lo<?-n
l-x
But
//g*
1
1 +y
> or < - log
y l-2/'
Ilog^2(l
+ !\
&
3
1-2/
5
\
and
2/
To prove
261.
<
>-
l-x
is
log
'
\+y
proved.
that (1
777
i'
1 4- a;
- log
x *
AAM ^
S^lzS" 2 ^ +? + ?+)
x)
,+x
(1
if
x<l, and
/a + b\ a+b
k
aa bD > (
_
,
luce that
Denote
(1 +jb)
1+ *
(1
-a)
1- *
logP = (l+a)log(l + x) +
= x {log (1 +x)=
2x^
r\
--.
Hence
that
is,
log
P is
JC
+*)
log
_ / *C
...)-2^
i//
and therefore
1
(1
(l
P> 1
-*)'-'>!.
+ log (lx)
x)
Jit
positive,
(1
- x)) +
log (1
-aj)log(l-a;)
(l
JO
**s
*/
by P; then
SI/
...)
to
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
218
f9
In this result
y-^Y>r>rl
u
+ z\
'u
put u + z =
(u
.'.
Now
z\ ~u
^-i) %1
u)
sY + w/,
then
z)
u+
*(u-z) u
u z = b,
a,
-z
>u 2u
w =
so that
(TJ
* EXAMPLES.
1.
Shew
that 27 (a 4 + & 4 + c4 )
2.
Shew
that
3.
bers
is
4.
n (n + l) 3 < 8
(l
>
3
XIX.
b.
(a + b + c)\
+ 2 3 + 3 3 + ... + n 3 ).
of the first
n even num-
and
If a
/3
if
n>
that
-SM-jr-
the value of
+-
lies
between 2 and
2-718...
5.
If a,
b, c
/a + c\ a
fb + c\
^.
\a-c)
'a
a
6.
Shew
7.
Prove that
8.
If
ii
that (
is
\b-cj
+ vb + vc+...+k\ a + b +
~
--
+ ,i
'
< a a b b<*.
'
- log (1 + am <
- log
lib
Ih
?&
<
(1
+ a n ),
x < 1, shew
_ A.n
n
if
m > n.
that
.>&*.
INEQUALITIES.
If a,
9.
b,
c are in
Find the
10.
H.
P.
maximum
> 1,
and
219
x3 (4a - .r) 5
value of
maximum
if
is
positive
and
less
x*(\xf when x
value of
a proper
i.s
fraction.
If
11.
is positive,
shew that
< x and
log (1 +.r)
"
1+.?;
If
12.
and that
(1
- x) (1 - y)
(1
least value of -
h-
is
i)
- z) > 8xyz.
13.
Shew
that
14.
Shew
(a 2 + 6* + c2 + cl2 f.
-\
(c
- b)
+ b 2 (b-c){b-a) + c2 (c-a){c-b)
cfi{a-b)(a-c)
that (xm + y m ) n
15.
Shew
16.
17.
If
at,
6, c
(.t'
fa 4-h\
(^p)
+y n
if
m > n.
cannot be negative; p,
(2)
MI
)
a 2 (p-q)(p- r) + b 2 (q - r)
(1
18.
<
q, r
(q
-p) + c2
(r
Shew that
[1
\2n-l >
j3 15
\a\bJ\ c
is
P "r
(|g)
x + y + z = 0.
(\n)n
are
positive integers,
If a,b,c, d,
to n, shew that the least value of
19.
where q
-p) (r - q)
whose sum
r
is
equal
(|g+ 1 ) >
the remainder when n is divided by >.
CHAPTER XX.
LIMITING VALUES
262.
If a be a constant
be made as small as
is,
we can make
we
when x
the fraction
by
sufficiently increasing
a
- approximate to zero as nearly as
is infinite
--
can
please
finite quantity,
the limit of
is
we
that
please
by saying,
zero."
when x
is
as large as
we
please
JO
when x
is
is infinite."
When we
The symbol
nished.
go
is
LIMITING VALUES.
204.
symbolically as follows
if
if
221
may now
of Art. 2G2
be written
is co
is
then -
is
then
is
x
co
meaning.
If y =f(x), and if when x approaches a
Definition.
value a, the function f(x) can be made to differ by as little as
we please from a fixed quantity b, then b is called the limit of
266.
y when x a.
For instance,
1+2 +
Here S
as
we
2~J
is
please
if
'"
then
'
S'
~2^-
a function of n, and
by increasing n
that
^
is,
Art 56 *1
the limit of
is
when
is infinite.
We
a + a x + a ax" + a 3 x3 +
x
where the
coefficients
independent of
x,
a,,
a2
a3
...
are
of terms
quantities
be limited or
finite
may
unlimited.
It will therefore be convenient to discuss some propositions
connected with the limiting values of such expressions under
certain conditions.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
222
The
268.
a + a x + a 2 x 2 + a 3x 3 +
x
when x
is
an
series consists of
infinite
number
Let
let
diminished
is indefinitely
S<bx + bx + bx
2
and
if
x<
Thus when x
small as
we
please
is
;
...
...
and
bx
S<
1
x
we have
of terms.
-=
can be made as
hence the limit of the given series is a
indefinitely diminished,
number
of terms,
is less
is true.
In
269.
the series
+ a,x + a2 x + a 3 x,3 +
The
ratio
of
the term an x
to the
sum
it is
ax
an+1 x
When
n+l
+a n+2x"
+2
'
or
'
...
is
as small as we please
as we please.
that
is,
a xn
a nl,cc
where u
y=x
+an x
2
+...'
or
to the
sum
of all that
a
2
+...'
a n ,y + a n2<J
ay
lts
LIMITING VALUES.
When
223
we
is
please.
270.
position
foregoing pro-
of the
very useful.
In the expression
a x + a H ,x
ii
H-i
+ a.x + a
enough.
Example
3.t
2.
2x'2
:
when
(1)
is infinite
(2)
is
zero.
(1)
3a; 3
the
first
^-s
is
3
or ^
OXr
(2)
When
-4
is
is --
/ 1- + x
- when x
V 1x
log
P=i
{log (1+ x)
Hence the
is
2
e' .
limit of log
terms but
is 2,
or - 2
is
zero.
by taking logarithms we
-log (1-x)}
all
3.
disregard
Example
Let
have
may
[Art. 226.]
limit
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
224
VANISHING FRACTIONS.
Suppose
271.
it is
2
x 2 + ax 2a
x 2 - a2
when x = a.
If
we put x = a + h, then h
and when h
is
a.
Substituting a + h for
x +
will
x,
ax 2a
2
-a
3ah + h 2
2ah + h
3a + h
2a~+h'
this
expression
-.
is
There
is
and
^r
if
- a) (x + 2a)
(x a)(x + a)
x + 2a
x+a
(x
we now put x = a
value
the
of
the
'
expression
is
as before.
-j
simplification
it
fi
x^ a
found that
will be
~ we
pat x = a before
it
the
Art. 266,
when x = a,
i
the limit of
x t ax
^
Jia
x~ -^a"
is
225
VANISHING FRACTIONS.
If
272.
f(x) and
<f>
(x) are
^~
<f)
(a)
and
called
is
Vanishing
Fraction.
Example
If
1.
T 3 -5:r 2 + 73-3
3 x- ox '6
.T
When x = 3,
which
is
therefore the
required limit.
Example
To
The
2.
fraction
J'^-a-Jx + a
x-a
becomeg
when % _ a
numerator and denominator by the surd conJ'dx-a- Jx + a; the fraction then becomes
jugate to
(Sx-a)-(x + a)
2
^
or
Example
3.
The
J'6x-a+
fraction
j=
21 x
(1
fe)*
l-(l + /0i
l-(l+J*-^F+-.)
1
3
1
-5 +
Now h = when
>Jx +
1, -;<
9
2
/l
25
5
is
Sometimes the roots of an equation assume an indeterminate form in consequence of some relation subsisting
between the coefficients of the equation.
lo
H. H. A.
273.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
226
For example,
ax + b = ex +
if
(a
c)x = d b,
x=
But
= a, then x becomes
if
a simple equation
d,
d-b
a
j-
or go
indefinitely great
is
that
is,
the root of
the coefficient of x
if
is
indefinitely small.
The
274.
ax + by + c =
be'
ab'
If ab'
a'b =
== m
0,
suppose
ax + b J
ii
c'
c,
are
now
c'a
'
ab'-a'b
equal to
^
c.
infinite.
for
a',
In this case
b\
second
the
and
only
in their absolute terms, and being
J
differ
Ml
m is
0,
= 0.
If
ca'
1
by substituting
not equal to
is
- b'e
ab
+c =
equation becomes ax + by +
If
a'x + b'y
0,
we have
by any
finite values of
-=-=-,
a
x and
y.
identical.
Here, since be
b'e
Q
each assume the form -
and
ca'
c'a
indeterminate.
In
in
VANISHING FHACTIONS.
227
We
which may
ax 2 + bx +
If c
0.
= 0, then
2
ax + bx = 0;
x=
whence
that
is,
If 6
sign.
0,
is
0,
or
is finite.
[Art. 118.]
If
that
a=
in
namely
=- .
for
we
appears
one root,
it
only
Write
and
roots,
and in
proceed as follows.
of fractions
*J
thus
2
cy + by + a
Now
put a =
0,
0.
and we have
cy
is
y
J
+ by = 0;
c>
b
0,
or
that
is,
x=
oo,
or
ofx
'
infinite
becomes zero.
-y
as its limit.
The
may
152
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
228
EXAMPLES. XX.
Find the limits of the following expressions,
(1)
-
when #=oo,
(2s
-3)
7#2
-
(3
-5*)
(2)
when x = 0.
(3r?-
I)*
CHAPTER
XXI.
SERIES.
Ax
076
some
assigiMgl
terms
^e
^m
t^
unfimitfd, it
is
is
called
an
^J.
B
infinite series.
i/-
by
+u +
consisting of w terms.
Suppose that we have a series
function of n; if n increases
The sum of the series will be a
equal to a certain
tends to become
indetinitely, the sum either
becomes infinitely great.
finite fcmi*, or else it
An
infinite series
is
said to be convergent
numerically
the first n terms cannot
quantity however great n may be.
when
the
exceed some
sum
finite
of
An
of a given
we can find the sum of the first n terms divergent
or
we may ascertain whether it is convergent becomes in-
978
series
If
the
W examining whether
made
finite,
when n
series
remains
finite,
or
indefinitely great.
is
of the first
n terms of
1-*"
.
2
+ x + x + x* +
...
is
_a
the series
T
230
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
If
numerically
is
j-
finite limit
If
is
d e greater
cUve?ge n t.
serie's
If
and by taking n
""*
&n * e
1,
sum
series is therefore
r i^entUm * ^ **
x= -
the
1,
is
n terms
and the
than
less
sum
the
1,
of
sufficiently great,
-,
the
converge,^!
l""*^
"
appro.
thus
"
*" d
t first
tk can
*>
***
is
1-1+1-1+1 -1+
The sum of an even number of
terms is
of an odd number of terms
is 1
and thiw +\L
between the values
and 1. Thi t,fe
Ac
which may be called o-iBo^ or
X
A^c^
^ ^
here
/^'
?i
finding the.
S:
280.
4n
Let the
f a
tra/mfe series
series
6 giVe
"
h od
-*Hout
u,
effecting
its
+ u -M +
SerfeS
may
....
K-,)+(,-0 +(.-,) +
.-K-J-(4 -,)-K-r)From
p"
w1 >^>^
M
a
o >w,>
*
4
for,
We
be denoted by
M -%+%where
,.
^
(
2 ).
281.
is
convergent.
sum
log e
is
By
series
11111
f-
231
putting x
in Art. 223,
we
2.
23 +
T~2
_7 +
~6
'
each term
series is
is
and
Now
as the
_5
3"4 +
(1) is
number
11111
-2 3-4 5"6
1-1+1-1
equal to log e
of terms is
2,
and
1-1
(2) is equal to
even or odd.
m
'
(1) '
(2).
or 1 according'
series
282.
An infinite seizes in which all the terms are of the same
sign is divergent \f each term is greater than some finite quantity
however small.
each term is greater than some finite quantity a,
the sum of the first n terms is greater than na and this, by
taking n sufficiently great, can be made to exceed any finite
For
if
quantity.
Before proceeding to investigate further tests of convergency and divergency, we shall lay down two important
principles, which may almost be regarded as axioms.
283.
a finite quantity.
which
the terms are positive is convergent, then the series is convergent when some or all of the
terms are negative ; for the sum is clearly greatest when all
the terms have the same sign.
If a series in
II.
We
all
contrary
is
stated.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
232
An
284.
fixed term
less than some quantity zuhich
Let the
series
+u +
12
c>
<
let
r,
where
<
<
u.
~1
<
1
-r
+ u^4 +
U1
U
r,
it,
since r
u^3
+u + u+u
12
u,
is,
than unity.
1.
Then
tliat
less
and
numerically
is itself
/_.
u9
u.
<f a
(1
<
A
4
ua
u
x
+ r2 + r 3 +
n u u
u 3 u 2 Ul
1.
series is convergent.
In the enunciation
should notice the significance of the words " from and after a
fixed term."
Consider the
1
CONVERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY OF
SERIES.
'2Xi
An
term
to the 'preceding
term
is
the limit of
be denoted by
n\
A.
If
If
X<
\>
when n
is
1,
the series
is
convergent.
1,
the series
is
divergent.
[Art. 284.]
[Art. 286.]
<
n
X=l,
as
limit ivhen
its
is
indefinitely increased.
quantity r which
Hence the
is
test of Art.
tinually approaching to
Art. 286.
We
shall
"the limit
of
284
If,
however,
u >
uH
fails.
"
un
U
when n
un
is
an abbreviation
as
but con-
divergent by
of the
words
is infinite."
Example
1
1.
series
whose n lh term
.,
di-
vergent or divergent.
is
?/
('_!
(n
+ l)a: n
n
ru^1
{h
1)
him
(n
+ l)(n-l)-
n*
"n
x\
I
is
con-
;;
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
234
hence
If
x < 1 the
series is convergent
if
x > 1 the
series is divergent.
u =1, and
x = l, then Lim
Example
if
a further test
required.
is
Is the series
2.
l2
+ 2 2x + 3 2 x 2 + 4?xs +
convergent or divergent?
_
Here
T
Lim
.
Hence
If
x = 1 the
Example
series
~
n2 x n l
.
(n-l)-x n
un
=Lim-.
7jL
un-i
9
2
=x.
if
is
convergent
if
x> 1
is
divergent.
the series
becomes
l2
+ 2 2 + 32 + 4 2 +
. .
and
is
obviously divergent.
In the series
3.
~
a+(a + d)r+{a + 2d)r 2 +... + (a + n-1 d)r n 1 +
.
d
(n wn=Lim a
-^--.r =
a (n-2)d
,
Lim
*-i
thus
if
r< 1
the series
is
1)
-t-
...,
sum
r;
is finite.
If
there are
or both divergent.
infinite series
be denoted by
u + ua + ua + w4 +
+
+
12
and
v,
The value
v,
v,3
v.
of the fraction
+n
u + u , + ua^
i
lies
\
and
is
therefore
Hence
if
a,
one
series is infinite
proposition.
-,
-*,
finite quantity,
[Art. 14.1
say
one
which proves
the
in value, so
is
the other;
235
SERIES.
The application
289.
by means of it we
series whose convergency or divergency has been already established.
The series discussed in the next article will frequently
be found useful as an auxiliary series.
The
290.
infinite series
1111
y
T
2P
3P
is
4.1'
is positive
and
greater than
2
j;
Z
1.
than
less
4
the following four terms together are less than-;
.
the
fol-
than
less
and so
Hence
on.
the series
2
is less
than
+ t^+th+ttt,
P
4'
2
that
is,
less
is less
Case
The
than
II.
series
1,
since
p>
is
common
ratio
convergent.
Let_p=l.
now becomes
+^ +
2
The
+;
~j
-^
+ - + =;+
4
...
5
2
4
1
the following four terms together are greater thau ^ or the
o
2
8
1
following eight terms together are greater than
and so
or ;
Hence the
on.
1111
+
and
is
than
series is greater
'"'
[Art. 2^6.]
therefore divergent.
II.,
is
divergent.
Hence the
is
in
series is
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
236
Example.
n+1
with 1 +
+ +v
is
divergent.
Thus
series
"
"^
th
terms of the given series and the
n and v n denote the n
if
we have
un
i'
=1,
_n + l
n
_ w+ 1
re
'
?i
7/
hence
Zi-m,
series are
divergent. But the auxiliary series is divergent, therefore also the given
series is divergent.
In the application
291.
limit of
should be finite
the
nth term
highest powers of n.
- is finite
288
of Art.
it is
way
Take u
Art. 287.
1.
find our
Denote the
we
by v n
result
7i
th
term of
Example
r
1.
Shew that
the series
whose n th term
3/2n2
is
,,
Z/S?vi +
=
1
is
2n+5
divergent.
As n
increases,
un approximates
l/w
1
Hence,
if
v=-r ,we
~-
have
to the value
or
'
Lim
n1
series.
But
divergent.
4/3
n 12
3
= ^r,
3
v
u
/2
is
which
is
a finite quantity;
v/
may
is
2.
vn =
is
series in
^/;<
:}
which
+l -n
convergent or divergent.
"=
Here
\\/ * + tf ~
1
//
~3n 2
If
we take v n =
we have
9n'J
=x.
v
Luti
*J
- + -;"
9><
v MN
series
Jl
JL
P + 22 + 3 2+
JL
is
237
SERIES.
'"
is
l1+ "
convergent.
u
wr
.
When r>?6+l,
+ x) n by
the
Binomial
of the ex-
n-r+1
Now when
x <
this
ratio
is
7/
is
infinite,
=x
Lim
numerically
therefore
Here
*-
^
1#
7-
n-1
_,
the value of x; hence tlie series
=-
*__,
is
convergent.
<
p owers
11
whatever
1
be
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
238
=
u
-i
ni
n't
is
equal to x
If
a5
is less
1 k + 77-t+-->
4
3
2
an ^
than
is
1.
con "
[Art. 280.]
vergent.
If
= l,
x.
x~ 1,
the
becomes
series
t"
>
an(^
*s
q
a
4:
O
This shews that the logarithm of zero is
divergent. [Art. 290.]
infinite and negative, as is otherwise evident from the equation
e-=0.
295.
and
The
results of the
2--x when x
\q<j
Example
1.
of
is infinite.
~ eV
when x
Example
Let
x=-
is infinite
Shew
2.
so that
is infinite
that
when n
yi
y'
\2
y
also
y*
+"
the limit of nx n = 0,
is
zero.
when x<l.
y>l;
if
^^ = logy'
fu^=n = iz'logy
y
Now when
is infinite z is infinite,
and
logz
.
s_ = 0;
also
logy
is finite;
Lim nx n = 0.
therefore
296.
It
is
is finite
or not.
+ vn
239
SERIES.
for
(l+* )(l+*,)(l+*8)
(l+O-
P and
take logarithms
then
(1),
and
may
be
must be
convergent.
Choose as an auxiliary
series
+v n
v,+v 2 + v3 +
_1
log(l +
Now
product
(2) is
if
_.
r-
the limit of
convergent, (1)
un
"
/==1,
vn
when
is
2** +
^ = Lim\
vn
Hence
t;)
r
Lim-2-l
.
(2).
is 1
is
finite.
Example.
Shew
13
when n
'4*1*6' 6
2'
of
2n-l 2n + l
~JT~'~2ir
is infinite,
is finite.
Uj,
successive pairs by
P=u
v 2 u3
u n>
2n-l 2+l
s
n = 2m
where
**
-5
2n
- t-?;
4-
but
and we have
Now
to
shew that
log n = log (l
therefore as in Ex.
2,
(1),
-^)=-
~^
''
32/i-1
is finite.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
240
For example,
we
we expand (lx)~ 2 by
if
find
(
- a;)- 2 =
3
+ 2x + 3ar + 4a +
obtain the sum of n terms of this series as explained in Art. 60, it appears that
But
we
if
in
+
1
2.*;
3ar
n-l
...
+ nx
t=
(1
^^
1 - x
ra
- x)
whence
+'2x+ 3x~ +
-''
(l-x) 2
+ nx
-
...
4-
^+
7z
1-*
(1-a?)9
i
ByJ making n
infinite,
we
(l-x) 2
nx
x
vanishes.
ri + =
l-x
-x)~
-rz
(1
If
is
or aj>l,
that
infinite series
+ 2x + 3x2 + ix3 +
when
see that -z
it is
infinite,
this quantity
becomes
infinite
when x=l,
+ 2x + 3x2 + 4#3 +
Ta =* 1
and we should be
to
inf.
295], so
if we were to use
2
x)~ by the Binomial Theorem as if it were
the expansion of (1
In other words, we can introduce the
true for all values of x.
2
infinite series 1 + 2x + 3x + ... into our reasoning without error
if
the series
is
divergent.
The
is
convergent, but
we cannot do
so
when the
series
whatever x
may
be,
2
+ 2a;+3 +4a;3 +
and
so in a certain sense
yet, as
-p.
niay be
equi-
con-
It
therefore
is
more appropriate
SERIES.
to speak of
241
(l
X)
+ 3a 2 +
The use
alge-
EXAMPLES. XXI.
Ill
x and a
series are
1
x+a
x-^-2a
convergent or divergent.:
_ 4.
a.
+ 3a
.v
+
+
+
+
1.2 273 371 475
-
x and y
(*+i)(y+i) >+a)(y+*)
xy
(*+3)(y+3)
'
_1_
x3
x2
x*
h
1.2^2.3^3.4^4.5
1
oo
/)2
/>
tf
o***
\Mj
\Mj
%A/
+
+
+
+
T72 3T4 576 778
n
8.
1+
__
11.
I+ I + I+
ia
42
32
y
*
22
"i^
1 + i. + A +
+ 2/'
4p
3p
x+
+
2
+
5
Ib
+ - + ,^TT +
3 2
8 ,
15 A
- x + -x* +
x +
5
10
17
H. H. A.
.,
n 2 -\
-.,-..
nl +
xn +
16
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
242
-.n
-,
12.
2.r+ + -- +
8
/2 2
1C
15
'
14
-2*p-i+
2' l
1
14.
+ g * +5 * +I ^P + . +
2\-!
(p-l)
--
-,
..+
?t
/3 3
(2-3
3\- 2
-2)
27
4\- 3
_4\
/4
/4_
+=
\3
4
="
3^
4
2
3
+- + - +-+
16.
17.
Jn*+l-n.
(1)
18.
jtF+l- Jnt-^i.
(2)
.r
A+l
a+2
x+3
/1N
11
/on
(2)
-+
-+ # -1r-+
T5+
a 2
A+l ^ -25+
+
A-
series
1+
is
convergent for
20.
all
2"
3^
4"
I I E
values of p.
infinite series
ux + 2i 2 + u 3 + u +
is
Shew
is finite
22.
infinite,
when n
Shew
<1, or >1.
iti
2
*
3' 3' 5
'
6
5
2ti-2 2tt-2
2n
271-3' 2-l"S^Ti
is infinite.
SERIES.
The
*298.
tests of convergency
and divenrencV
& cxltv
Art* 9x7 ogi
11
.
proved in the next article enables
of
sriven
"
venter
when
<
divergent if
**
ddit0U,a
onrf
5-
U n-i
Let
I.
3?
,7
wUch
Me **
---
> _-n
V.,
"
fa-d
con-
AWjori
,< J,
Case
wp nave
i.
we
n/^T ^ ST^
I +.1 +
tergent
243
'
Wj
and
* < Ei &<!
then
w,
w + u3 +
fl
2t
that
<
is,
Hence,
vergent.
Case
II.
if
(v. -f
**
w,
+v +
-y
Let
- > 3
2
v,
**,
^^
tt,
M + ^9 +
i
V,
is
also con-
then
U,
Va
27,
162
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
244
that
>
is,
Hence,
if
(v
+ v2 + v 3 +
the ^-series
...).
divergent the
is
it-series
is
also di-
vergent.
We
*300.
have seen in Art. 287 that a series is convergent
th
or divergent according as the limit of the ratio of the ?i term
In the
to the 'preceding term is less than 1, or greater than 1.
remainder of the chapter we shall find it more convenient to use
this test in the equivalent form
:
A series
is
Similarly
that
is,
theorem
the
1,
preceding
the
of
>
Lim
according as
or
<
article
1.
may be
enunciated
The
when the
Lim
provided that
u > Lim v
Lim
*301.
The
"When p >
is
thatis,if
that
is, if
1,
convergent or di-
< 1.
is
+ iy.
or (l
is
or
n?
u n+i
un
> l + g + -J CP-lV+
>
di-
(n+iy
JS
be
series
is
>>
1 \
un
Un +
it-series will
^^ Lim ^.
convergent
is
Lim \ n
vergent according as
and the
series
v-series is
2n~
,\
l
KCr
Lim \n
I
p+
Wh
p (p-l)
J)
>)>.
'
'
series is
245
SERIES.
When p<
the auxiliary series is divergent, and by proceeding as before we may prove the second part of the proposition.
1
Example.
a;
l
is
series
^ + L3
1
2* 3
x=
2.4*
1.3 .5
x[
2~i.d'T + '"
convergent or divergent.
Here Lim
the series
If
is
1
=-;
it
u n+l
hence
x"
x<l
convergent, and
the series
is
(2w-
3)
(2n -
2) ' 2~/T=T
if
if
x>l
divergent.
x= 1, Lim
=
u
In this case
1.
n+l
1
M" _
~2
*302.
a;
=1
......
(2n - 1) (2n
'
hence when
2n(2n+l)
wn
un+1
and
"Urn
the series
1)
(2n-l)2
J"
'
convergent.
is
T/ie series
vergent, according as
Lim ( n
log
>
un
is
or
1,
is
<
convergent or di-
1.
Let us compare the given series with the series whose general
term
is
When
p>
is
convergent
u-sn+
that
or
is, if
log
if
if
lv
+ ij
>
[Art. 300.]
> p log (1
log
is
**
'u
.,
71+
>P
'
"
1
7J
^-52 +
2n
"3
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
246
that
Lim In log
is, if
>p.
auxiliary series
Example.
is
divergent.
series
5 5 x5
4*r 4
3 s x3
2 2z 2
is
case the
convergent or divergent.
(n + l) n+l /pW+1
n n
Here
un*- = n x
wn+l
|n_
.-.
Hence
if
a?<- the
'
Lim
[n
H)'
3l = -1
wn+1
[Art.
#>-
the series
is
divergent.
u n+l
.log
-n = loge-wlog( 1
3n8+ "
~2n
un
If
'
Lim [ n log
is
+-
J_
_1
=-
divergent.
also
Liminf-^- - l)) =
\ u n+
)
tests given in Arts. 300, 301 are not applicable.
series
220 Cor.l.
<?*
^St
To
A lyV
(n+l)**
+l
series is convergent, if
If:r=-,then
*303.
7^
'- v
is
we
shall
make
r-
(log n) p
1,
the
J)
In order to establish
we need
the theorem
247
SERIES.
*304.
If $ (n) is positive for all positive integral values of n
and continually diminishes as n increases, and if a be any posit ive
integer, then the two infinite series
</>(l)
and
a< (a)
<(2)
</>(3)
3
2
+ a <(a 2 ) + a
</>
(a
...
. .
</>(n)
...,
+ a n < (a n ) +
.
.
In the
2),
<f>(a
i+1
S),
<M
0)
</>(*).
of
ak (a-
k+1
1) <f>(a
By
);
that
is,
greater than
ak+l
(a
cf>
0, 1, 2, 3,...
k+1
).
we have
++W>^x*W;
+ 4>(3)-f<M4) +
Co
<]>(a
1)
<(
2)
<f>(a+
by addition,
therefore,
$!
+ <(*)>
3)+
<(1)
>
a 2<f>(a 2 )
ct
where
denote the sums of the first and second series respectively; therefore if the second series is divergent so also is the
,
first.
Again, each term of (1) is less than <(*), and therefore the
sum of the series is less than (a 1) x ak <j>(ak ).
By
<j>{2)
<f>(a
I)
therefore,
<(3)
<f>(a
4>(4)
2)
<f>(a
3)
<()
< (a-
0, 1, 2, 3...
we have
1) x <(1);
2
+<f>(a
)<(a-
1) x a<f>(a);
by addition
4-+(l)<(-l){4 + *(l)};
hence
if
is
convergent
so also
'
is
the
first.
Note. To obtain the general term of the second series we take </>() the
general term of the first series, write a n instead of n and multiply by a n
.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
248
The
*305.
>
if p
and
1,
series
divergent if p
or p
1,
<
r
n(logn)
is
convergent
u
is
1.
By
term
11
is
1
1
c\y
ft" \l
a"(loga") p
The constant
factor
(\V
(n\oga) p
'
common
is
r_
7=
'
np
(log a)'
'
to every term
there-
The
*306.
Lim
vergent according as
\\\
term
is
j)
>
series
Hence the
is
un
is
convergent or di-
log
>
>
1,
or
<
1.
Now when n
log (n
l)
is
un
M,+i
is
is
(w + l){log(n+l)}'
(!)
{log n) v
very large,
= log n + log
(1)
un +
.
is,
-.
that
n (log ny
When
thatis,
[Art. 290.]
series
is
same
log
n+-
becomes
nj
VN
'
VN
log
O
,
'
^>(l
+ l)(l+P
nj \
nlog
n log n)
\
u H+l
- >
u
.,
n+l
1
+- +
?i
wlogw
o
'
nearly;
>
240
SERIES.
l0g?4
<n
or
Hence the
second part
Example.
CSr
)- 1 } 10*"^
first
may
Is the series
22
2 2 .4 2 .6 2
2 2 .4 2
^3 2 ^3 2 .5 2 ^3 2
.5 2 .7 2
convergent or divergent?
A. = ** . 1 + I +
Here
*
(1).
ti
Lti
.-.
Fromfl),
.-.
Lim In
fe-l)=l+5
-1 - -1)1=1, and we
*-
ffe-
^ =
[Art. 295];
<
)- 1 } 108
^"[ffesince Lt/u
test.
2>-
test.
^'^
)-
108
"] 30
is
'
divergent.
We have shewn in
*307.
series
JC
Ou
%)C
4/2~J/3
convergent
is
series
1
by
474~^5
'"
when x=l.
itself,
1
Jb
[Art. 280.]
But if we multiply the
2n
the coefficient of x in the product is
1
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
250
Denote
this
by a2n
then since
1
a2
>
"
Jn
;
,
'
and
J^
when n
therefore infinite
is
is infinite.
If
gJ1
._
and since the terms ol,
a2/i+.,.1' a2;i+2
2h'
no arithmetical meaning.
ffl
...,
...
'
infinite series
a + a x 4- a 2 x + a 3x +
+ a2 x
. .
bQ
by
and
If
b^x
b 2x
b3 x
b 2n x
2n
.,
respectively.
we multiply
we
obtain a result of
the form
a <A + ( a
A + a(A) x +
a J>o + a fii +
afiz)
x2 +
...
A and B
are positive.
JO
first
we
^o B* >
2/i
If
we form
C 2n includes all
besides ; hence
2/1
2
2/1
C.%n
>A B
ii
ii
Thus
Let
is
2"
and
-4
/.
be convergent series
A = A-X, B
SERIES.
251
A B B B and A B
2/
2/i'
put
=B-
Y.
where
and Y are the remainders after n terms of the series
have been taken; then when n is infinite
and Y are both
indefinitely small.
.-.
A n B H = (A-X)(B-Y) = AB-BX-AY+XY'
the limit of A B is AB. since A and B are botli finite.
}
therefore
it lies
is
AB.
Therefore
since
A 2n B a
AB
2;
in
A and B
are not
all of
the same
sign.
A 2n
the inequalities
> C2b > A b B b are
n Bn
I
2b
necessarily true, and we cannot reason as in the former case.
In
this
case
not
A = P-N, B^F-N'.
Then
P\
JV,
Hence
that the
the
sum
vergent series.
But
F P
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
252
^EXAMPLES. XXI.
Find whether the following
1
1.
.r
1.3.5.7.9
#*
12
3.6.9 ^
3.6.9.12
2
A +
+
^
10 +7.10.13*
7.10.13.16
3.6
+ ^+7.
22
1+ 2*4 + 2.4.6'8 +
2.4.6.8.10'
3
2.
1.3.5
b.
2 2 .4 2
2 2 42 6 2
.
3.
^+374^+3.4.5.6^+3.4.5.6.7.8*+
4
*'
n 2# ^ 3
.?
|2
12
|3
|4
12
^h
,5
14
13
.3 2
54
1
12
l2
43
1
.3 2 .5 2
+ 2 2 .4 2 r + 2 2 .4 2 .6 2 ^ 2 +
22
'
g(l-a)
'
"*"
X "T
+ a)(l-g)(2- g)
12
l2
(2
22
+ q)(l+a)q(l-a)(2-,a)(3-q)
I2
a being a proper
8
a+x
*
22 32
.
fraction.
(a + 2#) 2
12~
IT*
(a + 3ai) 3
+ "13"" +
^ ^MM,
1+ 1
y (y+1)
a(a + l)(a + 2)/30+l)(/3 + 2)
1.2.3.y(y+l)(y + 2)
10.
11.
12
If
-
integer,
^_a_i
+a+
^;
(log 4)*
__^+_-^
=
+
+
'^r^w^S^'
+ + +
"*"
'
?^
A -a- 1
is
where *
is
a positive
\
convergent
negative or zero
is
if
CHAPTER
XXII.
Undetermined Coefficients.
309.
In Art. 230 of the Elementary Algebra, it Avas proved
that if any rational integral function of x vanishes when x = a,
it is divisible by x a.
Cor.]
[See also Art. 514.
n
n
p x +p x
Let
"
'
+ pjf
"2
+pn
*,
%i
tlien
since
f(x)
is
divisible
),
the
2W
n~X
by x -a,
7 ,
we have
= (x-aj-(pjf- +
2 dimensions; and
we
di-
visions
f(x)
=p
(x
- a) (x-a}(x-aa)
(x- aH).
!>x"
+p x"~
)
+p,c'-' +
+p
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
254
is
f( x) =Po (x - a i) ( x ~ a 2 ) ( x ~ 0
x ~ a ,)-
Let
Po
~ a i)
and therefore p = 0,
factors
is
a*)
~ a s)
of
the other
equal to zero.
2\x
n-
By
of x,
2>o,
then
(c-J = 0;
by hypothesis, none
since,
n values
coefficients
may
This result
be enunciated as follows
also
values
Hence
roots
it is
also,
an
if
an
identity.
Prove that
Example.
(x
c)
(x
- c)
(x
(a
-b) (a-
c)
{b
-c)
(6
b) (x
- a)
- a)
(x
a) (x
b) _
(c-a) (c-b)~
xn
+p x
n-1
+pH
+2> 2 x"- +
n
2
qox + q^"- + q 2 x- +
1
U>
- %) x +
(Pi
?i)
"~ l
of
+ qmt
"~
- ad x +
2
(p
+ (p* -
?.)
UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS.
n values
that
255
of x;
is,
2\
= %>
Pi=9li>
Pi^Vv
<l n
>
identical,
l> n
Thus
we assumed
in the
may
Elementary Algebra,
is
+pn
,
we have
q =
0,
The theorem
312.
p,,
>
0,
q-
The application
to as the Principle of Undetermined Coefficients.
of this principle is illustrated in the following examples.
Example,
Assume
1.
+n(n+l).
that
Change n
1. 2
into
n+
then
+ 2.3+...+?i(;i + l) +
+ l) (n + 2)
= A+B(n + l) + C(n+l)* + D(n + l)3 + E(n + iy+....
By subtraction,
(n + 1) [n+2) = B+C
(?t
{2n + l)
+D
(3}v>
+ 3}i + l) + E
{-n*
+ 6ri- + n + l)+
..
This equation being true for all integral values of n, the coefficients of the
respective powers of n on each side must be equal thus E and all succeeding
;
coefficients
must be equal
to zero,
3D = 1;
and
3D + 2C = 3;
1
whence
1)
=-
(7=1,
D + C + B = 2;
B=
2
-
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
256
=A +
+ n2 + - n 3
o
To
find A, put
n = l; the
series
2=A
Hence
1 .2
Note.
+2
+ 3.
then reduces to
+ 2,
or
its first
term, and
A = 0.
+ ... + n(;i + l) = - n
(n
+ 1)
(n + 2).
series.
Example
2.
Assume
x3 +px2 + qx + r=(x + k)
Equating the
(x 2
by
+ ax + 6).
powers of
divisible
x,
we have
k + a=p, ak + b = q, kb = r.
the last equation k =
From
b
r
r
that
is,
=b
+ a=p, andn
ar
+b = q;
,
EXAMPLES.
XXII.
l 2 +3*
2.
1.2. 3 + 2. 3. 4 + 3. 4. 5 +
3.
1. 2 2
+ 5*+7*+...to n
4.
terms.
..
.ton terms.
a.
terms.
. .
5.
divisible
by a
7.
Find the conditions that ax3 + hv2 -\-cx + d may be a perfect cube.
8.
perfect square.
9.
1
if b'
= ac,
d- = a/, e2
= cf.
is
a perfect square,
UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS.
+ bx2 + cx + d is
:i
10.
If
a.<
11.
If
3tP
12.
w
/
f>qx+4r
by x2 + h 2 prove that
divisible
divisible
by
(x
c) 2 shew
,
<id
= bc.
that g*=r*,
a2 (x-b)(x c) b 2 (x-c)(x a)
+ ~(b-c){b-a)~
(a-6)(-c)
c2 (x
- a) (x - b) _
"
+ ~Jc^aJ(c-b)
(y-^>)(^-c)<.y-cQ
t"
(rt-6)(a-c)(a-J)" (b-c)(b-d)(b-a)
+
13.
is
257
(x - d) (x - a) (x
~b)
(x
- a)
(x
- b) (x - c)
+ \d-a){d-b)\d-c)**
{c-d){c-a)(c-b)
'
may
14.
If
= lx + my + nz,
r)
jt/.t'
+ ^'y + r'.
y, z
when
l~,
77,
and
if
the
are inter-
15.
+2mn = l,
m 2 + 2ln = 0,
quantities a, a
(a
n 2 + 2lm=0.
of the products
-//
together of the n
,..a n is
-l)(tt*- + a
-1)
(a 2
-l)...(a-l)
1).. .(a*-'-
i(-r)(-r+l).
1)
313.
is equal
If the infinite series a + a x + a.,x + a 3 x +
to zero for every finite value of x for which the series is convergent,
tit en each, coefficient must be equal to zero identically.
2
Let the series be denoted by S, and let S\ stand for the ex2
pression a + a 2 x + a x +
then S = a + xS
and therefore,
=
l>y hypothesis, a + xS
for all finite values of x.
But since S
is convergent, #, cannot exceed some finite limit; tlierefore by
taking x small enough xS may be made as small as we please.
In this case the limit of & is a
but S is always zero, therefore
a Q must be equal to zero identically.
;
:i
x;
Similarly,
coefficients a n
H. ir.A.
we may prove
a.,,
is
of
17
of
x.
the
. .
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
258
314.
If tivo infinite series are equal to one another for every
finite value of the variable for which both series are convergent, the
coefficients of like powers of the variable in the two series are equal.
series are
denoted by
3
2
a + ax x + a x + a 3 x +
A +A
and
x+
A x + Aj? +
2
" Ao +
(i
"A
x + (a2 -
+ ( - A a)
2
2)
a
that
aB -A a = 0, a3
-A = O a.-A^Q,
t
is,
i-^n
>
a2 =
a.
2,
= A3
therefore
-A a = 0,
;
Expand
1.
5
as the term involving x
where a
fl
a.2
:i
,...
+ X2
=a
Let
+ x2
2
-=
'-
+ a x x + a 2 x'2 + a.jx? +
are constants
+ x 2 (1 + x - x 2
whose values
(a Q
...,
+ Oj a; + a 2 ar + o a
re
. .
.
this will suffice to find the successive coefficients after the first three
To determine
been obtained.
= 2,
a
whence
Also
a3
a1
+ a = 0,
a.2
+ a1 -a = l;
= 2, ^=-2,
a 2 =5.
+ a 2 -a 1 = 0, whence
a4 + a 3
~~
a 3 = -7;
a 2 = 0, whence a 4 = 12
a 5 + a-a 3 = 0, whence a 5 = - 19
and
2
thus
these
+ X~ = 2
2x + 5x 2
2
l + ic-a;
7.t 3
+ 12x 4 - 19a 5 +
. .
have
UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS.
Example
Prove that
2.
if
n and
is
equal to
We
if r
250
~+
|w if r
=n
have
= x n + terms containing
higher powers of x.
.(1).
By expanding each
of
xr in
of the terms
nx
,
e (n
~ l)X
y
we
...
(2) is
nr
(-l) r
|r
[r
n(n-l) (n-2) r
w(m-1)(w-2) (n-3)*
|r
j2
coefficients of
|3
x r in
and
(1)
(2)
y = ax + bx 2 + ex3 +
express x in ascending powers of y as far as the term involving y 3
Example
3.
If
x=py + qy 2 + ry 3 +
Assume
and substitute
y = a{py
an = 1
ar
Thus
Cor.
is
whence q =
+ 2bpq + cp 3
whence
?/
a6
= 5=
a
(2&
ac) y
Series.
y= k
+ ax + bx 2 + ex? + ...
y-k = z;
put
then
from which x
+....
an example of Reversion of
If
we have
whence p = -
V
&'V"
# = '---4-
m,
y,
+ bp- =
aq
This
thus
powers of
coefficients of like
Equating
may
ax + bx- + ex3 +
2 ).
z,
that
is
of y - k.
172
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
260
EXAMPLES.
"'
3+*
'
-xx
be (Sn-2)xn
Find
a + bx + cx
+ ax ax2 .r3
l+x
2+.r + .r2'
n- +
,
If cxz
% =#
(3/
xn
--,
(l-.r)-
in the expansion of
+ 1),
+ ax -y = 0,
of
is
+ s .r-js S A +
a4
3c2;/5
12c3;/ 7
a7
'
x= -00999999 is an approximate
x + 100.? -1 = 0. To how many places of
result correct
bv
l.
y
a
equation
-4-
|.r
9.
a
7-
a, b, c
If y 2 +
far
(l-.r)^ mayJ be
8.
l
-
x as
th
Find and b so that the n term in the expansion of
7.
i_#_6#2-
b.
l-&g
1+2^;
1_^_^.24
XXII.
Expand the
may
'
solution of the
decimals
is
the
the
In the expansion of ( 1 + x) ( 1 + ax) ( 1 + a\c) ( 1 + a\v)
<
shew
and
a
that
the
coefficient
infinite,
of
being
1,
factors
number of
10.
Xr
1S
11.
(1
12.
(l-a)(l-a )(l- )
When a < 1, find the coefficient
2
If
is
- ax)
(1
(l-O
of
xn
a 2x) (1 dAx)
hr(r-l)
in the expansion of
to inf.
(1)
nn+1 -n(n-l)n+1 +
(2)
n n -(n+l)(n-l) n +
n ^~ 1 '
K
^-
(n-2)* +1 -
(n-2)-
^~ 1
3a -
(3)
l"-2+
(4)
(n+p) n -n(n+p-l) n
<
n terms
=(-l)w
+ ^
'
=jn\ n+.l
=1;
and
\n;
(n+p-2) n -
= '
\n;
n + 1 terms.
CHAPTER
XXIII.
Partial Fractions.
In elementary Algebra, a group of fractions connected
by the signs of addition and subtraction is reduced to a more
simple form by being collected into one single fraction whose
denominator is the lowest common denominator of the given
315.
3
5a;
^-- in a series of ascendexample, if we wish to expand
1 iX -r OXT
ing powers of x, we might use the method of Art. 314, Ex. 1, and
so obtain as many terms as we please. But if we wish to find the
general term of the series this method is inapplicable, and it is
simpler to express the given fraction in the equivalent form
1
2
-1
and (1 3aj) -1
Each of the expressions (1 a;)
fractions.
1-
x l ox
can now be expanded by
I
term obtained.
316.
In the present chapter we shall give some examples
illustrating the decomposition of a rational fraction into partial
fractions.
For a fuller discussion of the subject the reader is
referred to Serret's Cours d'Algebre Superieure, or to treatises on
In these works it is proved that any
the Integral Calculus.
rational fraction may be resolved into a series of partial fractions;
linear factor
xa
denominator there
in the
to any linear
X cc
the denominator there correspond
x-
b occurring twice in
x
7?
7?
-j
cor-
and
-.
(x
*__
by
an additional fraction
If
x b occurs
hnl au d
(x-b)"
.
so
on
three
To
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
262
any
quadratic
+px + q
Px + Q if
is
'
Here the
shall
+q
Av B
quantities
P x + QL
lt
partial
2
the factor x + vx + q occurs
x' +])x
corresponds
there
fraction y~
a second partial
r
(x-+2)x
independent of
We
x2
factor
P B
2
P, Q,
3,
and so
on.
q)
Pv Q
are
all
x.
make
follow.
Example
5x 11
Separate =-^
^ into partial fractions.
1.
where A and
2.r
to be
determined.
Clearing of fractions,
we may equate
is identically true,
coefficients of like
~SA + 2B=-U;
2A+B = 5,
B= -1.
A = 3,
whence
5.r-ll
'"'
Example
2.
2x
Resolve
r,
(x
+ b)
2x-B'
z-.
Since
A and B
In
put
coefficients
are independent of x,
x-a = 0,
(1).
simpler to
(1)
- a)
-.
.'
is
A
B
mx + n
=-r =
h
x-a x + b'
(x-a)(x + b)
mx + n = A {x + b) +B (x-a)
Assume
We
+ x-6~ x + 2
r~.
(x
of
n
= 0,
or
ov x = a; then
b,
B nib-n
-r,
CI "T*
mx + n
(x - a) (x + b)
B, but
it
ma + n
A=
a + brputting x + b
A and
/ma + n
~ a b
+ \
x-a
mb-ii\
x+
PARTIAL FRACTIONS.
Example
23
- 11
2
r'
-.-rrx- ^ mto
7^7
yx I) (J x
Resolve
3.
By
23x-ll.r 2
5
rm
r= n
2.c-lr+ 3 + x
(3 + x)(3-.r)
^-^
(2.c-l)
23x - lLc2 = .1
+ x)
(3
partial fractions.
ABC
Assume
-x)+B
(3
+ x 0,
Example
1_
3+x
3 -a:'
3s 2
Let
let
a;
^
+ s-2
- -^
%x-
&)"
s-7
2x)
+ x-2 = A
1) (3
1)
+ x).
find that
'
[x
+x2
(x
2)
B
+
x-2
k~ H
2x
~k
"
&x\
(J.
(1
2x) {x
G
(x
2)
2)
'
+ C (1 - 2x).
A= --
- 2x = 0, then
-2 = 0,
To
'
-.
z-^-n
(x - 2)- (1
.
= 0, we
- lis 2
1
+
2 )~2x-l
(2.c-l)(9-x
3.t
Assume
3 -#
-1.
Resolve
4.
3-x
4 = 1, B = i, C=
23.c
H 5
+ G (2x -
(2x - 1) (3 - x)
2^-1 = 0,
putting in succession
'
203
C=-4.
then
thus
= A - 2B whence B = - ^
;
3.r'
Example
1
'
(x-
+x-
2)
- 2x)
(1
3(1- 2x)
- 2)
(x
2)
'
42
into partial fractions.
+l)(x-4]
19a;
5.
Resolve
[x
-r
-r-,
42-19.C
Assume
-7-3
tt,
.-.
42 -
r;
+ 1)^-4)
(.^
19.r
Ax + B
3
+
x-+l
(x-
4)
.i--4'
+ C (x* + l).
C=-2;
equating coefficients of
x'
= A + C, and .4=2;
42 = - 4Z? + C, and B = - 11,
42 - 19a
'"
The
= (Ax +B)
Let x = 4, then
317.
3 {x
2s -11
p+l)(x-4)"^TT *-4*
artifice
will
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
2G4
-;
=rr-
7^t~.
(a:-2) 4 (a:+l)
9z 3 -24;r 2 +48;c
.
^tx~?
l)
(x-2)*(x +rrv
Assume
where A
Resolve
Example.
r
f(x)
n +
x+1
{x-2) 4
is
of x
'
to
he determined.
.-.
Let
x= - 1,
Substituting for
(x
A=
then
1.
and transposing,
^4
+ 1) / (a) = [x - 2) 4 +
.'./(*)
= 3 + 16.
To determine
.r
then
+16
(2
+ 2) 3 + 16
(x-2) 4
23
~z
6
z^
16
\x2)
put
x-2 = 2;
+ 6^ 2 +122 + 24
z*
Z*
12
~z^
24
~z
24
12
+ /. nva2 + /_ n\n +
~ x-2^(x-2)'
(x-2f^ (x-2f
'
9x-
"
-24j; 2 + 48*
(x-2) 4
(x
+ l)
1,1,+
=
"
-\
x+1
-i
x-2
12
+
(x-2)"
/
Svi
TZ
^-J
(x-2f
24
(x-2) 4
In
Example.
*
By
all
2 -7
6r 3 + 5#
=- into partial fractions.
ox- - 2x - 1
Resolve
-zr-=
division,
3a:
2.x
v-
= 2x + 3 +
-4
=
3x -2x-l
8a;
and
^-=
2
'*
319.
fractions
We
pr
3.c
=
l
Sx 2 - 2x -
x-1'
1
5
6^ + 5^-7
= 2.r + 3 + - - +
2
*-l'
3.T+1
3x -2x-l
shall
may be
now
explain
how
resolution
into
partial
PARTIAL FRACTIONS.
- _ 2
;;
Example
1.
series of ascending
By Ex.
4,
powers of
Art. 316,
3(1-2*)
(*-2) (l-2*)
r+6
Expand
2.
(1
when expanded
l
in a
(*-2) 2
4
(2-a?) a
is
r+l\
2r
3(2-*)
Example
of the expansion
3(*-2)
3(1-2*)
-|-
15
15
we have
,'-
x.
+ .r-2
3.r 2
265
sr
+*
r-^r
*) (I + *~)
.
in ascending powers of *
and
find
+
1+x
+*
-
7
Assume
(1
.\
=J
A = 3;
then
+*
_
2
(1 + *)(1+* )
7
2
,
= A + C,
= A + B,
whence C = i
whence
B - 3.
4-3*
+
1 + *^ 1+* 2
+ (4-3*)
To
+C
1 + *2
JB*
+ *) (1+* )
7 + * = J(l + * 2 + (E*+C)(l + *).
Lctl + *=:0,
.4
3*) (1
+ x 2 )~l
+ (_l)P;C P +
{l-.r 2 + *--
...j
+ (-1)p*'^+...}.
(1)
If
is
4(-l) 2
+4 (-
1)
2
.
r-l
(2)
second series
is
-3(-
1)
'-
r+l
coefficient is 3
1)
EXAMPLES.
Resolve into partial fractions
,
lx-\
l-bj; + 6jf-
3.
XXIII.
46+13.r
'
12.t 2
-lU--15'
l+3. r + 2 .r 2
(1 -2.r) (1
-.//-')'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
266
-
2x*+x2 -x-3
x(x-l)(2x + 3)'
+13
2
(x-l)(x -5x+6)'
2
.y
'
10a;
9
6
(a;-l)(^ + 2) 2
26^2 + 208o;
(#+l) 2 (#-3)
2^2 -lLr + 5
+ l)(^ + 5)'
3^-8x2 +10
(a;
7*
'
(07-1)*
+ 2^-
(^--3) (^ 2
5)
5^ + 6.r 2 + 5.r
,,
(^
-l)(^+l) 3
'
+ 3#
l + llo; + 28^*
2#-4
5a;
12#
15.
t^
(1
2
- x5tt^
) (1
19
21
7,
24.
(i+^)(i+^2 )
22
'
(1
+x)
When
(l
(l-x)
Sum
to
find the
+
(l-x3
)
'
-
(2
- 3.r + a2) 2
'
series
+
+
(i+^2 )(n-^) (i+^)(i+^4 )
+ ax) (1 + a%)
< 1,
a?
+ x - 2x 2
(1-tf) 3
.
'
x (1 - ax)
25.
(1
- co;)
(l)
1
(1
+ 3a;)(l+.r) 2
1 -* +i *
20.
- te)
+ 7a- + uy
(2
*"*
cw?)
(1
4 + 7x
no
18.
(^-1)(^2 +1)"
23.
- x)
(1
2.r)
w ttx*
(l+a?)(l-4a?) 2
17.
16.
+ 2x-x2
tf
4 + 3^+2a'2
#2 + 7;f + 3
(2+a?)(l-#)'
'
- ^
+6
ax
+
(1
sum
+ ax)
n terms the
-a?)
(1
series
- a2x)
+a%)
(1
+ a 3.r)
x2
(1
(1
(1
-.r5 )
xA
(1-tf5 )
whose p th term
(1
-^) +
is
xp(1+xp + 1 )
CHAPTER XXIV.
Recurring Series.
320.
A series
u + u + u 2 + u3 +
l
which from and after a certain term each term is equal to the
sum of a fixed number of the preceding terms multiplied respectively by certain constants is called a recurring series.
in
321.
In the
series
1
+ 2x +
3ar
+ 4a? +
5a;
each term after the second is equal to the sum of the two
preceding terms multiplied respectively by the constants 2x, and
- x 2 j these quantities being called constants because they are
Thus
the same for all values of n.
5x4
that
= 2x
4a;
+ (- x2 )
3a;
2
;
is,
u4 = 2xn3 x2u 2
and generally when n is greater than
with the two that immediately precede
uh
2xiin 1
,
it
.
1,
x 2 u n2*
u H 2xu n + x 2 u
or
ii
0.
Thus the
series
1
is
a recurring series
+ 2x + 3a; 2 + 4a; 3 + 5x 4 +
in which the scale of relation
2
1 - 2x + x
is
322.
sufficient
number
of the preceding
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
268
If
is
- px - qx2 - rx 3
a + a<x + a a x 2 + ajc3 +
we have
"~ 1
3
2
+ rx3 a n - 3x
+ x " a n - 2x
am =pan_, + &.- + - 3
or
thus any coefficient can be found when the coefficients
anx*=px a n -i x
'l
<l
'l
of the
whence p = 5, and q= -
6,
- 5x + 6a;2
is
given.
2
3
to find the
the scale of relation be 1 px qx - rx
To obtain the first of
3 constants we must have 3 equations.
these we must know at least 4 terms of the series, and to obtain
the other two we must have two more terms given hence to find
a scale of relation involving 3 constants, at least G terms of the
If
series
we
must be
given.
Conversely,
if
2m consecutive
~ l\ x ~ l\ x * ~ lhx* ~
-PJ**
constants,
may assume
RECURRING
To find
325.
the
sum ofn
2G9
SERIES.
terms of a recurring
series.
The method
Let the
be
series
a u + axx + a 2 x 2 + aj +
(1)
and
let
it
2^>ci
...
(i
- px _
qtf)
S-
a + {a
px qx*
'
H_2
n~ l
_ 3x*-
pa
x*t
-qa H _ x n -qa H _ x
power
,x"~\
of
is
\
1
zero in consequence
of the relation
s_
% + (, -P<-Q x
1
-px qx
is
(P a
,t
-,
'
H+l
+ qan - 3 ) x" + qa n _ x
2
1 - px qx
}
whose de-
32G.
If the second fraction in the result of the last article
decreases indefinitely as n increases indefinitely, the sum of an
number
infinite
of terms reduces to
we develop
px
qx"
!
ascending powers of x as
many terms of the
series
as
we
please;
original
for this reason the expression
If
this fraction in
we
is
shall obtain as
px qx
From
327.
a X
P%
=a
-px
an + (v a
,
'
.)
qx'
we
lt
+ a.x + ax+
2
'
...
obtain
+a
+
xn.xi
" -1
- px qx
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
270
px
qx 2
may
it
a + a x + a 2x 2 +
only
if
the remainder
+qan-
( I**,.-,
+ (2 a n-^" +l
poj qx 2
vanishes when
when the series
xn
2)
is
is
convergent.
o
indefinitely increased
in other
words only
ABC
h
1 ax
Then the &general term
+ bx
(I ex) 2
'
is
{Aa + (-
l)
M+
r
(r
1)
Cc } x\
using
- Ix - x 2 -
43.-C
whence p = l,
5 = 6;
and the
scale of relation is
1
-x-
series
6.r 2 .
then
S = l-lx- x 2 -4Sx s -
-xS=
-Qx S=
2
.-.
which
is
- x + 7x 2 +
-6x 2 + 42.r 3 +
x*+
'
RECURRING SERIES.
If
we separate
8.r
fractions,
^- into partial
1-x-U.rtU
l)
or general term
271
+
2
we obtain
2a;
1-305'
is
{(-lyw^-v ].<>.
Putting
the
sum
to
r
?i
= 0,
-1,
1, 2,...n
terms
- 2 x + 2%2 -...
2
~_ 2 + - I)'
1"1
2 n+1
+ (-
xn
"1
}
(1
+ 3a + 3%* +
+ 3"- xn~
1
_ 1_- 3* xn
l+lte
'
- 3x~
To
Example.
The
+ 6 + 24 + 84+
is
is
OX + OX"
This expression
is 1
- ox + Ooj2
- Sx
- 2a;
If these expressions
of
+ 24x 2 + 84x3 +
term
series
is
(4
3r
2 r ) xr.
3r
-3.
2r ;
We
except
is
+ 24 + 84 +
is
We
series.
may
have
it will
always
+ Gx + 24* 2 + 84a 3 +
its
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
272
EXAMPLES. XXIV.
Find the generating function and the general term of the following
series
1.
2.
3.
+ 3x + 5x2 + 9x3 +
4.
5.
3+
6a?
+ 5 + 13 + 35+
8.
+ 7^ + 25^ + 91^+
9.
7.
10.
-^ + 2 + + 8+
11.
series
-l+6.v2 + 30.v 3 +
series
2
+ 2 2 + 3 2 + 42 +
+ n2
13
+ 23 + 3 + 4 +
+n
Shew how
to
deduce the
sum
of the first
n terms
of the re-
curring series
a
from the sum to
13.
+ a x + a2 x2 + a^v3 +
x
infinity.
The
.v
are
general term
is
l
15.
(<x n
(p
+6 n )^"
is
is
If a series be
formed having
for its
of
n terms
CHAPTER XXV.
CONTINUED
All expression of
331.
FllACTIONS.
the form a +
is
+ e
integers.
a3 +
we
...
a,
When
332.
...
c,
called
the
a2 + a3 +
number
of quotients a
3 ,...
is finite
the
333.
tn
Let
quotient and
j>
the remainder
be the
thus
m
a. +-p
n
divide in by n, let a
=a, +
n
n
P
si.
H.
18
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
274
n by ^,
divide
thus
and
1
- = as + - ;
- = a. + q
'
'
P
9.
p by
divide
on.
q, let a.6
.so
Tims
= a.
rn,
m is less
a.
If
than
?t,
a2 + a3 +
a3 +.
the
first
quotient
7)1
ti
is zero,
and we put
m
and proceed as
before.
Example.
Reduce
251
^^
to a continued fraction.
common measure
process,
of 251
CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
275
335.
To shew that the convergents ewe alternately
greater than the continued fraction.
1
The
first
convergent
is
aa +a3 +
is ,,
and
a 2 + a3 +
too small because the part
is
convergent
;
is
-i
l
and
is
great
omitted.
and
less
and
is a,
-\
a 2+
CC
and
is
is
The
too small.
-\
third
is
too
so on.
When
To
336.
the convergents
all greater,
establish the
and
all less,
law of formation of
vergents.
a +
x
then the
first
a 2 + a3 + a 4 +
a x a3 +
a2
o, (a, a,
a3
!)
a2 +
+ ,
1
Assume
that
is,
tt
convergent;
suppose
1\
= J.-i +P-i
In
<*
?.-,
Q- 2
182
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
27g
The (*+
l)
th
convergent
the quotient a n +
differs
from the
in the place of
ft*
aj hence
only in having
the ( + 1)-
vergent
+ ^-i
by
?_!'
+
?
^n-n ^
supposition.
n+1
If therefore
we put
^^
^ tttVs
th
^ ^*
vergent, hence it
holds universally.
337.
to call
It will be convenient
ft.
We shall
We have seen that
&
quotient a
thus
X_
ft
j^i-l
~kq
338
// Eb
6e
tfl6
n_x
+ ff-2
+ qn -2
n th convergent
to
'
denoted by
Let the continued fraction be
a,1
111
a Q + a 3 + a4 +
CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
277
then
= ("
But
p 2 q -]\
x
hence
q,
/>
(P.-
(<h
% + 1) - x
g^, -#,_,
When the
hold
still
if
-iV,
9-a
continued fraction
we suppose that a x =
g,
(-
a,
^-2)1 similarly,
= 1 = (-
l)
2
J
1)".
is less
0,
is zero.
When we
Note.
work.
Cor.
q n had a
which
impossible.
1.
is
Cor.
2.
The
difference
is
unity
q n qn ^
?_i
is
for
q,,q n -i'
EXAMPLES. XXV.
a.
2.
3.
l
*
'
6+ 1+ 1+ 11+
1111111
111111
2+ 2+ 3+ 1+
3+
44-
2+
3+ 1+ 2+ 2+ 1+
9"
729
4.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
278
A metre
13.
days
14.
.
A,
is
Find a
A kilometre
18
..
is
the fractions -,
**
Two
16.
If
scales of equal length are divided into 162 and 209 equal
parts respectively; if their zero points be coincident shew that the
th
31 st division of one nearly coincides with the 40 division of the other.
is
n3 + n u + n + l
n 1 and n+l
Shew that
Pn + \~Pn - 1
_ Pn
-1
9.n
(!)
2n + 1
9.n
(2)
(^-O^-fH-vrPn
Pn U
/ \
18.
and
alternately,
If
-1
\ cJn
g-l
X
,
is
Each convergent
339.
any of the
is
nearer
to the
'preceding convergents.
fraction,
and
"-
9*
^-*J
"-2
? + !
^+2
and
by
k:
x=
thus
^^ ~
Pn +
&+
a;
? n+l +Pn
= Pn^l^n-Pn^l
? +
(% +l +
7.)
1
"
y. + ,
(% + +
,
?)
denote
CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
Now
is
is less
botli
" and
between
difference
x: that
is,
--"
270
than q
and x
'
'
is less
every convergent
lience
on
than the
is
nearer
Combining the
.>3.>,
it
follows that
To find
340.
for
the
continued fraction.
p
r_n2
p-^
Let
Y
,
)0
x=
then
^^
<ln( k <ln +
<ln
>+ n J
'.(*
Now
p..
is
greater than
is
less
1,
than
><7,
taking
v. +
From the
p
last
article it
is
qm
or
(I
a i+l
is,
II
less
than
?.?.+,
a/ (a
V
is
1
5
?.
341.
<7, 1
less
..
than
Again, since
+9
i)
., ill
+1
+q2
that
,)
Ft 1/
is,
less
than
11+ .7ili
3
"
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
280
therefore,
quotient is
than
is less
it
large
by
less
successive convergents
up to
we have only
where q n 2
to calculate the
greater than
is
a.
The
3-14159 =
The
3+1
Thus
7, 15, 1, 25, 1, 7, 4.
111
7+ 15+ 1+ 25+ 1+ 7+
333
22
3
'
'
106
'
355
113
25TP5)-
00004
^-
is
a very near
and therefore
than
less
343.
Any convergent is nearer to the continued fraction than
any other fraction whose denominator is less than that of the
convergent.
P
'-*=* two consecutive
?.-,
s is less
than q
If possible,
let
v
r
- be nearer to x than
7)
nearer to x than
-Ji
then - must be
s
^1 [Art. 339]
and since x
lies
between
9.-X
it
P
-I"
In - J
-5=?
.
"
follows that S
must
lie
between
and
'
?-!
and
CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
281
Hence
P-*P.
rqn _ x ~ spn _ x
.'.
that
is,
an integer
p
Therefore
&
<
than a fraction
which
impossible.
r
be nearer to the continued fraction than -
must
P
If -
344.
Pn -i fWi<5 ^
less
is
P'
fraction x, then
be
x 2 according as
is
a continued
to
- is
J succeeding
'
''
"*=
(tfp'q
factor ky'q'
>
q"
,
WW^YY w
then x -f.
lcq '
{hq
'
+ qY " "'
pY]
-pq)(pq'-2>'q)
qq'(kq'
The
- pq
is
+ q) 2
>p,
q'
>q, and
k>
pp'
lience
that
is,
or
< x 2 according
as
<
according as - > or
]iq'
p'q
is
positive or negative
It follows
)/
sign.
EXAMPLES. XXV.
b.
222
1.
is
in taking
yards as equivalent to
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
282
Find an approximation to
2.
JL J_ J- JL JL
+ 3+
5+ 7+ 9+ 11+
which
differs
less
than -0001.
99
3.
4.
Express
1
,.
,.
,
n
a 3 + 6a 2 + 13a+10
as a continued fraction, and
rs
, A
\
1K
3
4 +6a
a
+ 14a--+15a + 7
,
Shew
and n th convergent
first
numerically ecpial to
1
(-l)n
Mi Ms Wh
6.
Shew
that
an
if
a
^
Pn-1~
'
n-l+ u- 2 + 0-3+
"
8.
If
2)
tt
?i
th
...
s-5
,
a2+
J_
1.
3+
1111
+ a+ + +
3+
n-3+
Pn
is
'"
L_
an-l+ -2+
qn-1
9n-l2n
(2 )
7.
is
...+
'
shew that
>
111111
a+
a+
+
b+
shew that
9.
b+
q 2n =p 2n + u
#..
-n
q2n - 1 = r
br
1111
a+ 6+ + 6+
'
shew that
Pn + 2~ ( ah + 2 ) P n +Pn-2 = i
9n + 2
~ ( ab + 2 )
?u + ?*- 2 = -
''
CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
10.
111
Shew that
/
a[a\
x+
a.v.j,+
ar
= .v,H
:r.,+
11.
If
-r;
iV
oa?3
2+ a S+
respectively,
If
.v,+
l)
th
.
*+ a B +
'
111
W 4+
tt
'
':5+
"4+ a 5+
'
shew that
T
iV
= (a^ + 1) P + aJL
the n th convergent to
is
i_
j.
"
a+ + a+
shew that
111
J/= OjP + 5,
12.
to 2/i quotients.
111
((
oa;4
A3
continued fractions
a i+
x.
to 2/i quotients
- are the n tU (n
(^
283
'
pn
coefficients of
xn
in the
expansions of
#
1
13.
If
at
is
.#
ax x 2
a
pn <In-i =
and
-r x 2
+ x2
'
_ Qn
i
>
where
a, /3
= 0.
the n th convergent to
9n
_l
a+
shew that
b-\-
a+
1_
"
pn
'
b-t-
coefficients of
expansions of
x + bx2 ^
ax+(ab + l)x2 xA
and
- (ab + 2) x2 + x*
1 - (aft + 2) x 2 + xA
.
where
a, /3
l-(ab + 2)x2 + xA = 0.
'
xn
in the
CHAPTER XXVI.
INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST DEGREE.
345.
In Chap. X. we have shewn how to obtain the positive
integral solutions of indeterminate equations with numerical coefficients; we shall now apply the properties of continued fractions
of
Any
equation of the first degree involving two unknowns x and y can be reduced to the form axby = c, where
a, 6, c are positive integers. This equation admits of an unlimited
number of solutions but if the conditions of the problem require
x and y to be positive integers, the number of solutions may be
346.
limited.
ax
ax by c.
to by
and
If a
If a,
so that
b, c
we
that a and
347.
equation
shall suppose a,
b
b,
it
To find
ax by
c.
let
denote
q
then
aqbp = l.
[Art. 338.]
I.
bj)
ax by c (aq
a(x
.-.
Now
divisible
that
cq)
-b
(y
written
c/>).
and
x=
is,
x- cq
y cP.
bt
cq,
at
cj)
may
be obtained by giving
any positive integral value, or any negative integral value
b]j)
le
since a
by
may
1,
285
may
II.
If
aq bp
1,
(aq
bji)
x + cq
=
+ cp
= t, an
= y
x=
unlimited.
cq)
b (y
cj))
',
integer
lience
a(x +
we have
ax by
.'.
is
cd
en
-j-
bt
cq, y at
cp;
CD
III.
of solutions
j-
unlimited.
is
cannot be con-
and y form
are b and a
common
differences
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
286
Example.
In converting
13
is -jr
we have
29.r
42*/
= 5.
therefore
.-.
29xl3-42x9 = -l;
29x65-42x45 = - 5;
=42(# + 45);
x + 65
*
-j- =
+ 45
29"
= *
an mte 8 er
is
= 42-65,
a:
ij
= 20t~4o.
Let
h,
ax-by = c;
k be a solution of
then ah bk =
ax by = ah - bk
.'.
the equation
c.
a (x h) b(y k);
.'.
xh
= yk =
a
.'.
t.
an integer
.'.
which
is
bt,
yk+
at
To Jind
349.
x=h+
ax + by =
equation
fraction,
and
I.
If aq
let
be the
q
then aq bp =
1.
bp=l, we have
ax +by =
(aq
bp);
a(cq x) = b(y +
.'.
cq
.'
c2));
= y+acp = L an integer
-=-=
b
.
' .
the
c.
a
Let t be converted into a continued
convergent just preceding j
of
x = cq bt, y at - cp
'
'
; ;
;;
may be
obtained by giving
CI)
to
If aq
bp = -
1,
x + co
(aq
en = y=
JL
x=bt cq,
bp)
no
solution.
number
If either
III.
no integer
at
may be
co
positive integral values greater than -~
before, the
is
an integer 7
t.'
= cj)
As
there
.-.
CO
than j-
less
we have
ax + by =
to
if
and
no solution.
II.
and
of solutions is limited,
287
of solutions
a or
is
limited,
obtained by giving
and
than
less
cP
may
be
Let
A,
k be a solution of ax
.'.
by
then ah + bk =
a (x h) b (k -
y)
7 =- -
hky
o
a
x
.'.
.'.
which
is
equation
x=h +
bt,
y-k
t,
an integer
at
To find
351.
c.
ax + by ah + bk
'
-f
the
integers
let
- be the
q
then aq bp
= at 1.
of the
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
288
Let aq -bp
I.
x = cq-bt, y = at-
is
ep.
[Art. 349.]
not
values
integral
than f
greater
and
not
less
than
(i)
= m+f.
J
Let
=n+
a.
y
'
therefore the
number
of solutions is
cq
cp
n-vi = --
Now
this is
an
c
+fg=-+f-g.
J
J
J
J
.
j.
ab
integer,
+ a fraction,
ab
r- a
number
of solutions
as/ or g
according
In
this case
the
this,
is
Suppose that
(ii)
g-
number
0,
is
than
g.
the greater.
z-
is
an
integer.
of
is zero.
If
^7+1
or -j
according as
include
Suppose that -
of solutions
we
(iii)
we
of solutions is
Thus the
greater or less
ao
teger.
or
is
is
in-
an
integer.
cc
In
this,
the
this
number
of solutions is
71
m+
l.
or r
ab
q+
1.
Thus the
INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS OF
number
ab
the
zero
include or exclude
solution.
we
cording as
(iv)
Suppose that
c
-
and
+1
289
c
or =. ae-
ab
7 are
both integers.
In this case
value.
the greatest
-y +
ab
DEGREE.
TJIE FIRST
1.
is
f
;
If
we exclude
If
aq
is
number
11-111+
1,
or
of solutions is
4-i.
ab
II.
-bp= -
1,
x=
and similar
cq
is
y cp at,
352.
To find the solutions in positive integers of the equation ax + by + cz d, we may proceed as follows.
By
If
x=f+Bs, y = g-As,
where
s is
an
integer.
Substituting for
s,
=h +
we
Gt,
= k - Ft
say.
obtain
x=f+Bh + BGt,
and the values
y = g-Ah-AGt;
of x, y, z are obtained
by giving to
suitable
integral values.
H. H. A.
19
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
290
354.
ax + by +
cz
d,
g,
be obtained as follows.
af+ bg +
By
may
ch
d,
a'f+
then
+ ch = d'.
b'g
subtraction,
a(x-f) + b(y-g)+c(z- h) = 0,
a'(x-/) + b'(y-g) + c'(z-h) = 0;
whence
x-f
be
where
be
b'c
y-g _ z-h _
ca
c'a
ab'
a'b
'
b'c,
=f+
(be'
b'c)
yg+
(ca'
c'a)
= ,
=h+
(ab'
- a'b) ?.
fc
fc
/c
EXAMPLES. XXVI.
j
775.r-711y =
4.
In how
crowns
5.
l.
many ways
2.
455#-519y=l.
can
3.
436#-393y = 5.
lLe+15y=1031.
6.
and 8
8.
of
sum
is 1
pounds y
shillings,
is
and
24
10.
12.r-lly
1
2x 1 \y
it is
y pounds x
9.
and
--.
= 221
4^=22
+ 4z
'
half
by
20^-21^=381
3y+ 4s =34/
12.
13^ + 1 Is =103)
'
7z
+ 4y + 19^ = 84.
"
- by=
23.r+17.y +
4J
lU = 130.
13.
7.r
15.
5, 7,
8 leave remainders
16.
remainders
1,
14.
3, 2,
291
all positive
5 respectively.
3, 7, 11
leave
6, 5 respectively.
number
denary
scale.
all
the
Two
rods of equal length are divided into 250 and 243 equal
parts respectively if their ends be coincident, find the divisions which
are the nearest together.
19.
commenced
7.r
20.
Three
21.
bells
+ 9y = c may
Find the limits within which c must lie in order that the
equation 19x + 14y = c may have six solutions, zero solutions being
23.
excluded.
in
CHAPTER
XXVII.
We
have seen in Chap. XXV. that a terminating continued fraction with rational quotients can be reduced to an
ordinary fraction with integral numerator and denominator, and
but we shall prove that a
therefore cannot be equal to a surd
quadratic surd can be expressed as an infinite continued fraction
whose quotients recur. We shall first consider a numerical
355.
example.
Example. Express ^19 as a continued
fractions approximating to its value.
x/19 = 4
v/19
+ 4_ 2
V19 + 2
+ 2_ 1j ^19-3 = ,
1 +
=1+^
+ 3_ 1
\/19 + 3'
9-2_ 1
~ + N/
1
3
(
N/19-4)
0i
\/19 + 4'
=8+
^9-8
+V
+4=8+
'
\/19 + 3'
n iN/19-4
2
N /19
+,x/19 z _2_
3
/L9 + 2
series of
,/19 + S
2
v/19
and find a
+ ( v/19-4) = 4+ Tl9 - -;
v +
3
N /19
fraction,
Jl_
hence
1
2.
V 19 - 4 + 2+ 1+ 3+ 1+ 2+8+
293
greatest integer in -
this is 2,
is
is
^ ^
We
new
that
^19-2,
conjugate to
2,
we begin a
The
first
48
13
170
61
1421
'
The
less
'
'
11
'
'
14
than
or
and
'
39
is less
a fortiori
326
'
than
less
'
and
than -00001.
is
therefore
Thus the
356.
roots
x=
a+
fraction,
part,
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
294
The equation
s'y
ii
qy+q
the value of x
is of
~G
the form
Express
where A, B,
is real.
,1111
~
+s
^-
C are integers,
as a surd.
...
+ O
+
then x - 1 = =
>
\X
7 = 0.
continued fraction is equal to the positive root of this equation,
1)
whence 2x + 2x 2
The
is
therefore equal to
^-
and
EXAMPLES. XXVII.
a.
v/3.
2.
^5.
3.
y/6.
4.
s/8.
5.
v/11.
6.
x/13.
7.
x/14.
8.
V22.
9.
2^3.
10.
j&-
14
13
4 v/2.
3^5.
11.
15
-
V33-
\/s-
4 N/10.
16 -
\/n-
268
is
17.
18.
916
Find limits of the error w hen '-
19.
Find the
65
first
12.
is
taken for
is
v/23.
of decimals.
20.
Find the
first
convergent to
VI 5
that
is
of decimals.
2x-l = 0.
a8 -4*?- 3=0.
21.
x* +
24.
25.
26.
22.
Ill
6+ 6+
6+
1+ 3+ 1+
3+
23.
as a continued fraction.
3+
27.
28.
29.
Shew that
*+
111111
3+
3+ 5+
1+
let
10 +
continued fractions
infinite
1+ 5+
1+
""
N be
JN
N/iV = ,
Let
111111
3+
3+
5+
"'
5+ 1+
*357.
Let
i+6+ i+ e+""~*\ 1+ a+ 2+ 3+ 2+
1+
and
111111
1+
3+ 1+ +
1111
1+
1+
30.
295
+ (Jff- a,) =
-j
if r,
W- ,\
'
then
r
i
JM+a
JN-b r
x
+a
2 = b r
where
a and
JN-a
r r2
x
^h +
= N a 2
Similarly
2
r2
so
on
b M-l
,
JN-a
v
H 1
an =
Hence
and thus
"We
N a
and generally
JN+a-s=i =
where
JN + a./
3 = bf2 as and r 2 r 3
where
and
'
&_,/_,
*JN= a, +
= b "-' +
,
(1-1
and
a_
"
jy + a
,
>
?_,*
1111
1
"
'
it
N - a/.
re-
curring periods ; it is evident that the period will begin whenever any complete quotient is first repeated.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
296
We
JA
the
first,
*358.
JAr + a,
JN + a
r2
JJST+ a 3
r3
complete quotients.
From
, .
tegers.
p
p
Let , ..
q
p
r.
be the convergent
P"
let
at this stage
v^=
p +p
parts,
=P
,t
is
hence
JW+aP+r p
v
we have
y + rnP = ^Y>
ck<l
+ rn q =p
r*
*359.
To prove
n greater than
and partial
1.
quotients recur.
values except 1, 2,
an cannot exceed a
x
'
3, ...a x }
that
is,
the
'
;
different values
is,
must
quotients
and
also recur,
rn
that
Also
297
rn
hence
number of partial
the
the partial
quotients in
']
To prove
*3G0.
We
that a,
have
< au +
N"-a;=rnrn _
But
+ a = or >?, ,-i
is
+ an = bH _ rn _
,_,
_i
since 6_ l
rn
a ~ a n < rn
i
l i
we have
a.
we
shall
r,
=r
and
b.
1',
b,
*
prove that
a,4 1
=a n
r* =
N -a,
We
=a
rm
1'
=r
ii
ii
have
r.*
,
i
2
'
iV
a = r H ,r r
2
it
ii
.
l
r,*
=r
Again,
a
.-.
"
_a
'
n-1
-b
om = zero,
7
or an integer.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
298
-a.
<r
-a
therefore a
'
,
n_
<.r _
- aa
and a
ii
<r
-a _ <r _
s
hence
that
-^
is
is less
n-
Thus
,_!
= _!, and
also 6#_1
zero.
=6
fl
_i.
th
the (n + l) complete quotient recurs, the ?^ comth
plete quotient must also recur; therefore the (n- l) complete
quotient must also recur; and so on.
Hence
th
if
quotient
1
Let
when
it
recurs
then
ancj
ar e
r,
hence rn =
therefore
",
but
N- a* =
Again, a
aH <
?',
that
1.
is
Also an + a
= rn bn bn
<
hence a - an -
0,
that
is
= ,
hence
bn
= 2a
proposition.
*362.
distant
any period the partial quotients equibeginning and end are equal, the last partial
To shew
from
the
that in
Let the
last
r.
rn =l,
ci n
=a
x
bn
=2a r
h-2=3
>
^.-2= & 2^
then
We
299
have
r-x
N - a; -
=-N- a,;
rH_t
r*
r,
Also
+a =
_,
and
+ a H = rm_,
_,
,+., =
-=-
&_,
r, &_,
?,&,;
= 0,
= zero,
o M-1
or an integer,
"-' I
But
unity
<
~ a "~
CT
i
Similarly
that
thus a 2 - an_x =
= r2
rn _ 2
hence
a,,.!
= 3
_ 2
is
<
a '~ a '-
which
= 2 and
,
6_ 2
o,,^
is less
than
b2
and
so on.
*363.
From the results of Arts. 3G1, 362, it appears that
when a quadratic surd v/iVr is converted into a continued fraction,
it must take the following form
J_ J_ J_
+ & +6 +
&i
To obtain
*364.
J_ J_ J
+
&2
1_
+2a,+
of
the recurring
periods.
V-\ ^=,
Now
xt
/v = a +
JiV
v
l
^,
respectively.
11
+
+
111
+ +
+
j
b2
b _
b3
7l
2a
7)
+1
is
2a
hence
Pn+X
SWl
= ^Pn+Pn-l
" 2 1 9n + ?n-l
2,+T
bi
same stage
:
-r
'
6 -i
HIGHER ALGEBRA,
300
and
is
therefore equal to a +
x
J'N
hence
Again
-^
(!)
by taking
for the
quotient
2* 1
which
is
equal to
rtj
C
1
V?V^
Thus
in
&=1
**
2^
U+%)qn + q^
.
&
P + %.qn
from
l(A + *&)
(1);
(2)>
?2
In
like
if
is
the penultimate
icn
convergent in the
c th
i ^c
recurring period,
+Fcn-i
= Nqmi
a, q cn
+ qm_l =#*,
suc-
cessively.
thus
Ol
Conversely,
301
tt~~
>
where
B,
-<4>
are positive
and
we
of recurring continued
fractions
^EXAMPLES. XXVII.
b.
+ l.
1.
N/a
4.
V/T7T.
7.
Prove that
Ja* -a.
2.
y"^f
J9a* + 3 = 3a+
and
N /--l.
3.
^l
-i
2a + 6a + 2a + 6a +
Shew
8.
that
2
p
9.
p+
If
Cl
Ja'2 +
tt
3 + P9 4 +
Ct
=P a + aCL
\
Tf
If
PaZ +
OCl \
.%'=
?/
1111
2p n = q n _ l + q n + l
...,
1111
1111
a x + 2 + a i+ a 2 +
~2a +
1
2 2 + 2a x + 2a 2 +
3^ + 3 2 +
x {f- - z-) + 2y (z 2 - .r2 + 3z {a? ~3tf 1
shew that
2(a*+l)q n =p n _ 1 +p n + 1
11
11.
r-
111
that
a \-\
P9
/111
Shew
\
10.
i+
1111
i+
+~3a 2 +
""'
'"'
1
)
= 0.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
302
Prove that
12.
JL J_ Jl J_
^ =+ a+ b + a+ '")\b+ a+ b+ a+ '")"b
X ~ a+
13.
J_ J_ J_
b+ b+ a+ a+
'
J_ J_ J_ J_
y- b + a+
a+ i+ b+
+ a + b)x- (a b + a + b)y = a -b2
'
shew that
(ab 2
be the n
If
14.
P2
th
Ja 2 + l.
convergent to
shew that
Shew that
15.
(
\a+
a+ +
b
If
16.
c+
'
"/ \
denote the r
ih
^+
a+
_i_j_2_
a+ b+ c+
=
18.
number
l+ctb'
? 3 + ?5 + -
equal to
shew that
Pi+Pi>+ >~+P.n-l=P2n-p<L,
17.
+ bc
convergent
to ^
&
qr
is
+ ao
i
'
continued fractions
infinite
i
+ & - = ?8 ~ ft.
b+ a+ c+
''
and
if
is
the
De converted into a continued fraction, and if the penultimate convergents in the first, second, ...kth recurring periods be
denoted by n lt n2i ...nk respectively, shew that
19.
If
\/^
*CHAPTER
XXVIII.
To shew Iww
*367.
h being
0,
integers.
x,
as in Art. 127,
we
have
ax +
Now
hy+g = J(h
-ab) y 2 +
2 (hg
- af)y+(g 2 -ac)...(l).
2
py + 2qy + r =
2
,
suppose.
we have
where
and
must be a perfect
- pz 2 = q 2 - pr^
z are variables,
and
j\ q, r are constants.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
304
We
a,
b,
h are
all
number
of
solutions
is
values of x and
Again,
if
and
negative,
solutions
is
Example.
y.
h*
ab
is
limited.
Solve in positive integers the equation
a;
- 4xy + &y* - 2x -
20*/
= 29.
are
5, 7, 13.
When
?/
= 5,
x = 21
or
1;
when y = 7, x = 25
or
5;
when y = 13,
x = 29 or 25.
We
x2
where
iV*
Ny = a,
2
integers.
may
*369.
To sJiew that the equation x
solved in positive integers.
Let
JN
-Ny =l
2
can always
be
let
2_
l-
17"
,n
a,/
is
*. (/"/
But
JVq
]>
"
] } (1
then
[Art. 358].
-P"
at the end of
..
V'q)
.'3(51]
)(
number
convergent, and
pq pq = 1.
thus
Since
period, the
If the
is
number
is
than
Jn
v/iV,
i.s
an even
and therefore
N"q' a = J,
1.
the
number
greater
therefore
is
greater than
of solutions
is
unlimited.
is
where
is
Hence
recurring periods.
of solutions is unlimited.
sixth,
*370.
As
To obtain a
number
of the equation
we have
v -Jq =pq-pq>
f
the
If
number
~KT
'2
'
and
if
<1
>
is
pq pq 1.
case p' Nq -
and therefore
In this
equation x 2
where
'
will
11.
n. A.
2fc
fifth...
irv
1:0
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
306
Example.
We
11111
1+ITl+
^13-3 +
Here the number
18
vergent in the
first
6+
1+
period
is -=-
hence
a;
= 18,
odd
y=o
a solution of
is
x 2 -13y 2 =-l.
By
/ 18
2U
hence # = 649, y = 180
By forming
periods
is
649
,u
*
thatlS
io\
Xl3
'180'
J'
a solution of x 2 - 13y 2 =l.
18
13?/
and x 2 - lSy 2 = + 1.
1,
When
*371.
x2
Thus
.
(x
Put x +
+ yjN)
(x
(h
kJN)
(h
(h
- k s !X)\
- kJN)"
2x = (h +
kJN) + (h-kJJYy;
2 Us in = (h + kjiry - (h - kjNy.
.-.
Tlie values of
Similarly
Xy =
1,
x=h
and if n
if
x*
is
of
as
1, 2, 3,...,
many
solutions as
y = k is a solution of the
is any odd positive integer,
- Ntf =
(h
we
please
equation
- Nk 2 )\
1, 3,
5,
solve.
We
*373.
Hence
if
307
is
JX
occurs in converting
and
if
is
values
x =p\ y = q'-
greater than
all
than
all less
JX
hence
JN, and
if
the
an even
is
<2
t
convergent,
is
x=p, y = q
an odd convergent, x
*374.
a solution of x*
is
=p
yq
method explained
is
Tlie
-Xif a: and
if .
'
Xy = a.
a solution of Xs
JX
The
and
if
3, 1.
37
45
1'
1'
2'
3'
IT
17'
we take the
x 2 - ty 2 =
I"
127
18
'
cycle of equations
O
3,
ar
Iff = 2,
*"
CI
ar
we
for
x the values
2, 3, 5, 8,
82
31'
1,
1,
f
o
7^
= 3,
o
cc
- y2 =
h'
by taking
tions in integers of
with certainty is very limited.
In a numerical example
however, sometimes happen that we can discover by
it
may,
trial
202
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
308
# 2 -7?/ 2 = 53
by y=2, # = 9.
one solution in integers has been found, any number of
When
solutions
may be
satisfied
is
article.
~ Ny 2 = (f 2 - Kg ) (h 2 - Nk )
= (fhNgk) 2 -N{fkgh)\
By
x*
putting
and ascribing
we may
form x - n y =
2
is not a perfect
has been supposed that
is a perfect square the equation takes the
which may be readily solved as follows.
*377.
Hitherto
square ; if, however,
a,
it
two
are
positive integers,
(x
Put x + ny =
+ ny) (x ny) =
x - ny =
be.
b,
if
of
whose squares
is
equal to 60.
Let
x,
Now
60
is
then
,xr
- y 2 = 60
that
is,
1,60;
2,30; 3,20;
+ y = 30,
x-y=
# + y = 10,
x-y=
2;
8, 2.
6;
(as
+ y)
(x
y)
= 60.
;.
may
In like manner we
Cor.
309
integers of
ax'
if
+ 2hxy + by 1 + %jx +
member can be
the left-hand
*2/'y
= k,
two
resolved into
rational linear
factors.
*378.
If in the general equation a, or b, or both, are zero,
instead of employing the method explained in Art. 3G7 it is
simpler to proceed as in the following example.
Example.
Expressing y in terms of
- 4a- 2 + V2x - 5y = 11
x,
we have
+
V= ^r-r
4a; 2
- 12* 11
6
,
=2tf-l+;
2x - 5
2x -
may be an
In order that y
integer
2iX
must be an integer
2, or 3, or G.
The cases 2, 6 may clearly be rejected; hence
of x are obtained from 2x - 5 = 1, 2x - 5 = 3
must be equal
to
1,
of
hence
2.r
-5
or
.x-
are
3, 2, 4, 1.
in succession
we obtain the
?/
= 9;
solutions
ar=l,
y=
-1;
The
*379.
This equation
is satisfied
and n are
-y-.
by the suppositions
mx= n {z + y),
where
then
positive integers.
n (x -y)
= m (z
y),
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
310
From
nx + (m -n)y- mz - 0.
mx - ny - nz = 0,
Hence
these equations
we
2mn - ri
V
- n2
- mn + ri1
'
is
solution
x = 2mn-n 2
y=m
-n 2
= m 2 -vin + n 2
Here m and n are any two positive integers, i being the greater; thus
?n = 7, n = 4, we have
x = 0, y = SS, 3 = 37.
if
Example
2.
square.
x + y; and
x,
2x-y=p 2
let
2x = q 2 2x + y = r 2
then
2
2
2
p + r = 2q
or
i*-q*=q*-p>.
This equation
is satisfied
From
and n are
by the suppositions,
m (r - q) = n (q - j>),
where
(r
+ q) = m (q +p),
positive integers.
these equations
we obtain by
V
w2 + 2mn-m
Hence we may take
cross multiplication
<l
m +n
2
m + 2mn- n
2
'
p=n* + 2mn-m*,
= m2 + n 2
= )u 2 + 2mn-u 2
x = = {m 2 + w 2 ) 2 y = inin (m 2 - w2)
whence
From
odd
the value of
also their values
mz (m - Sn) + 2inn
or
which condition
is satisfied if
-n 2 ),
+ 8m n* + n 4 >
m>Sn.
= 9, w=l, then a- = 3362, y =2880, and the numbers are 482, 33G2,
If
6242. The sums of these taken in pairs are 3844, 6724, 9604, which are the
squares of 62, 82, 98 respectively.
*EXAMPLES.
XXVIII.
5.
= 77.
y 2 -4.ry + 5.r2 -10.i- = 4.
3.y + 3.ry-4j/ = 14.
5a- 2 -10.iv/
7?/
2.
7^-2^+3y2 =27.
4.
xy - 2.v - y = S.
6.
4^ 2 -y 2 =315.
10.
-14y 2 =l.
x2 - 61/ + 5 = 0.
.r
8.
11.
.r
-3/=l.
^-19^=1.
13.
9.
= 4iy
- 17y 2 = -
.t-
-l.
x 2 -7y 2 -9 = 0.
in positive integers of
x 2 -5y 2 =l.
14.
.v
1.
Find the general values of x and y which make each of the following
expressions a perfect square
15.
x2 -3xy + 3y 2
16.
afi+2xy + 2f.
17.
5^+y2
Find two positive integers such that the square of one exceeds
the square of the other by 105.
18.
19.
of their squares
is
a perfect square.
my
22.
Shew
square, if n is
and k' the numerator of an even convergent to N ^2.
CHAPTER XXIX.
SUMMATION OF
Examples
380.
of
summation
SERIES.
of certain series
have occurred
in
(ii)
(iii)
Series
(i)
Sums
Series, Arts.
(v)
of the
allied
68 to 75.
by
means
Series,
Chap.
Summation
of
Undetermined
Coefficients,
Art. 312.
(vi)
We
Recurring
XXIY.
now
th
If the r term of a series can be expressed as the dif381.
ference of two quantities one of which is the same function of r
that the other is of r - 1 the sum of the series may be readily
,
found.
For
and
its
let
sum by S
the form v r -v r _
1 ;
then
=v -v
SUMMATION OF
Example.
Sum
313
SERIES.
to n
+ (l
T +
+
U v
(l + s)(l+2s)
+ 2u-)(l + n3.r) (l
+ 3j-)(l + 4ar)
.
If
we denote the
series
by
*-(-\
+
+ 3*/'
2x
a;\l
_!/
Ws
a;\l
x\l + nx
b}'
SL=-
addition,
+ 3#
i+ n+ i.x/
ar\l
'
+ 4*,/
+ a;
+w + l.a?/
n
(1
+ x)
+n+ l
(1
..r)
XXIII.
in Chap.
Example.
+ x)(l + ax)
nu,
The
ft*term=
n th
n,
(l
+
.'.
putting 1
x~n
z~r +
ax)(l+a*x)
t-,
(1
an
" _1 .r, 1
~x
+ a u x equal
-a'
B= 1 -a'
1/1
- a \1 + a:
1
/
,
+ ax J
a
-5
*~l-o\l + *
aw
a"- 1
~l-a Vl+a*"
\
5
an
+ a n x)'
to n terms.
suppose:
**
nn
t**=;
'"
to zero in succession,
....
Wn
similarly,
a n-l
u,1
+ a 3 x)
A=Hence
(1
=
.t- +
w + a
n
n x)
l + a"- ^
l+a x
-A (1 + a**) + B (1 + a '- *).
n,
a n 1 x)(l
.
,,
>
.,
+ a-x)
n_1
{l
By
a2
1
(l
of
j/
we obtain
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
314
To jind
sum
383.
Let the
where
u
(a
be denoted by u x + u2 + us +
series
+ nb)
the
(a
+n+
Replacing n by
k
-i
!
(a
.'.
+n
?i
b)
Replacing n by n +
b) (a
+ nb) (a + n +
un =
1
b)
(a
...
(a
+n+
6)
.
b)
..
+ r.
6)tf =
Il+1 j
by subtraction,
Similarly,
+n+r
(7+1)6. wB_, =
/(
(a
?.._!
we have
(a + w
therefore,
+n+2
b).
we have
1,
&) (a
.
+ un
/<_,,
+n+r 2
vn
say.
b)
SUMMATION OF
Example.
315
SERIES.
series
1.3.5+3.5.7+5.7.9+
The n th term
{2n - 1) (2
is
+ 3)
1) (2n
To determine
C, put n
we have
=1
15
-j
S *~
'
f-
whence C
The sum
(2n-l)(2n+l)(2n+3)(2n+5)
8
= n (2n3 + 82 + In - 2),
384.
its first
term, and
15
8"
after reduction.
may
also be
We
have u n = (2w .
1)
(2w +
\S
3)
= $n 3 +
12>i
- 2m -
3;
3m,
= 2m 2
(2w +
1)
(m + l) + 2m (n
1)
(2n + 1) - n (n +
1)
- 3m
= w(2m 3 + 8m + 7?i-2).
2
of the series
+ 2.4.
+ 3.5.
n terms,
to
may
4)
-n
= n{n+ l)( +
2)
+ 2n(n+
\)
+ u(a +
= n (m +
2)
+ 3m (n +
1)
+ 3m.
un = n
The
(m
rule can
Sn = \n (m+
\
)>
(r
2) (m
1)
(m
now be
1)
(m
+1 +
1)
(m
(m + 2)(m + 3)
l)(/r-l) ( +
+n (n+
5),
1) (m
+2+
2)
'2)
2/4
thus
2)
+ | (+
1)
+C
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
316
sum
To find
386.
Let the
where
series
the
be denoted by u +
= (a + nb) (a + n + 1
b) (a
Un
+ un
+u +
it,
:i
+n+2
(a
+ n + r-l
b) ...(a
+ n + r2
b)
.b).
4i
Replacing n by n -
(a
+n-
1,
+ nb)
b) (a
+n+
(a
b)
M_i
n-l
l
.'.
(a
+n+
r-l
Replacing n by n +
un =
b)
1,
(a
+n-
by subtraction,
Similarly
(r
1) b
(r
l)b
(r
, ,
addition,
(r
un _ x =
1) b
v _l
ll
u.2
Wj
=v
v.2
is
vn
vSt
v.2
?W _ rU
*"-(r-l)6~
1) b Sn = v v n+1
^i
tnatis
where
say.
(r-l)b. un = vn -vn+1
By
un _ x = vni
we have
(a+nb)un = vn+1
therefore,
b)
a + nb) un
(r-l)6
a quantity independent of
'
n,
Thus
Sn = C- ,
*
.
(r-l)6
(a
The value
of
C= (r Vv~7o
-,
1)
C by
r-l.
+ n+L.b)... (a + n +
(r
tti
'>
rule
b)
but
**
is
advisable in
1) 6
ascribing to
n some
particular value.
SUMMATION OF
Example
1.
1.2.3.4
The
term
re'
'
re
+ 2.3.4.5 + 3.4.5.6 +
1
is
317
SERIES.
we have
3(n+l)(w + 2)( + 3)
rut =1, then
^=0-3^;
X
By making n
Example
"
18
3(re
+ l)(re + 2)(re + 3)
we obtain
indefinitely great,
2.
whence (7=1;
fi^
r5 +
+ aT7- + 3.4.6
r
1.2.42.3.5
t
n+2
"
re(re+l)(re
re (re
+ 3)
4-1)
n{n+l)
(n
+ 2)
(re
+ 3)
+ 3re + 4
re(re
1
(re
Each
to
which
+ 2)(w + 3)
(re
l)(re
-c
+ 2)(re + 3)
now
be taken as the
n+S
2(re
th
term of a
?i
2)(re
+ 3)
3 (re+ 1)
(re
+ 2)
(re
+ 3)
'
3-13
17271=
_29
n
36
29
1
re
+3
(re
+ 2) (re + 3)
4
3
(re
+ 1)
(re
+ 2)
(re
+ 3)'
series
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
318
of Arts. 383,
'
Method
of Subtraction.'
Example.
of the series
is
2,
In each term of the given series introduce as a new factor the next term
of the arithmetical progression denote this series by &", and the given series
by S; then
;
S'
.-.
= 2.
5. 8
+ 5. 8.
'-2.5.8 = 5.8.11 +
By
+ 8.
11
8. 11.14
11.
14+
+(3w-l)(3n+2)(3+5);
+ 11. 14.17+...
to
(u-1) terms.
subtraction,
8 = 9 [S - 2
9S =
(3/i
5]
1) (3/i
(3/i
+ 2)
(3n+2) (3n+5),
1)
(3/i
+ 5) -2. 5.
+ 2, 5.0,
fif=n(3n3 +6n+l).
cf)(n)
where A,
number.
=A
JB,
+Bn+
C,
Cti(n +
D,
of
1)
of
p+
in
Example.
all
of the series
n*+6n3 + 5w2
is
Assume
7i
[n + 1)
+ Dn [n +
it is
4 + 6 3 + 5/< 2 =//(n +
l)
1) (n
E=1
+ 2) + En (n + 1) (n + 2) (w + 3)
and by putting n = -
Thus
(n+2)
(?i
+ 3)-6/t(/i + l).
2,
n=- 3
SUMMATION OF
Sn = s n
Hence
(/t
l)(
310
SERIES.
= \n(n+l)(n+2){n' + 7n + 2).
i
389.
of the Polygonal
Numbers
of the second,
each term
is
fourth, fifth,
square, pentagonal
390.
To find the
j>olygonal numbers.
The n ih term
.-.
sum of the
first
n terms of
n + \n (n -
th
the r
order
1) (r
$ =$n + l(r-2)%(n-l)u
= \n (n + 1) + 1 (r -2)(n-l) n (n +
of
2);
= in(n + l){(r-2)(n-l) +
391.
If the
sum
of
n terms
1,
be taken as the
?*
th
1,
1,
1) [Art.
383]
n terms
of the
$}.
of the series
1,1,
term of a new
series,
we
obtain
1,2,3,4,5,
If again
we take
n in +
1
,
which
is
the
sum
of
-j
?t
th
term of a new
1, 3, 6,
By
series,
we
obtain
10, 15,
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
320
and
the
sum of n
terms of
ilie
rth
th
term of the
of the first order is 1; the n
th
n; the n term of the third order is Hn, that is
\n
(n
is
1); the
tYl
term
2 "V
n(n+l)(n+2)
L
1.2.3
..
xl
that
is
the
'-
u th term
tIl
^-n4
it is
3)
;
and
Arain, the
which
is
the
^5
2,
sum of n terms
n (n + 1) (n +
w th term
of tlie (r
of the r th order is
|rc+r-2
r-1
is
so on.
n th term
tnat
^ n(n+l)
*-= (n+2)
w(w+l)(n
+ 2)(M
+
Tims
>
01
of the r th order is
2)
. .
(w
1)
l) th order.
Note.
zero.
simplest form
1
...
SUMMATION OF
SERIES.
321
Each number
immediately
thus
is the
sum of
and
it
that
to the left
of it;
5 + 10, 28 = 7 + 21, 126 = 56 + 70.
15
From
The properties
of these
is
fully
Let
cf>
(x)
be any function of
x,
then 2
<f>
(x)
denotes the
sum
x=l
of the series of
all posi-
sum
of all the
(p-l)(p-2)...(p-r)
by giving to p
H.H.
A.
all
to
j>
inclusive.
21
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
322
sum = 2 (p
the required
1)
...
(p
1)
= i{1.2.3.. ..r+2.SA....(r+l)+...+(p-r)(p-r+l)...(p-l)}
(p-r)(p-r + l) (p-l)p
=l
=
\r
[Art.
383.]J
L
y~(-l)(y-2)...(^-r)
jr+1
i
(p- r) _ p(p-l)
(p-l) ( p-2)
r
|
EXAMPLES. XXIX.
the following series to n terms
2.
3.
4.
5.
7
'
II
+
174
4.
n terms and
3.4^
1
+ 77l0 +
1
1_
+
+
+
1.3.5 3.5.7 5.7.9
1
1.4.7
1_
1
+ 4.7.10
+ 7.10.13
+
10
1.2.3^2.3.4
11
*
io
\9,
5
1
1-
4-
.3.4.5^
J_ + _1_ + _JL +
4.5.6 5.6.7
3.4.5
1.2.3
5
-l
2.3.4
3.4.5
a.
1.2^2.3
1.
Sum
ff-2) ...(p-r)
\r
v-\
Sum
*""'
7
4.5.6
p from
to infinity
to
SUMMATION OF
Find the sum of n terms of the
1
14.
(?i
sum
*(*?i
n terms of the
-l)
(?i'
n* +
.,
Shew
equal to the r
+ DR + 4)(n 2 + 5n + H).
+ 2/> 3 + h -1
2
*&
_
2)i
v,
u-
/i
7i*+n 2 + l
zu.
iv
th
term of the
term of the n order.
that the
th
?*
is
(n*
16.
1).
whose na term
series
n*+3n?+2n+2
21.
22.
the (n
of
A
9
2
-li
4w
1Q
iy.
-l 2 + 2<> 2 -2 2 ) + 3(> 2 -3 2 ) +
Find the
17.
series
13.
15.
323
SERIES.
?i
+n
th
If the
+ 2)
23.
th
is
tXx
is
equal to
{r-\)n(n + \),
oN
395.
let Mj, u.2
1
2, 3, 4,
We
x ,
From
by
when
follows
The
it.
series
u.2
w,, u s -u.
u4 u3
u 5 -u 4 ,...
thus found is called the series of the first order of differences, and
may be conveniently denoted by
Aw,,
&u~
&u A
At*4 ,...
By
Am.,- A?*,,
series
A../',,
of
A.,?'.,,
Aw4 Awj,...
AjWg,...
of
differences,
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
324
From
we may proceed
this series
From
of
of the
the general terms of
differences,
respectively.
?t r) ...
u3
u.2 ,
Au.2
Attj,
A.y^
.
A2w
Au3
u5
u,
Aw4
A.m3
2,
Au
Au
A u,,
Wj,
A u3
u6
Thus
By
u.2
= j
Au ly and
4-
Ait.2
= Au +
i
A.m^
+ Au.2 = u 3 we have
ii.j
= t^ + 2Au +
A.2 u x
Au3 = Au +
x
By
A^.
addition, since
?f 4
2A.2u 1
- u + ZAu +
x
SA^ + A^
un+i = i + mAmj +
A,u +
+ "CVA^j +
...
AnWj
-J
it (11
By
M+a
addition, since
Mj
+ fa +
jr-f-
1)
A 3Wj +
+ B C r_ 1 A^w1 +
f
A n ^u
Awj +
n
(
Cr + *Gr _j) A ru
+ ...+ A +1,
SUMMATION OF
*Cr + HJr -i -
But
hut
+ l)
w4
it is
"
Ui
1X
1)
,
+ (n
To
39G.
A?^ +
sum
find the
C r _ x = ?ii
therefore
(w-l)(w-2)
*_
*
of
Suppose the
32.",
if tlie
SERIES.
x "C,,.,
l)w(w-l) ...(w+l-r+1) _
1.2. 3... (r-l)r
(n +
Hence
w terms
ul
it
holds for
it
u rn and
?^
+ An.iWi.
...
of the series
u 3 ,...
the
is
order of differences
first
of the series
Hence
'
- vn) +
^+l
v3
v.2)
Vl,
- vn _ t) +
(v n
= u a + u n-l +
v3i
va1
Aw1? Aw 2
the law of formation
'
Wj
+ w3 + u z +
- nu +
x
+i
is
v4
is,
...
(v2
-v) +
v x identically
+ u 2 + u\ + v
in the series
0,
that
v4 ,...,
Aw
+ Wi + -4
...
v5
s Aw
+ A?^
+ un
n (n\)
n(nl)(n-2)
-^
A M! +
r AWj + -
y
The formula)
>
of
this
article
A?f
may be
ex-
a is the first
the first terms of the sucterm of the given series is
if
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA,
326
and the sum of n
^i"^"2
terras is
(-l )("- 2
)^
f/
j3
Example.
12,
The
n(-l)(tt-a)(n-3)
of
?*
6,
6,
0,...
0,
, ,x
= ,c
12 + 28 (re - 1) +
22(re-l)(re-2)
K
-
'
~P
=
2re
?i
6 (re1) (re- 2)
v
(re
-3)
-
II
+ 5re2 + 6>t.
The sum of n terms may now be found by writing down the value of
+ 52re2 + 62re. Or we may use the formula of the present article and
obtain
S^ia^ 28"'"- 1
'
397.
method
of
function of n.
series is a rational integral
^
j
series
+ ua2 + ua3 +
u.1
+ u +u n +.,+u n+2 + u u + 3 +
.
ii
u " = An 3 + Bn 2 + Cn + D.
where
and
be
let v n'
,
,
ii*
denote the
%
ii
orders of differences;
?i
th
term of the
first,*
second, third
*
SUMMATION OF
then
that
vh
SERIES.
l)
327
+ 2?(2 +
1)
vn =
is,
Similarly
+C:
and
=w ti. iv
zH
=6-4.
ii
generally,
if
th
Example.
The
series
-1, -
-2,
20,20,
8, 14,
6,
6,
0,
D have
= A+Bn+Cn + Dn
2
1,
2,
If a
series is 3
Let
S (1
- 3n - 2n 2
12
ax + ajx
...
--
+ n9
a o + (a - a )x
{a,
+ a xn
i
of relation
x)
four simultaneous
D\
is
ri
n, the series
a recurring
may
3,
a,
is
hence we
to be determined.
398.
Putting
in
3, 3,
- ajx* +
is (I
x) p+1
then
.
..
(a,
- a ,_>" - ax" +
=a +
x + bjc2 +
...
here b n
=a a
h
it
,
'
so that 6 n is of xp
x,
"
dimensions in
n.
we have
S(i-xy
=s+(^-a)*+(^-^K+..-+(6n-6-iK-( ,+6>"
+l
here cn -b n
-b u u
so that cn
is
of
p-
y^+
,
+X
,+
:c
i
2 dimensions in n.
+a
% say;
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
328
Hence
it
of the coefficients.
By
[Art. 397.]
S (1 - xf = k(xp + x>' +1 +
Thus
where k
is
r.Sil-xy
that
a=
is,
(l-x) p+1
is
p terms
at
J^l^K/ix);
kx(l-x"-^) + (l-x)f(x)
(1
-x)
p+l
'
is
[Art. 325.]
Example.
term
is
series
we have
the series
2,
4,
2,
G,
2,
8,
10,
2,
2,
thus the terms in the second order of differences are equal hence a n is a
rational integral function of n of two dimensions ; and therefore the scale
We have
of relation is (1 - a;) 3
;
S = 3 + 5x +
addition,
9a;
- a;) 3 S = 3 -
4a;
3-4.r +
+ 3a; 2
3a;
(1-a;) 3
2
*
SUMMATION OF
329
SERIES.
We
to rm
ABC
1-
- ax
bx
- ex
Each
of these fractions
- ax
will
be
which
r=,
- ax)
when expanded by the Binomial Theorem do not form geometrical
series; hence in this case the recurring series cannot be expressed
partial
fractions
of
the form
-^
(1
as the
sum
of a
number
-7,
-axy
...
(1
of geometrical series.
ar,
ar
2
,
ar
3
,
ar\ ar
n
,
are
'
common
401.
series in
which
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
330
Hence
if
the
few terms
first
and
if
the
order of differences of these terms form a geometrical progression whose common ratio is r, then we may assume that the
general term of the given series is ar"" +f(n), where f(n) is a
rational integral function of n of p - 1 dimensions.
th
Example.
10,
The
of the series
60, 169, 494,
24, 72,
common
ratio is 3
of differences
hence we
may
un a
To determine
216,
the constants a,
S n -^
b, c,
is
+ bn + c.
make n equal
to
1, 2,
3 successively;
then
a = 6, 6=1,
whence
un = 6
Thus
3' 1
"1
+n+3=2
= S.
.
3 + n +
3.
tion,
for
evident.
403.
We
preceding principles.
illustration of the
SUMMATION OF
Example
1.
SERIES.
2 + 3
"
we
1l(ll
2n + 3
tt
Hence
t/,.
"
/3
\n
n + 1)
+ _3_ +
3. 7
term
_5
3. 7. 11
.,,.,
3.7
11
is
11
n +
n+1
(4n _
series
3. 7. 11. 15
5) (4 n
_i)
~3
A
.
(n
3"'
3' 1
2n-l
ssume
3
3"- 1
r,
kt:
(An5) (4/i-l)
2.
ri h
=1
-1.
#,,
n
n+
B=
= 13"
and therefore
The
7?
A =3,
find
Example
3"
+ l)
.4
*3^
=-+
n(u+l) n
Assuming
33]
+ 1) + B
An + B
7 ......4-l
"
3.7
(4 - 5)
'
.-.
Equating
all three.
coefficients of n 2
we obtain ^1=0.
1
V,l
""'
~2 *3.7
hence
"
Example
3.
Sum
G. 9
By
the
method
of the series
and the
th
to
21
+ 20.
37
(4-l)
series
+ 30.
57 + 42. 81
6,
term of the
9,
3.7.11
n terms the
+ 12.
(4-5)(4-l)
be
2'3.7
(4-5)
will
it
is
?r
we
+ 3 + 2,
series
is2n*+6n+l.
;t
th
terra
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
3.32
+ 2) {2m (m+3) + 1}
= 2m [n + 1) (?i + 2) (+ 3) + (n + 1) (m + 2)
=( + 1)
Hence
'
(a
S=ln(+l)(+2)(n+3)(n+4)+|(n+i)(n+2)(n+8)-2.
Example
4.
of
??.
the
un = {n +
2
hence
Assume
(rc
dividing out by
and equating
A=2,
whence
wn = (2?i2 - 2n + 4)
2n
S n = (2m2 - 2m + 4)
and
B=
n2 +
is
coefficients of like
2 = 2A+B,
term
{A (n-l) 2 + B
2' 1_1
th
2.
8,
3.
2,
4.
8,
16, 0,
5.
30,
7.
8.
9.
10.
l) 2
- 2 (n -
XXIX.
1)
198,
11.
+
2
12
1Z>
series
i2
*
_?5
32
33
infinite series
g4
2
62
+ ??_iV
+ 5 _ 5* +
53
52
"
b.
150, 252,
1)
+ C\
series
2"- 1
;
we have
n,
+ 4 2"2 n - 4 = (na - n + 2) 2* - 4.
- 2 (n -
0=4.
-2,
114,
(n
powers of
0=C-A + B;
EXAMPLES.
1.
n) 2 n .
.-.
?i
1
j
SUMMATION OF
333
SERIES.
Find the general term and the sum of n terms of the series
13.
9,
103,
14.
-3, -1,
15.
2,
5,
12,
16.
1,
0,
1,
17.
4,
167,
31,
8(i,
29, 80,
8,
193,
Tr5
+ 8* + 3.>/- +
4./,-' ;
19.
onJLi
1.2*2 +
21
'
18.
5.t-
series
2.3
4+
2T3-
ii-
6
3.4'2 + 4.5'2 4 +
5
"2
'
:2
4S+
0- 44+
5- 4 ' +
4^
22.
3.4 + 8.
23.
24.
o
C
25
'
nn
26
'
+ 15.20 + 24.31+35.44+
11
1.3^1.3.5
1.2
1.3.5.7.9
1.3.5.7
27.
28.
+3
'
2.
32
+ 5 3 3 + 7 34 +9.
.
3>
...
1.3.5.7
1.3.5
1.3
rtr
30
^
4-
4.2 4
3.23
2.2-'
+
4
l
- +
2+i5L
2 3+
2 + l
2+ 3.4' 92,
+
2.3'
4.5"
1.2
_4_
1
1
_5_
+
+
2
5"
2.3.4' 3
3.4.
33
(J
1.2.3*3
+A
+H+^+
(3^
32
|5
|4
19
33
'
|6
28
I
.
'
+2
4
1
.
"
_39_
3
J_
*
16
52
4
1
.
'
32
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
334
certain
as those obtained
by the Binomial,
1.
2
[I
term of the
12
28
|2
infinite series
|3_
50
78
|I
|5
..
is 3n-
3h 2 +j-2
3h(h-1)+4-2
]n
|n
a "
+ n -2; hence
;i-2
Put n equal
n-1
to 1, 2, 3, 4,... in succession
",
= 4--;
2 = 3
4
+ ri i
and so
Example
,Sf
= Se + 4e - 2 {e -
2.
If (1
+ ^ - -gj
i
3 =j
r2
in Art. 398
l2
= 5e + 2.
1)
+ a;) n = c + c rr + c 2 .r 2 +
l-c 1
we may
+ c nx n
. .
.c.
2
easily
-2
+ c^
the coefficient of x 11
in
,.,
(1
11
'1
+c
n+1
.r)
.
xn =
.r)- 3
(n
jc
.
,
- x) A
shew that
+ 2 2 c 2 + 3 2 c 3 +... + n\v
Also cn + c n _ x x +
.-.
then we have
on.
Whence
As
In"
that
(1
. .
+ .r) n
is,
in
J=
(1
x) 3
is
l
1) 2> (1
l
- .t)" 2 + \!lJl %*-i
-n(w+l)2- !
(i
_ ^-l.
2 h-i
equal to
= a + l, and
->(->
If b
3.
-+
1) ,,.
_ C-3)(-4)(-5)
rfj.
|2
By
\6
we
(n-5)(n-4)(-3)
.r'
.r
n_4
-*
in the expansions of (1
.r'
Hence the
respectively.
(1-x)-*, (l-.r) -4
to the coefficient of x* in the expansion of the scries
(1-.t)- 2
e<pial
1-2
,
sum
ax*
1-bx
{1-bx)
(1-fcc) 8
'
may
required
(1
series
,
;
( 1
1-bx
number
finite
1-bx J
series
+ l)x + ax-
(a
of x n in
= coefficient
of
since b
= coefficient
a H+l
a+1.
(l-x)(l-ax)
xn in
a-
\1
-ax
~
1x)
a-1
,
If the series
4.
x3
xe
are denoted by a,
is
'
b, c
X*
c3
Now
'
>/
lob
.t
(a
+ wb + w'-c
~\9
+ OJ-C-1+ C0X+
+ wc = c
io'-b
,
.,
xz
.t
\3
Tl
ur\r-
-r^\
(a
Xs
~\5
w-b
w 4 .c 4
+ T- +
w'.r'
-r=~
0)=X
bc
X
1,
uX
since l
co
+ ojc)
|8_
of unity,
similarly
|5
X8
+ c = 1+x +
=e
X5
|2_
w-.r-
and
'
- Sabc = {a + b + c)
lA ~ h
x'
|7
respectively,
a3 + b 3 +
X7
]5
JG
J3
If
is
of terms,
1-bx + ax"
',
'
- bx)*
Example
x)
a*x 6
a-x 4
+
3
see that
(n-8) (n-2)
are the coefficients of x n
is
)i
335
(l+u> + w ! )x
+ w + ur = 0.
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
336
To find
405.
sum of
the
the r th
powers of
n natural
the first
numbers.
Sn
SH =V+2 +
r
then
...
+n
r
.
Assume that
Sn =A nr+i +An + A n
where A A^ A A 3 ...
r
+An ~
+An + A
...
(1),
/
\
+1
+
1
determined.
Write n +
(n + l)
=A
n and
in the place of
{(n
l)
r+1
- n r+1 ] + A
}
(n
l)
Expand (?i+l) r+ \
efficients of like
powers of
{{n
x
(n+l) r_1
r
,
- nr ]
1)'
r
+ iy~ 2 -n
{(n
By
n.
subtract; thus
-2
...
+A
r ...(2).
...
co-
we have
l=A.
By
(r
Equate the
A (r+
+A
l)r
coefficients of
A =
so that
1),
we have
r
x
whence A = ^
p
,
substitute for
A and A Jf and
r(r-l)(r-2)
...
{r- 2)+
1)
we thus obtain
i
~p
In
n =A
r
+A
+
2
(1) write
{n
r+l
'4
p+
+A
^ r(r -
in the place of
r
{?i
l
coefficients of
'r(r-l)
-(n-iy +i }+A
Equate the
'r
n and
-(n-l) } + A 2
~p
,
(r-2)
1)
subtract; thus
{n
'
and substitute
-(n-iy- } +
1
for
A A
,
^-^gzi)
+i /^;);^)
2
(?
"^
(?
1) (r
2)
...
thus
-....
p+
and
(3)
"r
by .addition
(4),
337
.and subtraction,
r(r-l)(r-2)
0'-i)(p-g(^-3)
o^/_^)^/
+
3
r (r
1)
1) (r
(?
2) (r
(6).
3)
By
___1_
6 " 1^
.
.
we
see
equal
is
(r-l)(r-2)
,
'
30
.
li
r(r-l)(r-2)(r-3)(r-4)
_J_
8 ~42"
|6
By
\=A^A
(2),
we
obtain
+A
+ A% + AZ +
and by putting
A r+1 =
thus
0.
n r+x
r+1
"
most conveniently
article is
_ r(r-l)(r-2)
_3
r(r-l)(r-2)(r-3)(r-4)
'6
w lprp
}
7?
7?-
7?
B B
7?
7?
quantities
2?
... are known as Bernoulli's Numbers;
,
3
5
for examples of their application to the summation of other series
the advanced student may consult Boole's Finite Differences.
The
Example.
ttt
We
S = ^r.
have
_?t6
l5
+ 25 +
^,5
n5
35
~6 +
n5
"2
5?i 4
_5 4j3 n* + C,_
+ ^ + ^ -^ n* - Ba
.
+ n5
-f
n2
l2~r2'
A.
22
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
EXAMPLES. XXIX.
series:
the following
Find the sum of
5.
+ ^+-\T'T
A ^
JL + ^
|1
p
6.
+ f^l.2- +
ii
-3
r-i
c.
r/3
to r
terms.
*rz
TX^"
1+tm;
7-
+2
^
"(1+^)"
^"2)
+ .r) _
"'
(1
12
1+3a?
?i(?i-l)(- 2 )
2n + l
o,2
9.
( 7l
2/i +
K /
Y+
2 (ft2
12)
7i
12
i-j[i+-ii7?
...
)^
is.
terms.
2
)
to
w + 1 terms.
.2*.3
+ 23
+ 3^T5 + 5T677 +
r2T3
2
12.
1L
to
to n terms.
ji
3^6
+
11
|4
]|
[3
2a 8
^+W
18
|5
23s 5
"[7-'|r
121s 6 _
16
+-J2-|3
14
Without
fuming
!+*+*+
17
sum
of the series:
+ 2; + 3? +
+ "-
SUMMATION OF
Find the sum of
15.
Shew
16.
fl
8 .-
("
-l)( 2 -4)
if"
If
17.
is
53
I*
I*
+ _+
c+ (n*-lKn*-4)(n*-9) * +
,
11
18.
a multiple of
is
- 8)
^- (- 8 )(- 4 )- 6
3,
\o
?i
is
^+
shew that
If
}'
-i)^ + e- g 2
if
3,
=( _ 1)n
shew that
y+ "(-i)<-)( *) ,l 4y +
(
...
SP*" 4.
=*( + 3)
19.
is
and
.,
(l-X) 2 -r.r
[7
)(' t
43
+ 23 + - +
/-
33
339
"'- 1
l3
SERIES.
??.
(2)
_5__J_+JL__L+i3 _JLL+
+ i2 +
+2
i"4
2.3
+ 2 4+ l+3 2 + 3 4 +
3.4
5.6
4.5
6.7
17
7.8
(-l) n + xn
?i(n+l)(n + 2)
1
20.
Sum
If (1
21.
x)n Cq c vv
integer, find the value of
(n
22.
is
+ cn#n n
+ c^v 2 + CyV3 +
being a positive
- \)\ + (n - 3) 2 c3 + (?i - 5) 2 c5 +
23.
whose n th term
series
16
32
1.5
5.7
7.17
17.31
31.65
17
1.2.3
Prove that,
49
31
+
2.3.4 3.4.5
if
a < 1,
ax
+ or)
4.5.6
_71_
5.6.7
+ A) ( 1 + a?x) ....
aPx3
a*x2
=5wi
2
= 1 + 54 +
2
(l- 2 )(l-a 4 )(l-a'
(l- )(l-a=K
1-a-,+T:
'
'
"
222
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
340
If
24.
is
2/
(i
*A22
+ ,f(i +
(i
prove that
If
25.
^l r
2s
2^
|)
,,
-^~\i
|)
6,
+ ^r-
2)
+ 2~ J
w(w-l)(w-2)
>
"3^5
of the series
3+
"
*3 +
n(n-l)(n-2)(n-S)(n-4)
1
""'32
|5
equal to zero.
If
26.
is
pti
+1
_ qn + 1
equal to
is
27.
(n-r+^-1),
P =(w-r)(-r+l)(n-r+2)
If
(r+^-1),
&=r(r+l)(r+2)
shew that
P&
28.
1
1072
j
and
^4 =
[3
'
[5
11
is
^.\2
(i
(^4 r -i
a multiple of
is
-3
"^"
+ P -i^-i =
+ P2Q2 + P3Q3+
If
?i
is
a multiple of
3,
(w-5)(w-6)(w-7)
|3
3
to - or
equal
u
29.
If
x
1_^2
is
k \n-l+p + q
|>
+ g +l|n-2
shew that
(m-4)(w-5)
+ "~
+ (-!)
is
ho
(n-r-l)(w-r-2)...(tt-2r + l)
according as n
is
odd or even.
xz
T
l_#6
x5
l_a?io
Xs
x3
+.v2^1+^
"'"'
u.
'
l+.r10
CHAPTER XXX.
Theory of Numbers.
In this chapter we shall use the word number as equivalent in meaning to positive integer.
407.
number which
We shall
408.
propositions,
is
If a
(i)
factor
some
b, it
be
and
is
prime to one
(ii)
If
numbers
and c.
Also if a is prime to each of the numbers b, c, d, ..., it is
prime to the product bed... and conversely if a is prime to any
number, it is prime to every factor of that number.
of the
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
342
a and
integral power of a
If
If
(v)
prime to
is
n and
lowest terms,
b are
b,
the fractions
=-
fractions,
of a
409.
bo
if
j and
is
and
Also
b respectively.
is infinite.
not,
if
let
. .
fore the
410.
numbers
number
No
rational
algebraical
formula can
represent
prime
only.
2
let
3
2
p a + bm + cm + dm +
when x = m + np
that
is,
+ np) +
3
{m + np) 2 + d (m + np) +
a +
b (m
a+
bm + cm 2 + dm3 +
p+
or
is
+ a multiple
. .
...,
of p,
a multiple of p,
divisible
by
>,
and
is
number.
411.
A number
can
be resolved into
way.
Let
a, b, c, d, ...
where
a,
/3,
denote
the
number; suppose
N = abed...,
a/3yS...
where
JV = a/3yS...,
THEORY OF NUMHEHS.
343
hence a must divide; abed... but eacli of the factors of this product is a prime, therefore a must divide one of them, a suppose.
But a and a are both prime therefore a must be equal to a.
Hence bed. =/3yS.
and as before, /? must be equal to one of the
;
Let
a, b,
412.
c, ...
integers.
(l+a + a' +
...+a'')(l+b +
+ V)
...
(I
+ ...+c r )...
(f>+l)fe+l)(r + l)
divisors, both unity and the number
This includes as
To find
413.
the
itself.
N=
+ a + a2 +
...
of) (1
+ b' )
1
. . .
(1
a'tyc'
where
.
.
q, r...
+c+
are positive
is
}(!>+l)& + l)(r + l)
N not
This supposes
quantities^, q,
r, ...
an odd number.
is
we must add
required number
to this
for the
the one
way
JN x
l)- +
/iV; thus
lj
we obtain
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
344
To find
414.
number can
the
be resolved into
to
each
other.
As
Similarly b q
the two factors would not be prime to each other.
must occur in one of the factors only ; and so on. Hence the
required number is equal to the number of ways in which the
product abc... can be resolved into two factors; that is, the
number
the
ways
of
number
of different
To find
415.
is
the
sum of the
the
sum
required
Example
1.
sum
is
b'
(1
Then each
+ ...+c
)...
b-l
as before.
...,
...
&+'_!
-1
21600 = 6 3
102 = 2 3
where n
r+1
-l
c-1
"
Since
the
divisors of a number.
2
a + ...+ar )(l+b + b +
+a +
prime factors in N.
or 2""
1)...
sum
...
,.
(5
33
22
+ 1)
(3
26-1
of the divisors =
?
2 1
.
52 = 2 3
+ 1)
(2
33
5 2,
+ 1) = 72
-l
3*-l
.
53
= 63x40x31
= 78120.
Also 21600 can be resolved into two factors prime to each other in 2 3_1
or 4 ways.
Example
2.
If
is
We have
Since n
one of them
n(n2 is
l)
(n2
= {n7i
1)
1) is divisible
hence
is divisible
3,
24.
(n+1).
odd, n - 1
is divisible
by
THEORY OF NUMBERS.
Example
3.
34".
is
contained in
100.
J
Of these, some contain the factor 3 again, namely 9, 18, 27,... 99, and their
number is the quotient of 100 divided by 9. Some again of these last
integers contain the factor 3 a third time, namely 27, 54, 81, the number of
One number
of 100 by 27.
is
article.
To find
416.
contained in
In.
n
2
iii
be denoted by /
1,2, 3,
-]
the numbers
a,
/ ( - which
and so
tJ
...
respectively
CL
...
I[-A
which contain 3 at
on.
Ct
/(-,], /(-),...
n. there are
...
is
which
least once;
of a contained in \n
is
'')*'6) + ~
In the remainder of this chapter we shall find
venient to express a multiple of n by the symbol Jl(n).
417.
To prove
418.
divisible
Let
least of
by
integers is
which
and
1>
con-
|r.
Pn = n(n+l)(n + 2)
.-.
r consecutive
of
it
...
(u + r-l),
...(n+r);
;
p
-P =lsxr
= r times the product
of r
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
346
Hence
\r
1,
the product of r
if
consecutive integers
is
by
divisible
we have
Pm+1 -P
= rM(\r-l)
= M(\r).
Now
also P.
P, =
are multiples of
the product of
and therefore
|?',
r 1
is
a multiple of
We
(r.
\r
therefore
consecutive integers
is
divisible
by
\r
1,
if
the
is
divisible
This proposition
By means
is
may
we can shew
we
This
of Art. 416,
If p
419.
is
a prime number,
b) p
of every term in
is divisible by p.
the coefficient
and
and
first
last,
last,
p(p-l)(p-2)...(p-r +
l)
'-
420.
If p
(a
Write
ft
is
a prime number,
+b+c+ d+
for b
+c+
. .
...)p
;
= a5 +
to
prove that
b +
1'
cp
+ dp +
+ M(p).
py = a* + p' + M(p).
p
= (b + c + d+
= (b + y) p suppose
(a +
Again
J3
= bp + y + M{p).
By
proceeding in this
way we may
THEORY OF NUMBERS.
421
prime to
We
[Fermat'a Theorem.]
is
d+
...
,V
p, then
(a
But
347
(p);
is
...
1 is
a multiple of p.
Si
\
^ is P > P-li* an even number except
r when
/>=J.
lherefore
'
Hence
either
that
.V
is
2^ +
= 7^
tins result is
Example
Since 7
Shew
1.
a multiple of
ft
some positive
is
integer.
is
1)
it
a prime,
n (n +
is
divisible
n7 - n
n:=n
1) is divisible
-l) =
by
|3
by
42.
(7)
>i(n
+ l)(n-l)(n* + nS + l).
hence n? - n
is divisible
by 6 x 7, or
42.
iS
pHme DU ber shew that the difference of the p"
of^J;
^ thG dlfference of
7 tSL* mimbeiS GXCeedS
the numbers
Dowfra
mXpleof^
Let
where
that n 7 - n
n? -
1,
S^ -
or
a 1S
(n
422.
T
Now
.r,
'
b/a
thatls
>
Example
Tf
V
-
3.
UOt
iS
-
result.
m t0
? L lG
r
x'J
have
AT2
= 5;i
~l
Sr^PTi?5n
1 is a multiple
i
n- 1 or N*+l
of
5
eitner
where
n ultipIe 0f 5
iS
i*
is
that
is,
of the form Sn or on
w some
1.
positive integer
thus
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
348
EXAMPLES.
respectively,
which
Find the
2.
will
3.
is
which
will
4.
539539
109350,
make
perfect squares.
numbers
7623,
respectively,
74088
18375,
4374,
3675,
is
a.
1.
a?y 2
XXX.
aud
if
xy
is
even,
difference
shew that
square
its
even.
If
5.
by
-ix-y
is
a multiple of
3,
is divisible
9.
6.
7.
In how
two factors
number 7056 be
the
resolved into
8.
Prove that 2 4 -
9.
Prove that n
'1
(?i
+ 1) (n + 5)
even,
12.
13.
If
is
15.
a multiple of
its
(Sn + 2)
greater than
2,
6.
If
is
number and
11.
is
by
1 is divisible
is divisible
is divisible
by
by
48.
24.
is
divisible
by
120.
14.
Prove that 3 2n + 7
15.
If
a multiple of
if
17.
is
a multiple of
number
a prime
8.
greater than
3,
shew that
?i
is
24.
Shew that n5 n
16.
240
is
is
is divisible
by 30
and by
odd.
by
24.
18.
19.
is
of the form
is
3?i
of the form
1.
9?i
or
9nL
THEORY OF NUMBERS.
Shew that
20.
is 0, 1
or
21.
form 7n
22.
a cube
if
number
is
349
divided by
Shew
24.
may be.
25.
the remainder
that no triangular
number can be
If 2
4- 1
Shew
that ax
is
+ a and
2
,
of the
it is
of the form 3u
7,
6.
1.
when
2 2 , 3 2 ,...n 2
is
of the
form 8r + l.
26.
is
is
or 13ft+l.
27.
or
I7nl.
If n is a
28.
divisible by 240
If n is any prime
1 is divisible by 168.
29.
n
G
30.
and
Show
that
?i
36
number
greater than
1 is divisible
by 33744
shew that n 4
5,
if
3,
except
is
7,
is
shew that
prime to
2, 3,
19
37.
2p+h
p
If
32.
divisible by
33.
If
is
r
.
is
pV
p1
a prime, and X prime to p, shew that x ~
prove that
am
is
-2
a, b
+ am ~ 3 b + am - 4 b'i +
two numbers
less
is
than m,
+ bm ~ 2
a multiple of m.
If
is
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
350
forms
of a
will be
one of the
five
forms
5q,
5q
1,
5q
2.
424.
If 6, c are two integers, which when divided by a
leave the same remainder, they are said to be congruent with
respect to the modulus a. In this case b c is a multiple of a, and
following the notation of Gauss we shall sometimes express this
as follows
b = c (mod. a), or b - c=0 (mod. a).
pb and
called a congruence.
is
If
b, c
to
modulus
If a
426.
is
prime
to
and
b,
then
integer
the quantities
(b
2a, 3a,
a,
a,
For
ma when
if
divided by b
ma = qb + r,
m'a = q'b + r
(m - 7/1') a = (q-q')b
then
m', since
therefore b divides (m m') a ; hence it must divide
it is prime to a ; but this is impossible since
and m' are each
less
than
b.
is
exactly divisible by
all different,
1, 2, 3,
b,
1,
order.
Cor.
of the a.
If
is
prime to
b,
and
c is
p.
c,
a,
2a,
(b
1) a,
terms
THEORY OP NUMBERS.
when
351
of the series
c+
c,
c+
1,
2,
+ (b-
order
this
b-
1),
re-
1.
-(/"b., b.j
...
...
...
For by supposition,
b
where n lt n 2
.
-c = n
n3
bx baba
-c = u
b2
a,
...
are integers;
...
=(<?!
c,c c
2
,) (ca
rc )
2
...
-c
a,
:i
(ca
u./i,
+w
a)
...
:j
(a),
We
428.
If p
be
can
now
prime
to p,
then
'
-1
is
a multiple of p.
Since JV and
if,
when divided by p
(p-l)iV
3.V,
(1),
1,
(p-1)
3,
(2),
but i^l
is
prime to p
\p
leave the
therefore
JP" 1
We
it
follows that
(j>).
shall
,;
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
352
(abccl
.)
= < (a)
</>
b,
a,
(b)
d,
c,
< (c)
...
are prime to
(&_
a,
k,
2,
1,
a+l,
a+
2,
a+
k,
a+
a,
2a +1,
2a +
2,
2a +
k,
2a +
a,
a+
2,
a+
a.
\)
a+
(6-
1,
1)
(b-l)a +
...
k,
...
(b
1)
</>
<
<
Therefore
cf>
(abed
(ab)
...)
<
<f>
that
(a)
(a)
(a)
is
< (6).
<j>
(bed
. .
.)
cj>
<f>(a).<t>(b).<t>(c).<}>(d)....
431.
To find the number
given number, and prime to it.
(f)(b)
(cd
<j>
...)
of positive integers
less
than a
'
a,
2a,
3a,
...
(a*-
I) a,
"
(a1
a,
THEORY OF NUMBERS.
and the number
of these
4>
Now
.
= a" -
(av )
the factors ap
all
is a''~
</>
(a)Vc
r
.
.)
<j>
(a
hence
a'-'
c\
b'\
')
353
=a?(l-
(b
...
</>
-^
(c
-H)-H)-H)^K)H)H)that
is,
to
= iir(i-i)(i-J)(i-I)....
Example.
and prime
which are
less
than
it is
1,
p, q,
and prime
r, ...
and
to
their
it,
then
sum by
N-x
is also
an
number
of
S; then
2S = N + N + N+
by addition,
.-.
...
to
<p
(N) terms;
S = $N<p(N).
'-'(.4>(>-i)( 3("i)-'
tli at is,
N N N
N
N N
_++_+..._
a
ao
ac
be
b
.
.
gives the
a,
la, da,
number
...
N+
....
abc
of the integers
.a
(t
which contain
H.
II.
A.
23
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
354
...
N
N
a
o
c
,
&
,
ab'
ac'
of abc; that
is,
[Wilson's Theorem.]
is divisible
by
By
2,
Ijp-1
Ex.
= (P~
3-3+1
1,
Similarly, other
a prime number,
be
If -p
'
since
433.
'
be
+ \p -
p.
Art. 314
i)""
we have
- (P -
i)
Jp-l)(p
(P -
2r
'
2)(p-3)
{p
^z^ipD (p - $y->
irl+
tlie
1
top _ lterms
expressions
(j)
l) p
+M(p)-, thus
)(P~
2)
-...top-
terms!
=M(p) + {(i-iy->-(-iy->}
= M(p)
Therefore
1,
since
+ pI
1 is
(p).
even.
\p
1 is
not a multiple of
q,
of p.
THEORY OF NUMBERS.
[Wilson's Theorem.]
434.
by
is divisible
If p
be
,'}:>5
a prime number,
+ lp
p.
1,
then a
prime to p, and
is
3,
if
...
(p-1)
(1),
the products
\.a, 2. a,
3. a,
(^;
1 )
are
leaves
the re-
- p,
Hence one and only one of the products 2a, 3a, ... (p 2) a
gives remainder 1 when divided by p that is, for any one of the
series of numbers in (1), excluding the first and last, it is
;
possible to find one other, such that the product of the pair
the form
(p)
is
of
Therefore by multiplying
2.3.4
...
thatis,
1.2.3.4
...
whence
\p
or
1^
Cor.
by 2p +
is
If 2p
all
we have
(p-2) = M(p) + l;
(p-l) = (p-l){M(p) +
=
(p) +p - 1
l} ;
a multiple of p.
is
number
a prime
/jp\
(-
iy
is
divisible
l.
is
divisible
by 2p +
Put
1,
and
= 1.2.3.4
p(p+l)(p + 2)
(n-1)
= 1 (w-1) 2(n-2) 3(-3) ... p (n-p)
= a multiple of n + (- iy (\p) 2
\2p
Therefore
therefore (|^)
l) p (\p)
+ ( l/
is
is
divisible
divisible
by n or 2p +
by 2;;+l.
232
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
356
Many
435.
If
is
a prime number, x p - x
by p.
is divisible
then
J.
=a
therefore/^)
and this
is
if
is divisible
/(2) =
a multiple of p
by p, therefore /(4)
multiple of p,
is
prime
[Art. 419.]
.-.
If
is
but
~ 2 = (1 + 1)^-2,
2*5
when p is prime
divisible
+ l);
[Art. 419]
therefore / (3)
is divisible
is
true
universally.
it
~
follows that x p J
Example
24?i
if
is
prime to
p,
1 is a multiple of p.
2.
Let 5 2n+2 -
- 25
24/i
is
by 576.
divisible
- 25 be denoted by f(n)
/(?i+l) = 5 2n+4 -24(w + l)-25
then
= 5 2 .5 2w+2 -24n-49;
.-.
= 576 (n + 1).
Therefore if f(n) is divisible by 576, so also is /(u + 1); but by trial we
see that the theorem is true when n = l, therefore it is true when n=2, therefore it is true when ?i = 3, and so on; thus it is true universally.
The above
result
52n+2
may
_ 2in - 25 = 25 M+ 1 -
- 25
= 25 (1 + 24)" -24rc-25
24;i
= 25 + 25 n 24 + M (24 2
= 576n + iW(576)
.
- 24n - 25
= i)/(576).
EXAMPLES.
XXX.
4" +
divisible
1.
Shew that 10 n + 3
2.
Shew
that 2
3.
Shew
that 4 6 n
4.
Shew that
7n
7n
+3
5H
+5
-5
is
is
b.
by
9.
a multiple of 24.
+ 4" + 2
is
1).
9.
THEORY OF NUMBERS.
p
5.
If
6.
Shew
7.
Shew
is
that a v, +
-a
is
\p-3 + l
is
357
a multiple of p.
contained in
2r
is
2''-;--l.
8.
Shew
9.
Shew that
'1
'1
3** +6 +160a
- 56n- 243
is divisible ly
512.
If n is a
11.
divisible by 504.
If
12.
is
r+# +
7,
?i*
+ 3>i 4 + 7>i 2 - 11
is
is
multiple of 128.
13.
is
14.
If
15.
Shew
is
that a 12 -
12
is divisible
by
91, if
a and
b are
both prime
to 91.
If
16.
is
If
17.
1, n + 1 are
2
that n(?i -4) is divisible
-2r
2r
-1
is divisible
by p.
Shew
18.
,
is
n r nr + r-
equal to
19.
number
If
c2
n- 1
is
20.
1 is
1
.
l(p-D
a2
contained in \nr ~
divisible
by p.
1=0
(mod. 139).
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
358
of all the
numbers
less
than
?(i--30-J)0-9- + ?ci-.a-.)a-*-.
and the sum of the cubes
is
?(i-3(x-])(t-9- + ?a-^ci-a-*.,
a,b,c... being the different prime factors of
If
22.
divisible
jt?
iV.
integers,
is
23.
given by
pansion of
1_
the numbers
all
powers of
-gg(l-<*)(l-i)(l -*)...,
being the different prime factors of
a, 6, c,...
If
25.
prime to
(iV) is
(f>
it,
and
if
the
number
prime to
is
^^26.
If
dv d2 ds
,
...
(f>
Shew
<t>
of integers
JV,
1
A".
which are
less
shew that
(mod.
JV).
(dj
(c? )
2
than JV and
JV,
then
also that
(!)
r-
9~0( 3 r + 0( 5 )T^
1
fi
---
~kJ.
odinf. = -?
.;
CHAPTER XXXI.
*-436.
a,
%+
,+
where a2 a 3
,
. .
,
'
'
We
type.
*-i37.
~'
a
=*=
"i
rZl
* a
2
3
'
=*=
a continued fraction
of
> *,
KK
is
represent
The
fractions
a,
a2
a3
We
To
*438.
investigate the
law of formation of
the successive
b
i
The
first
6,
b2
b3
three convergents
ergents are
a2 b
a 3 .a 2 b
+b 3 .b
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
360
Assume
vergent
p
In
-anlp
n\
,
b n-lp n 2>
,
n+
of
n-Ln
J-
hence
,,p
,,
bq
h-Ih2_.
wth
from the
differs
in the place of a
=a q
only in having
we put
If therefore
?>
^,=a
nP +b
=a
+,q
+b
,,q
,,
numerator and denominator of the (u + l) th convergent follow the law which was supposed to hold in case of the
th
But the law does hold in the case of the third convergent
?t
hence it holds for the fourth and so on therefore it holds
we
universally.
*-439.
b,
we may prove
Vn
b3
a2 ~
CC
~
3
that
= anPn-l ~ kPn-*
Qn
?-!
k<ln-2
',
*440.
a +
a2 +
3 +
we have
seen that
p n =a nlp
J-
ii
,+bp
n-L
,
n 2'
q
J-n
^an-ln
q ,+bq
n-J-n2
1
a.
Qn-J'
\9n
? + ,
Ml
but
and
is
"
&.+1
less
than
In
and
numerically
is
ft
of opposite sign.
is
In-}
By
reasoning as in Art. 335, we may shew that every convergent of an odd order is greater than the continued fraction,
and every convergent of an even order is less than the continued
fraction ; hence every convergent of an odd order is greater than
every convergent of an even order.
is
positive
2--is
1
than ss=l -
2ft*-J
22/1
less
9an
2
Also ?*=i -
and
2/1
2/1
positive
2/1
and
less
than
^=* - &=s
22/1 1
2/1
2/1
hence
2*2/1
2 2/1-1
22/1
" ;
2/1
2/1
hence
22/1-2
greater than
the continued fraction but continually decrease, and the convergents of an even order are all less than the continued fraction
but continually increase.
of
all
if
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
362
*441.
To shew
a +
a 2 + a3
rf""
n+I
when n
is infinite
is
when n
is
The continued
-^
is equal to zero.
and
9n+l
fPn
n+lffn-l
Now
_ Pn-1
?+!
-!>
whence we obtain
Pjt+X
_ =
(_
<2n+l
k.-i?
But
k.-M?
n+lin-1
li+1 !7u
an+l Qn
^B+lS'n-l
k^g
an+l q n
an(
a.
^n+lSn-l
"n+lSn-l
n+1
is
^n+1
-J**^
is
less
is
if
the limit of
"+
the limit of
than
^n+A^-2
b^ q
in
which
Qn+i
q+i
qn
number
of proper fractions,
that
-^
is,
?+:
and
-- tend to
qn
T-
3-
n~
3+5
a.
2n+l +
\,
(n+iy
.
-'
=4
definite limit.
*442.
3G3
continued fraction
the
H;
A
cl
c\i,
By
in
supposition
'
-*
a2
a
?
each of which the denominator exceeds the numerator by
unity at
least.
is
a
exceeds
by unity at
ft
and
least,
-* is
and since a
--
a proper fraction,
it
follows
tliat ,
greater than
is
is
proper fraction
is
-.
'
ii
denote
may be shewn
by f, then
it
that
anlp
ii
%~
a,
K
-
CV
Again,
O
is
it
is
is
a positive
ft,
is
and
we may shew
Similarly
fraction.
is,
In like manner
that
ft,;
ft
and
so on.
qaa
2'
/ n .,
iuii-
ii
ft
q 2
niii-
'
^
2
hence ^sJ -
But P ~
- - ^=*
^=
92
hence ^ 2
and
>^ ^ > ^-
9jt
proposition.
l,
7,
-^
<M
r 'i
^>^
<74
tl ie
?3
7,
- - =
<V* 2 -ft 2
<?i
have
same
and
is
sign.
therefore positive
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
364
From
*443.
Pn =
the formula
+ hPn-t*
<*nPn-i
= a&n-, +
9n
&.&_>
11
th
convergent.
c
To
Example.
find the
We have p n = Sp,^ - 6p n _
any three consecutive terms
of
to -
w th convergent
5- 5- 5-
series
Let
But the
first
~
+p nx n 1 +
S= Pl1+-(P2~
5x
we have
18
Similarly
we
S'
if
whence
gn
3"- 1 - 12
2' 1
"1 =
- 2x
___ = ___ _
=9
3*- 1 - 4
'
6 (3" - 2").
^=
find
12
l-3x
- hx + Qx-
p n = 18
whence
=-^
6
1
5Pl)
+ 6a;
;J
2*- 1
= S'^ 1 - 2' +
l
. .
]
.
w
y w _ 6(3"-2 )
"""
ffn
~ 3n+1 - 2?l+1
'
a+
a+ a+
...
we may shew
that the
numerators of the
the expansion of
7-2
x in
-I-
1 ~~ OjX
ti /Y*
7-2
ox
305
*444.
For the investigation of the general values of pn and qn
the student is referred to works on Finite Differences ; it is only
The
in special cases that these values can be found by Algebra.
Example.
12
3
- = 5
o
1
z
of
qn
us
let
tal<e
n to denote
i*
un -
or
(n
+ 1) _! = -
(uB_, -
?w n _ 2 ).
i^j - RU _s = - ( u _ 2 -ra- 1 n_ 3 ).
Similarly,
tt
The
first
(-iy^(u 2 -3u
T
-A
Tims
^n
7i
Pn-1
(" !)
+l
?l-l
l)"- 8
|n-l
In
0n
gn-1
iw+l
to
In
9-2
n -
<h
[3'
ffn-1
In
Ps_Pi
?3
|2'
13
qn
lra+1
At! _ Art = (~
).
hence
n
p n -(n + l) Pn ^=(-l) -\
3i
2'
'2
2
(~ I)""
|2'
Lit
n+1
|n
+l
12
+
|4
|3
.
'
7a
n+1
By making n
infinite,
is
|2
|3
~a
(- l) n
n+1
|1
we obtain
2n
which
= 1-7^+1i- "77 +
e)
e-V
+l
In
whence, by addition
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
366
+
a + a +
If every component of
*445.
3j
For
-7
^-
*m
...
C=
-=
Similarly
J
*-=
*- *-
a3 + a +
Again,
than
less
ax
than
B
-7
C
=
which
is
and
*-
is
D
,
hence
jy
...
com-
=^
therefore
S^
7*
;
continued
suppose
and so
less
and as
on.
..
is
infinite
proper tractions
a proper fraction
A, B, x 6 X
a positive integer.
is
a positive integer
are
Now
suppose.
+f
a2
where A and
is positive,
f,
f=
hence
-^
XL
where
fraction
the continued
if
and denominator,
a proper
is
...
tor -j is less
than -*
as
-^
is
so on.
Thus A, B, C, D,
...
The above
result
still
and
all
proper fractions
thus, as
we have
an
incommensurable
denote
7)
it
by
k,
is
in
is
^-^
9n-l
/
+ hn-2
"~ 2
.
V
n_1
P
= l-^^
tfn-l
?-
P
P
H=
that
is
>6
0,
which
this
;ultl
9n-4
impossible
is
and
= P^*
3G7
hence the
?,
- K
a
a
a
1
*446.
//* eirary
component of
""
*-
...
?'s
a proper
""
The demonstration
*
1.
Shew that
is
EXAMPLES. XXXI.
\
ax
_h
h_
- a2 - a 3 -
Pn = a nPn - 1 ~ ^nPn - 2
2.
Convert
"
rators.
3.
Shew
m
'^-
V^=-
2 |_
"?i?n
-2
nume-
^
r.
.......
1~ a%~ a3~
.... if
p n and qn
5.
Qn = a n9.n -\~
that
(2 )
of every
'
V*+6=+^
4.
a.
the denominator
least,
shew that
increase with n.
an
^"2^
2^
2~="
2^
SJ'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
368
Shew that
6.
cc+
V
and
7.
- --
...
2a+ 2a +
... \/ a
+ s2+ 2a+"7\
(
2
,
o^--)=
"7 a
2a-
7T2a-
= 2a
...
2a- 2a-
V
1
[a -
,
~
2a2 -
2a'2
a+ a+ a+
pn + = 6an
shew that
8.
.v
Shew that
a+
b
number
being the
ax
bq n + 1 - apn +
n_
8P
= 6.-^7
x + ^n
x+
a+ a+
of components,
and
a, /3
k2 ak b = 0.
9.
J_ L _L A_
6+ c+ d+ a+
is
equal to
J_
_1_
-c +
,7
'"'
J_
-6+ -a+
_x _
-0?+
'"'
Shew that
1
10.
11.
12.
13
15.
16.
64
(?i
i
!> *
1- 3- 4- 5-
ji2- 3- 4-
1+
2+
v,
'
-2=1
w+l-
=.-1.
2(e2 -l)
e2
3(n + 2)
Uo
+l
_'6(2 e3+l)
n+
3+
Ucy
2/i
3.4 3.5
+ l)(w + 2)(2/i + 3)
?i
+2
n+
3.3
(n
L 5|- 1+ i+i
+ |. + ...+|.
I
L_
+ l + 2
?i
1+ 2+ 3+
If u,1
-l) 2
^2 ~1 _ ?*fo+ 3 )
2 + l~
2
-L JL __
1- 5- 7-
2 +(+l) 2
1- 5- 13- 25-
4
14.
"
5e 3
-2
a + 26
bein formed by taking the denominator and the sum of the numerator
and denominator of the preceding fraction for its numerator and denomia
a+
e>
17.
J'
y'H
)'
is
18.
cij
a19 a2 a 3v being
>
19.
1 ;)
lh
convergent
to
6
* +1 -l
to
--
equal to
to
3-d
e-2
2+ 3+ 4+
e lies
is
- -2+
1+2+1+
n
1111111
1
'
Shew that
'
a 3 +l-
n
is
5- 2- 1- 5- 2- 1- 521.
y.
%l-
a.,+
the (2m
v
20.
positive
+ l-
+1
3>i
+l
'
u2
^6
1
Put
+
1
1 +..
u3
form
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
370
=
11111
Similarly,
u2
u3
12
+
u +u +x
2
us + x2 u u
UQ2
u - u + u2 u2 + u3
and
so
on
1
hence generally
1
'
By
putting
we obtain
1
,
"n x
V,l=
.',71
a n+l - a nx
hence we have
X
<l
.T
rt
.T
(l
XA
(J
X
(
<i
a 2~ a l X +
Vx
+ *) =
log (!
.-.
'l
x
a3~ U,2 X +
(IfX
<i.."x
a ,~ a i x
3 2 .r
2-x
The continued
is
fraction
&.
ax +
a2 +
a3 +
a4 +
cxa x
where
cn
c2 ,
3,
c 2a
Let
denote
Similarly, c
is
...
C 3 rt 3
...
+/2
'^-~
cii
+/i
Q Q
-
tlien
denote
c/c4
a +
3 3
Let
C 3C
/"
^3
5 CA
c i/i
then
C 2<\.
and
C X2
so on;
'
established.
242
-a
HIGHER ALGEBBA..
372
^EXAMPLES.
XXXI.
b.
Shew that
1.
1111
+
UQ
m3
u2
Wj
+ (-l) u
n
+
1
2.
&n
+
X
X2
ClfiCCt
Cl^Qz-tCto
1
-+-
Mj
r\
?
-2
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
+ s2 + 3 +
11
i+oa+
l2
22
'
^n
*^
+2
r + 2...
n quotients.
to
-.
1114
111
1-
(n + 1) 2
n2
1- 3- 5- 7-
?i+l
2x
2n+l
?i
+ 22 -
n*+(n+Yf'
3x
1111
r
ab
la
+ ...= a+
abed
b-l+ c 1+ dl +
5,
-i
abc
rn
+ 1
r
...=i+
l+- + -i + -a + -iB+
r lb
r
r
a x + a2 +
if
&JI
= l + 1x + 2- x + S- x+4-
?**
u.
lv
?'
11
Un ~ u n-l
?<<!
iX-xJu
1111
.2^
^^
n+l 1-4-14-.
u 2 n-1
n_
a?
Ctry.0
r+1
~ r + 1-
4.
u t2
-
U.2
CIqCC -iCt-v
~~
- UQ +
J.
3.
Jl
ic
,.
r3
,J
a3 +
p=4
a+
'
1+
an
,4- 4b+
c+
'
x +
qc
r,55 +
,
3 +
2 -f
r5
7-3
ryr-r
+1
'
'
b+ c+ d+
<(_
H-l
'
P (a+ 1 + Q) = + Q.
shew that
12.
Shew that
M2 Ms Mt
9i
9*
tinued fraction
\-
/>
...
is
equal to the
con-
/>
....
where
#.,
q,
a*.
...
are
the
'
CHAPTER
XXXII.
PROBABILITY.
Definition. If an event can happen in a ways and fail in
b ways, and each of these ways is equally likely, the probability,
449.
or the chance, of
a+
its
happening
rr
is
a+
and that
of its failing
G
is
For instance,
if
and 25 blanks,
and
winning
ticket will
win a
prize
is
25
is
Oa
450.
bability
The reason
may be made
for the
clear
.-.
= k (a +
v
b),
'
or
a+
T
b
will not
is
happen
a+
b
b
is
a+b
Cor.
If
is
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
374
451.
an event
is
to
is
it
will not
happen
is
=-= -
The total number of ways in which 3 balls can be drawn is 9 <73 and
the number of ways of drawing 3 black balls is 5 C 3 therefore the chance
,
~*C% ~ 9.8.7
Thus the odds against the event
Example
3.
The
possible
are 37 to
'
42
5.
at least
dice.
number
of cases is 6 x 6, or 36.
An
ace
is 11.
Or we may reason
is
3b
as follows
There are 5 ways in which each die can be thrown so as not to give an
That is, the chance
ace ; hence 25 throws of the two dice will exclude aces.
25
of not throwing one or more aces is
so that the chance of throwing one
;
36
ace at least
is 1
^
do
or
^,
oo
PROBABILITY.
Example
4.
375
of
3 dice.
And
the total
number
+ 3 + 3 + 3,
is
or
10.
of cases is 6 3 or 21G;
,
=
=^
108
21G
Example
5.
A may draw
he
way
3 prizes in 1
may draw
2 prizes
and
blank in ^ x 6 ways
m
JL
he
may draw
1 prize
6
2 blanks in 3 x -r-^r
JL
m
.
and
ways
the
sum
win a
of these
prize.
numbers
is 64,
which
-4's
Z"s
chance
B's
chance of success
C
:
= 16
20
is -.
84
is
ways
in
which A can
or 84 ways
r = -
84
21
clearly o
O
7.
'
of
chancer
20 ways
J
'
chance of success =
A 's
number
9.8.7
the
therefore
is
or
6.5.4
will get all blanks in
21
'
or
- = -.
1
ZL
The
and
total
of these
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
376
that
will
happen
ri
will
happen
rr
is
is
a+
+ c+
:
-.
a+
Similarly
the chance that
J
...
and
so on.
...
of the laws of
tions.
EXAMPLES.
1.
XXXII.
a.
Prom
find the
3.
4.
If four coins are tossed, find the chance that there should be
find the
balls:
tails.
One
one
is
will
from a pack four cards are drawn, find the chance that they
be the four honours of the same suit.
6.
If
7.
it is
9.
dice,
find
12.
Shew that the chances of throwing six with 4,
respectively are as 1 6 18,
;
3,
or 2 dice
'
PROBABILITY.
377
3
18
140
14.
-1
and
if
throws
9,
find
i>'s
chance
The
what
15.
a row
letters
is
17.
line
crowns
is
shillings
and
n half-crowns.
We
455.
have hitherto considered only those occurrences
which in the language of Probability are called Single events.
When two or more of these occur in connection with each other,
the joint occurrence is called a Confound event.
compound
event.
by the
the
But
the balls are replaced after being drawn, it is clear that the result of the second
drawing is not in any way affected by the result of the first.
is
affected
We are thus
result of
first.
if
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
378
456.
babilities
to
find
happen.
compound
first
is
is
is
+ b){a'+b')
bb'
(a
+ b)(a+b')
ab'
(a
first
fail
+ b)(a'+b')
fails
a'b
is
(a
+ b)(a'+b')
first
fails
happens.
of
ticular case.
If
is
'
P =P 2 =P 3 =
1
To
=P-
some one at
'
PROBABILITY.
379
Example 1. Two drawings, each of 3 balls, arc made from a bag containing 5 wbitc and 8 black balls, the balls being replaced before tbe second
find the chance that the first drawing will give 3 white, and the second
trial
3 black balls.
:
The number
ways
of
which 3
in
balls
C3
5C.,;
3black
*C Z
first trial
= ^-f1.2" 1.2.3
8.7.6
1.2.3
is 13
be drawn
3white
may
13. 12. 11 _
:
143
<
first
first is
first is
tail
28
143*
j
>
20449
1.2.3
"-
14o
143
head and
tail
compound
event =- x =
2
2
-j
The chance
the chance that
that
30 years
is
3
will die within 30 years is ^
3
9
x
^
lb
o
',
or
27
8U
..
be alive,
27
>sl-8o>
is
53
or-.
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
380
aa
concurrence
is
-.
o) (a
is
+ tr
Thus
if
is
^;
The chance
then
12
ol
for the
m
*
Therefore the
that,
is clearly
to A.
13
12
x ^ =
ol
52
17
=
chance required
u
,
Or we might reason
fall
fall
to A.
---
as follows
The number of ways in which the king and the queen can be dealt to A is
equal to the number of permutations of 13 things 2 at a time, or 13 12.
And similarly the total number of ways in which the king and queen can be
.
dealt is 52
51.
13
12
52.51
=
1
as before.
17
Example 2. Two drawings, each of 3 balls, are made from a bag containing 5 white and 8 black balls, the balls not being replaced before the
second trial: find the chance that the first drawing will give 3 white and
the second 3 black balls.
At the first trial, 3 balls may be drawn in
and 3 white balls may be drawn in 5 C3 ways;
When
balls
balls
may
12
11
1.2.3
143
may be drawn
8 C ways
3
and 3 black
13
and 8 black
C3 ways
5.4
1.2"
2 white
13
be drawn in
in
10
C 3 ways
8.7.6
"1.2.3
therefore the chance of the
'
10.9.8
1.2.3
1_
15
compound event
5
143
7
=-=
15
429
Ex.
1,
Art. 457.
.. .
PROBABILITY.
381
459.
If an event can happen in ttvo or more different ways
which are mutually exclusive, the chance that it wilt happen is
the sum of the chances of its happening in these different ways.
and
let
=*
ways
is
a b 2 + a2 b
x
a,
a_
x
bh
12
bf
6,
number
of ex-
Hence
if
Pi+Pl+Pa*
Example
with two
+Pn-
1.
throw
at least in a single
dice.
9 can be
made up
in 4 ways,
of throwing 9 is
4
.
10 can be
made up
in 3 ways,
11 can be
made up
in 2 ways,
12 can be
made up
in 1 way,
Now the
of throwing 10 is
less
<V/ .
ou
than 9
lb
is
the
sum
is
-^
of these
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
382
Example
2.
first is
is
1 sovereign
is
it
hence the
first
purse
is
is
12
13
- x -
- x 3
6
or 9
it
or -
.-.
is
+ -y +
x*5
-.
=-
tc
Example.
drawn
at
From
random
a multiple of 7
.
is
and
a multiple of 3
is
is
6 + -^2
required chance
is
2
or -
hence the
But if the question had been: find the chance that the number
multiple of 3 or of 5, it would have been incorrect to reason as follows
Because the chance that the number
chance that the number
is
a multiple of 5
6
it is
a multiple of 3 or 5
is
is
^+^
or 5,
is
a multiple of 3
is
is
is
and the
so that the
ticket
It
PROBABILITY.
383
balls arc
(i)
= (5*7H.=C 2 = -
66
(ii)
as the
(1)
ball,
r
132
12 * 11
(2)
i2
And
ir
0r
is
ball,
is
35
132'
_35
- j$5 + ^5_
132~66'
132
be noticed that we have here assumed that the chance of drawing
two specified balls successively is the same as if they were drawn simultaneously. A little consideration will shew that this must be the case.
It will
EXAMPLES. XXXII.
What
b.
is
first
only of two
find
What
is
odd?
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
384
equal value.
8.
six
in five trials.
will
of different colours
11.
If 4 whole
1S
product
is 1, 3, 7,
or 9
16
625'
14.
will
If
is
what
is
C in
A, B,
A party
is
PROBABILITY.
385
462.
trial
exactly in
...
trials.
For
we
any particular
a set of r
select
can be selected in
Cr
C rp q
we expand
If
2f
+ "C 2) n
(/;
q)"
+ n C jS'- 2 q 2 +
...
+"C n _ p
q"- r
...
+ qn
463.
2 times,
If
inn
...
trials.
or
times,
twice,
...
n
n
P + "Cy-*q + "C aP -Y+
or
the
sum
of
the
first
nr+
...
tv^r.
dice,
throw doublets
is
5
^
Now
the
sum
-^
do
is
H. H. A.
is
the chanco of
i
,
or ^
o
and
the chance of
if
doublets
what
only once,
therefore the
fails
/l
5\
h+d
4
.
19
1
(1 + 4.5 + 6.5-)= -^
25
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
386
Example
2.
white; a ball
is
drawn and
The chance
what
find for
nC
Now
n- r
> n Cr - l p r - l q n - (r ~
(n +
or
and we have
to
l)p>(p + q)r.
(n-r + l)p>rq,
so long as
is
successes
-r
such that pn
and qn
is
an
integer,
r is
is
that of
pn
failures.
pay
words
this
who
each ticket
is
in other
TX
reasonably expect
would be a
fair
sum
is,
- x
convenient then to
It
to
is
by
he would estimate
in-
pM
The chance that the sovereign is in the first purse is equal to the
the chances that it has moved twice and that it has not moved at all
sum
of
8
PROBABILITY.
that
is,
the chance
112
- + 5 .1=-t.
8
6
.*.
is
of 25*.
.*.
=T
,387
1
.
of 6*.=1.
O.s-.
3r/.
=31*.-2Q.=10*.
<></.
solved as follows
of the coins
=s
removed
of 25s.
= 8^s.;
=^of
W,
(Gs.+S V>\)=3 r
:
= (25-81 + 3^)
shillings
= 1.
Ck
3d., as before.
A has
the
first
11 which is to
throw, what are
In his
first
is
in his second
it is
x - x o
6
-^
because
each player must have failed once before A can have a second throw in his
1
/5\ 4
third throw his chance is
x ^ because each player must have failed
;
is
the
sum
5MKi
Similarly #'s chance
is
the
sum
A' a chance
--
is
WM
.-.
4+
,+
G)
*
J-
6 and 5
respectively.
26
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
388
We
to useful
of each player.
Now
m+
1.2
+ n-2
jm-1
\m
n(nA-l\
*
ii
fications.
number
may
faces
Also the number of ways in which the numbers thrown will have
sum is equal to the coefficient of x p in the expansion of
for
their
{x l
+ x* + x 3 + ... + xf
n
)
PROBABILITY.
Now
=x
11
(l
+ x + x2 +
3-S!)
...
+ xf
')"
-(?)"
We
and
<1
.r)
,
-"
=1
x') n (I
n(n-l)
- x)~ n
' a;
n(n-l)(n-2)
.,.
(n+l)
+ nx +
x p ~ n in the expansion of
coefficient of
.,,
?t(+l)(w + 2) _3
x +...
1 ^ 3
.
~
Multiply these series together and pick out the coefficient of x p n in the
product we thus obtain
;
n(n+l)...{p-l)
\
P -n
it
n(n+l)...(p-f-l)
p - n -f
\
(n
M(;t
1)
+ l)...(j>-2/-l)
"
1.2
p-n-2f
The
This problem
in 1730
is
due to
it illustrates
a method of frequent
published by him
utility.
EXAMPLES. XXXII.
In a certain game A'a skill is to
winning 3 games at least out of 5.
1.
2>'s
of
.1
is
2,
c.
as 3 to 2
is
thrown 5 times
what
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
390
A coin
5.
present itself
is
n times, what
an odd number of times ?
tossed
is
is
pectation.
8.
Counters marked
9.
3 are placed in a bag, and one is withdrawn and replaced. The operation being repeated three times, what
is the chance of obtaining a total of 6 ?
1, 2,
sum
is
tossed 4 times
of the
less
what
than 15?
10.
3 dice.
players of equal skill, A and B, are playing a set of
games they leave off playing when A wants 3 points and
wants 2.
If the stake is 16, what share ought each to take \
Two
11.
12.
and
B throw with
of throwing a higher
number
3 dice
if
throws
8,
what
is Z?'s
chance
14.
(1)
In
five
is
expectation.
A person
throws two
dice,
6n tickets numbered 0, 1, 2,
6n- 1 are placed in a bag,
and three are drawn out, shew that the chance that the sum of the
numbers on them is equal to 6?i is
18.
If
3?&
(6n-l)(6n-2)'
PROBABILITY.
3Dl
*Inverse Probability.
all the cases we have hitherto considered it lias been
supposed that our knowledge of the causes which may produce a
certain event is sucli as to enable us to determine the chance of
the happening of the event.
have now to consider problems
of a different character.
For example, if it is known that an
event has happened in consequence of some one of a certain
number of causes, it may be required to estimate the probability
of each cause being the true one, and thence to deduce the probability of future events occurring under the operation of the
*467.
In
We
same
causes.
*468.
we
shall
give a
numerical illustration.
and
first
5
in - of these a sovereign
would be drawn
would be drawn
5
-
x ~iV, or
1
5
times from the
N
lb
of these a sovereign
in -
would be drawn
trials,
thus a sovereign
first
purse.
of the trials,
and
in
Now
is
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
392
times.
Hence the
first
purse
is
it
A'is rr.
second
*469.
It is important that the student's attention should be
directed to the nature of the assumption that has been made in
Thus, to take a particular instance,
the preceding article.
although in 60 throws with a perfectly symmetrical die it may
not happen that ace is thrown exactly 10 times, yet it will
doubtless be at once admitted that if the number of throws is
continually increased the ratio of the number of aces to the
number of throws will tend more and more nearly to the limit
There
no reason
is
why one
theorem
given in the Ars
of a general
first
an
is the
probability that
N,
If p
the
be taken to be
pN.
proof
See Todhunter's History of Probability, Chapter vn.
of Bernoulli's theorem is given in the article Probability in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
An
*470.
suppose
that the probability of the existence of these causes was estimated
Let p r denote the probability that when the
at P P2 P3 ... Pn
r* cause exists the event will follow
after the event has occurred
th
cause was the
it is required to find the probability that the r
true one.
x ,
1*
'
393
PROBABILITY.
;md the number in which the event was due to the r th cause
'P,.I\N
',
th
is
cause
is
pJPjr+NUpP);
tli at
cause
is,
r"'
PrK
is
Mvn
*471.
necessary to distinguish clearly between the probability of the existence of the several causes estimated before
the event, and the probability after the event has happened of any
The former are usually called
assigned cause being the true one.
P
a priori probabilities and are represented by
...
n \
probabilities,
and
if we denote
the latter are called a posteriori
them by Q t1 Q, Q 3 ... Q Hf we have proved that
It
is
Qr
2 ( P P)
'
From
which is otherwise evident as the event has happened from one and only one
this result it appears that
(Q)
lj
of the causes.
We
now
give another proof of the theorem of the preceding article which does not depend on the principle enunciated
in Art. 469.
shall
An
*472.
suppose that
the probability of the existence of these causes was estimated at
P P2 Pz , ... P n Let p r denote the probability that when the
?- th
cause exists the event will follow ; then the antecedent probability that the event would follow from the r th cause is p r P r
t
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
394
th
Let
is
A._JL =
"
'"
pA pA
<?
<?,=
if
s(<?)
Hp p
p. p ,
s(P P)'
Pr pr
2 (pP)
Hence
it
Example. There are 3 bags each containing 5 white balls and 2 black
and 2 bags each containing 1 white ball and 4 black balls a black ball
having been drawn, find the chance that it came from the first group.
balls,
Of the
If
five bags, 3
a bag
2
ball is 7
if
is
belong to the
selected
from the
first
first
"
Hence the chance
lh
p 1_
3o'
hence
lh
is
4
-
thus
p x = -/
p.2
4
o
~~25'
of the first
group
is
8\15
JL^/A
\35"h
35
25/
'
43*
When
event.
PROBABILITY.
395
Example.
what
is
This question
may
separately.
If we consider that all numbers of shillings are a priori equally likely,
shall have three hypotheses; for (i) all the coins may be shillings, (ii)
three of them may be shillings, (iii) only two of them may be shillings.
I.
we
P^P.^P.^;
Here
^=
also
Hence probability of
iirst
1,
J>a
=g, P=q-
hypothesis
= 1-5- (1 + o
+ r)
^ (*+2
-f-
+~ +
f )
.-
tTv^ Qi>
To
~ ^'
J'
=T7\=Qy
II.
If
each coin
is
3_
~4
*10
/l
-
lb
- 18*
we
see that
4
,
of
two shillings
10
also, as before,
iJ i
= l>
'
12
'
chance of four
-
~1G'
Qi +
is
-.
10
Pi a*
Qi_Q-2_Q*_
the
P_l
il_ 16'
Hence
IV
.
,
'To~40
1
r-^
5^
1_
shillings is
thus
_A.
P
^-16'
Psr'
Q2+Q*
24
1
24'
= (<2ix0)+(q,x^ +
~
16
((?
:j
x|)
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
396
We
We
shall
nesses whose credibility is assumed to be known.
be
truth,
the
suppose that each witness states what he believes to
observation,
deduction,
or
whether his statement is the result of
or experiment; so that any mistake or falsehood must be
attributed to errors of judgment and not to wilful deceit.
The
class
the verdict of
of
common
*475. When
speaks the truth
sense.
it is
is
independent witnesses, A and B, whose probabilities of speaking the truth are p and p' respectively, agree in
making a certain statement what is the probability that the
statement is true %
*476.
Two
Here the observed event is the fact that A and B make the
same statement. Before the event there are four hypotheses for
A and B may both speak truly or A may speak truly, B falsely;
or A may speak falsely, B truly or A and B may both speak
The probabilities of these four hypotheses are
falsely.
;
PP\
Hence
p( l ~P\
P'Q-P)*
-P)( 1 ~P')
which
respectively.
A and B make
the
is,
is
true
is
pp'
pp' + (l-p)(l-p')'
Similarly if a third person, whose probability of speaking the
truth is p", makes the same statement, the probability that the
statement is true is
.///
ppp
ppY + {1-p){i-p')(i-p")
and so on
for
any number
of persons.
PROBABILITY.
397
hypotheses.
9, 3, or nothing, for A, B,
the a priori probabilities
P-i
P-A
*i- 12
^ ~12'
*a-l2' P-.
3
also
12
24
X
X
Pi~2
5-30>
1133
~
**~~2 X 3 X 5
"
hence D's expectation
30
20
=4 of 9 + 3 of 3
'
A_ 2 * 3
2_ 2
5~3()
27'
=1.
13s. id.
*478.
With respect to the results proved in Art. 47G, it
should be noticed that it was assumed that the statement can be
made in two ways only, so that if all the witnesses tell falsehoods
they agree in telling the same falsehood.
is
As
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
398
Example. A speaks truth 3 times out of 4, and B 7 times out of 10; they
both assert that a white ball has been drawn from a bag containing 6 balls
all of different
colours
(i)
(ii) it
is
false.
PP
2 ~6'
5
Px =16'
~
Here
^ 1- 4 X
P2 ~25 X
10'
10
will
P po,
and
for in estimating p.2 we must take into account the chance that A and
both select the white ball when it has not been drawn ; this chance is
11
X
5
Now
25
P^
to
35
is
(1) if
it
(l-p)(l-p)
is
p(l- 2))+p'(l-p).
*480.
The solution of the preceding article is that which has
usually been given in text-books; but it is" open to serious objections, for the assertion that the given event happened if both A
and B spoke falsely is not correct except on the supposition that
Moreover,
the statement can be made only in two ways.
although it is expressly stated that A receives his account from
B, this cannot generally be taken for granted as it rests on
A'& testimony.
:;
PROBABILITY.
399
^EXAMPLES. XXXII.
d.
is left in
the bag.
A man
9.
thrown
10.
A die
is
15
is
;:
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
400
ment
is true.
and 1
There
is
respectively.
raffle
purse contains four coins two coins having been drawn are
found to be sovereigns find the chance (1) that all the coins are
sovereigns, (2) that if the coins are replaced another drawing will give
a sovereign.
14.
won by
expectation.
From
of the next
ball is - (n
1)
(2n + l)~ l
mn
If
purse; and
Ten
although the a
event
is
as small as ^9
1 :
PRoUAl'.ILITY.
The application
Geometrical Methods.
Local Probability.
*481.
41
Geometry
to
Elementary Geometry.
Example 1. From each of two equal lines of length I a portion is cut
random, and removed
what is the chance that the sum of the
off at
remainders
is less
than
I?
Place the lines parallel to one another, and suppose that after cutting,
the right-hand portions are removed.
Then the question is equivalent to
asking what is the chance that the sum of the right-hand portions is greater
than the sum of the left-hand portions. It is clear that the first sum is
equally likely to be greater or less than the second; thus the required
probability
is
Cor.
Each
of two lines
is
is
known
is
I:
the
Example 2. If three lines are chosen at random, prove that they are
just as likely as not to denote the sides of a possible triangle.
Of three
result follows.
P
O
Draw
draw
three random lines P, (), 11, in the same plane as the circle,
to the circle the six tangents parallel to these lines.
H. H.A.
2G
and
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
402
Then
be con-
*4:82.
On
Example.
random:
coincide.
y>a + x,
hence
Again for
all
or
x>b + y
we must have
x>0, and
2/>0, and
<& + c)
<a + c)
make OX
Draw
the line y
= a + x,
(1).
represented by
TML
equal to
in the figure;
+ c, and
OY
and the
line
x = b + y represented by KB.
P'
Then YM,
031,
-0.Q
OT are
The
each equal to
a.
MYL
c2
{a + c)(b
*483.
We
+ c)
Examples.
Example 1.
thrown
balls are
box
at
random
is
divided into
equal compartments into which n
find the probability that there will be p com;
Z>a+qb + rc +
=n.
b balls,
PROBABILITY.
403
Since each of the n halls can fall into any one of the m compartments
n and these are
the total number of cases which can occur is
all equally
,
likely.
To determine the number of favourable cases we must find the
number of ways in which the n balls can be divided into p, <1, r, ... parcels
containing a, b, c, ... balls respectively.
First choose
the
number
of
any
of the compartments,
ways in which
where
done
this can be
is
stands for
\m
p + q + r + ...
\m-s
(1).
-.
-v
\s
\\1
'
r, ...
(2).
..
Lastly, distribute the n balls into the compartments, putting a into each
of the group of p, then b into each of the group of q, c into each of the
group of r, and so on. The number of ways in which this can be done is
In
(\a)*(\b)(\c_)
(3).
\m
m"
(\a)>>
(\b)i ([)-
m-p-q-r-
|p|j|r.
\
made in succession,
find the chance that the
the balls are replaced after
k drawings are
to be white
for the
= -Pj P-2 = P 3 =
Hence
= Pn
Qr = l+2*+ 3*+.
..+n*
Now
=
n
=2 - Qr
p + 2* + 3* + ...+n*
Art. 405.
262
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
404
=- <*-=
-4-
3 (n + 1)
~2(2n+l)'
n
If
is
V^
'
+2
fe
is
'
fc
+ 1.'
+1
r- 2
n n 1 n- 2
'
"
r
"
(r-k + l)(r-k + 2)
p,
Q r =i
it
is in-
not replaced,
and
when n
&+2*
(ii)
*+!
finite, of
is
'
A;
k+1
(r-l)r
r=K
y (>--+l)(r-ifc + 2)
(r-l)r
r=0
(u-ifc
The chance
+ l)(n-Jfe + 2)
(n-l)n (n+1)
2
r =0
(;i
A) (u
/c
+ 1)
fc
(n + 1) r=0
+1
(n-k)(n-k + l)
(/i-A-)(n-/v
n(n +
l)
Qr
Ii
(r-l)r
s"(r-fc)(r-fc+l)
?i
+ l)
2~
k~+
n(i
+ l)
Jfc+1
~k + 2'
which
is
first.
Example 3.
person writes n letters and addresses n envelopes ; if the
letters are placed in the envelopes at random, what is the probability that
every letter goes wrong ?
Let un denote the number of ways in which all the letters go wrong, and
represent that arrangement in which all the letters are in their
let abed
own envelopes. Now if a in any other arrangement occupies the place of an
assigned letter b, this letter must either occupy a's place or some other.
.
. .
PROBABILITY.
405
(ii)
Suppose a occupies i>'s place, and b does not occupy a's. Then in
arrangements satisfying the required conditions, since a is fixed in &'s place,
the letters b, c, d, ... must be all displaced, which can be done in h__j ways;
therefore the number of ways in which a occupies the place of another letter
but not by interchange with that letter is (n - 1) u n - l ;
.-.
v n = (n-l)
= 0,
tig
=1
(M n _!
4-44,
we
+ _);
find u n - nu n _ 1
l) n (ttj
Uj).
(- 1 )'
Now
11 +
[2
|4
'
(- 1)"
in
'
and in
lias maintained a permanent place
some of its many
It was first discussed
in works on the Theory of Probability.
by Montmort, and it was generalised by De Moivre, Euler, and
problem
Tlie
involved
modifications
liere
is
of considerable interest,
Laplace.
The
practical applications of
^EXAMPLES. XXXII.
L
What
e.
lea.st 7 in
a single
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
406
is
what
In a lottery
all
One bag contains 5 white and 3 red balls, and a second bag
5.
contains 4 white and 5 red balls. From one of them, chosen at random,
two balls are drawn find the chance that they are of different colours.
:
is
A person throws
two
dice,
10.
certain stake is to be
Two
if
who throws
what
is
the
players A,
wants 2 games
won by
win
if
Seven persons draw lots for the occupancy of the six seats in
14.
a first class railway compartment find the chance (1) that two specified
persons obtain opposite seats, (2) that they obtain adjacent seats on
:
the
same
15.
chance of
16.
side.
number
its
consists of 7 digits
being divisible by 11
whose sum
.4
is
is
59
dice.
PROBABILITY.
17.
bag contains
407
7 tickets
0, 1, 2, ...G
There are 10 tickets, 5 of w hich are blanks, and the others are
marked with the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 what is the probability of
drawing 10 in three trials, (1) when the tickets are replaced at every
T
18.
trial, (2) if
If
19.
integers taken at
random
the chance of
and of
its
being
its beinc:
2, 4, 6,
or 8 is
is 1, 3, V,
or 9
Kn
;
9>i
is
.pi
of its being 5 is
10 H -8'l -5 n + 4 n
10*
is
sum of money
persons A, B, C who first throws
to throw in the order named until
21.
certain
Two
22.
2
-
and -
/8\ 2
56
(ja)'
W>
/7\ 2
[&)'
23.
and
bag contains
what
is
drawn out
is
marked
1,
two are marked 4, three are marked 9, and so on a person puts in his
hand and draws out a counter at random, and is to receive as many
;
shillings as the
it
pectation.
24.
among
is
....
th
n
of the rod
is
an
;;
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
408
random
line is divided at
what
is
the chance
31.
find the
32.
On
A straight
random
points taken at
line of length
;
If
c r
where
ab
c is less
lies entirely
than a or b
is
(Jj
If
is
T
(c
+ a)(c+6)'
where d
is less
than either a or
b.
v=l.
company
of the
oi),
and
more
are
CHAPTER
XXXIII.
Determinants.
485.
The
48G.
a x+
is
b
l
y=
0,
a 2 x + b 2 y = 0;
multiplying the first equation by bsi the second
tracting and dividing by x, we obtain
This result
is
by 6
sub-
sometimes written
a
-0,
b
x
The
determinant, and
letters
tile
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
410
Since
487.
a.
A - A =
a.
a.
follows that the value of the determinant is not altered by changing the rows into columns, and the columns into rows.
it
488.
Again,
it is
411
DETERMINANTS.
hence
*i
a
that
is,
the value
of
^3
the
From
a.,
6.
.,
ft..
*,
<\
C3
determinant
is
=,
c2
C3
(I.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
412
492.
The determinant
= , (K C3 ~ K C 2) +
="
b l(a2CB
C )
bl
<**
h2
C2
b3
C3
~ Cl
- C /h) + C ( " 3 6 2 )
C
C
C b
(K a 3 ~ 6A)
( 2 3 - J>>) -
h l ( C 23
>
hence
,
a2
b2
ax
bx
a
(i
c.
Thus
it
we denote
a
(l
h
K
by
cx
the determinant
we have
just obtained
may be
written
(VsO = - (Ac
s)-
Similarly
we may shew
(
that
iA) = - ( a
Ab
3)
= + (A C 3 )-
493.
If two rows or two columns
identical the determinant vanishes.
of
tlie
determinant are
For let D be the value of the determinant, then by interchanging two rows or two columns we obtain a determinant
whose value is D; but the determinant is unaltered; hence
J) = D, that is D = 0.
Thus we have the following equations,
a A,
1
aA
2
+ aJL
m = D.
3
3
494.
If each constituent in any row, or in any column, is
multiplied by the same factor, then the determinant is multiplied
by that factor.
DETERMINANTS.
For
tna
ma
ma
by
413
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
414
may
be generalised; thus if the constituents of the three columns consist of m, n, p terms respectively, the determinant can be expressed as the sum of mnp
These results
easily
determinants.
Example
1.
Shew
that
+a
a- b
b-c
+b
+c
Babe -a 3 - b 3 c 3
415
DETERMINANTS.
and the last two of these determinants vanish [Art. 494 Cor.].
Tims we see that the given determinant is equal to a new one whose
constituents of
first column is obtained by subtracting from the
the first column of the original determinant equimultiples of the
corresponding constituents of the other columns, while the second
a + j)b + qc
x
a + PK +
C2
.,
b
}
<7 C 2
^2
c
c.
and what has been here proved with reference to the first column
hence it appears
is equally true for any of the columns or rows
that in reducing a determinant we may replace any one of the
rows or columns by a new row or column formed in the following
;
way
of the row or column to be replaced,
and increase or diminish them by any equimidtij)les of the corresponding constituents of one or more of the other rows or
columns.
Take
the constituents
that
a +2
i
% + Ph
- qc
c,
K ~ C1 C
a3 +2 jb 3
K-Q c
b2
a..
Ct
c.,
on the left-hand side of the last identity the constituents of the third column were replaced by c l +rali c 2 + ra^
respectively, we should have the former value inc, + ra
creased by
Thus,
if
a + 2>b
x
qc
ra
x
ra
a + i'K
K - vc
ra..
i
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
416
and
there
is
ra,
pbs
Example
1,
26-4l = -3x4x
-6
31
54
-4
-8
29
26
22
25
31
27
63
54
46
ra
9
qc 2
DETERMINANTS.
417
[Explanation.
In the first new determinant the first row is the sum of
the constituents of the three rows of the original determinant, the second
and third rows being unaltered. In the third of the new determinants the
first column remains unaltered, while the second and third columns are
obtained by subtracting the constituents of the first column from those of
the second and third respectively. The remaining transformations are sufficiently obvious.]
Before shewing how to express the product of two determinants as a determinant, we shall investigate the value of
497.
A + ^7,
A + h A + c i?2
Vi + KPt + c*y, %% + h A + c*y
a a + h A + Wi %% + b A + ^ y
ii
&
a a3 + b
i
A+
A+
r
i7-s
2 <* 3 +
3 a 3
&A + c y
From
a
3
ya
3
*1<S
2 ft 3
a3a 2
3 a 3
a a
x
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
418
X = a^ + a x \
^=A*i+/W
we have
Substituting for X, and X in
where
(at a
+
x
b2 P
+ (a^+bfij x 2 = 0\
x + (a 2 a, + bfi 2 ) x2 = Oj
x,
a^
But equations
(3).
may simultaneously
zero, we must have
=
+ bfr a a + bfi
.(2).
(1),
(a^ + 6^)
(3) will
(3)
hold
hold for
(4).
if
aa
or
if
which
b2
and
= 0;
ft
a.
ft
=o
.(6).
Hence if equations (5) and (6) hold, equation (4) must also
hold
and therefore the determinant in (4) must contain as
;
factor of (4)
al
must be numerical
hence
i
a
i
&
i a,
DETERMINANTS.
419
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
420
12.
P
13.
r
b
14.
15.
16.
a"
b2
18.
19.
x2
yz
zx
-la
b+a
+a
(b
b).
- c)
(c
- a)
(a
- b)
(a
+ b + c).
6
*2
xy
a+b
a+c
-26
c+b
^2
+c
-2c
(b+cY
62
20.
c3
(a
a?
17.
= (b-c)(c- a)
2dbc{a+b+cf.
a{c
+ af
62
(a+bf
Express as a determinant
f
c
DETERMINANTS.
22.
Fi
421
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
422
usefully em-
+ c z + d = 0,
a 2X + b 2 y + c 2 z + d2 = 0,
aja + bg + cji + d^O;
ax+
h xy
D=
a,
*,
The
coefficients of
in Art. 493,
and we obtain
(Mi
Similarly
^3
M* + M
we may shew
3)
(6,5,
-6
A+
*+
(M
Mb) =
0,
that
A)
2/
and
fcff,
Now
- e,C, + c 3 C3
(dfi,
- dfia + d3 C,) = 0.
x
<*,
may be
written
z
423
DETERMINANTS.
a x + b y + c,s + d u
a2x + b 2 y + c 2 z + d2u =
a 3 x + b 3 y + c 3 z + d3u =
=
ax
+ b Wy + c 4 z + du
4
4
x
From the
x
we have
0,
0,
0,
0.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
424
the
a determinant which
called a determinant of
is
order.
The
any
order.
of
the
n th
order
is
equal to
a
or
ct
l
A -b B + c C -d D 1+
A -a A + a A -a4A +
1
...
+ (-l)"- k
...
+ (-1)"- a n A n
l,
of the
determinant
DETERMINANTS.
425
it
%^aJ>aeBdA
the
is
b 2 c 3 dA
...
interchanges of
by suitable
it
Example.
the element
In the determinant
(a^c^e^ what
sign is to be prefixed to
a^c^e.,1
From
504.
k is
in other words
,
...
If each of
the constituents
of
and
first
426
Example.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
Find the value
of
DETERMINANTS.
EXAMPLES.
XXXIII.
3.
a
1
1
427
b.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
428
Solve the equations
12.
x+ y+ 0=1,
ax + by + cz=k,
a 2x + b y + c z = l
2
13.
ax + by + cz=k,
a2x + 2y + c2z = 2
a?x + b 3y + c?z= P.
2
.
x + y+ z+ u=l,
ax + by + cz+ du=k,
a2x + b 2y + c2z + d2 u = k 2
3
s
3
cfix + b y + c z + d u = P.
14.
15.
Prove that
b+cad
c+abd
a+b-c-d
+ d)-ad(b-t-c)
ca(b-\-d) bd(e + a)
ab (c + d) -cd{a + b)
ad
ca bd
ab cd
be (a
be
Prove that
a2
a 2 -(b c) 2
be
b2
b2
-(c-a) 2
ca
c2
- (a -
ab
b) 2
= (b-c)(c-a){a-b)(a + b + c)(a 2 + b 2 + c2
17.
where
Shew
that
ABC
CAB
B C A
cc
f a
A=a 2 -d + 2ce
2
B=e -b
2
).
-2bf,
+2ac-2df,
C=e -f + 2ae-2bd.
2
CHAPTER XXXIV.
MISCELLANEOUS THEOREMS AND EXAMPLES.
We
new
but
we
proceed
names and
abstract
Arithmetic ; we prove certain laws of operation which are capable
of verification in every particular case, and the general theory of
these operations constitutes the science of Algebra.
ideas,
Hence
of
cally intelligible.
arithmetical definitions.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
430
I.
(i)
Thus
(ii)
Thus
Multiplications
and
divisions
may
axb=bxa;
axbxc = bxcxa = axcxb'
ab-- c
II.
x b
-=-
(a
-f-
x b
c)
made in any
and so
and
divisions
may
order.
on.
= (b + c)
xa.
Multiplications
and
=a
be
as follows :
subtractions.
Thus
{a
(a
-b+
b)(c
c)
m = am bm + cm,
d) =
ac
ad
bc
bd.
And
since division is the reverse of multiplication, the distributive law for division requires no separate discussion.
III.
(i)
a +a =a
(n)
[a
=a
m -".
;
;
(a
proved that
it is
431
bd,
The laws
Chapter xxx.
Elementary Algebra. When m and n are positive integers
and m > n, we prove directly from the definition of an index that
511.
of the
xa n = am+n
am
-r a'
= am
~n
j
(a
n
)
= am ".
We
The interpretations
for a\ a
In Chapter
we
= 1
vill.
2
or
J 1
as
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
432
x+iy
is of course included in the more general
The expression e
x+i
form a \ but another mode of treating it is worthy of attention.
We
(x\
nj
1 H
when n
is infinite,
*+iy
= Lini
Handbuch
when n
similarly
is infinite,
real quantities.
The development
found fully
(1
\
may be
x+i!/
of the theory of
We
513.
shall now give some theorems and examples illustrating methods which will often be found useful in proving
identities, and in the Theory of Equations.
514.
of x
is
f(x)
Since
value
R
we
= Q(x-a) + R.
f(a)
now Q
is finite
= QxO + R;
Cor.
f(a) =
a,
433
it
== 0, that is
If f{x) is exactly divisible by x - a, then
hence if a rational integral function of x vanishes when
is divisible
by x -
a.
515.
we
useful that
is
let it
by
c"-
q{f
let
+ qi xn
-2
dimensions
+q x
n -3
...
pjf +p x1
+2> 2 x'-
+p.ax"~ +
= (x-a)
X^
(q
denote
+q
H_
it
be
then
+P
+ qi x"~ 2 + q 2x"~ 3 +
...
+ qa _
- a Qi=P 2
q3 2 = ihi
or
& = <i
R - oqn - =Pn
or
R = aq
9. 2
or qs
>
= a4i+Pa
2
+ ih
_l
Ct(
?0
%
Thus
P3
P2
Pi
lx
Cl(
l2
In-2
+p n
by
the
the
be
Pa
(l(
?.-,
v,
x,
Pa-X
Cl(
'>
so
it
2n-l
~2
+P,r
H. H. A.
28
in
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
434
is
is
00
21
14 -28 -6
12
-24
5
6
-6
12
- 3
11
31
14
3.r 6
is
- a; 6 +
31a: 4
+ 21a; + 5
and we have
2,
3-10
-6
-7
3a;7
7a;
the
re-
is 11.
Example.
Divide
1
3a; 5
8a; 4
5a; 3
+ 26a;2 - 33a; + 26 by
a;
-2-
2a;
- 4a; + 8.
435
this gives 3,
the remainder. ]
Example.
bz
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
436
A=
z = 0, then
3
pansion of (x + y)
Put
3,
2
being the coefficient of x y in the ex-
Put x = y = z =
l,
and we get 27 = 3 +
(3 x 6)
+B
whence
B = 6.
Thus (x + y +
z)
= x3 + y 3 + z 3 + 3x 2y + 3xy 2 + 3y 2z + 3yz 2 +
3z x
2
+ 3zx + 6xyz.
2
a 2 (b-c) + b (c-a) +
c (a
b)
alternating function.
Symmetrical and alternating functions may be concisely denoted by writing down one of the terms and prefixing
the symbol % ; thus %a stands for the sum of all the terms of which
a is the type, %ab stands for the sum of all the terms of which
ab is the type; and so on.
For instance, if the function involves
521.
four letters a,
b, c,
^a-a + b + c + d;
%ab = ab + ac + ad +bc + bd+ cd;
and so
on.
Similarly
if
$a
(b
-c) = a (b-c)
%a 2 bc = a 2 bc +
and
%a
b ca
b (c
- a) +
(a
a, b,
- b)
c,
ab;
so on.
2<a b
= a 2 b + a c + b 2c + b2 a +
2
a+
c b.
437
(a+b +
(a
(a
c)
= %a 3 + 32a 2 b +
+ df = 2 3 + 3$a 2 b + Gtabc;
c)
%a x 2 2 = 2a 3 + %a 2 b
Example
Gabc
Prove that
1.
(a + b) 5
- a5
b*
= 5ab (a + b) (a 2 + ab + b 2
).
vanishes
+ b) 5 - a 5 -
(a
where
A and B
b5
= ab (a + 6)
and
are independent of a
(Aa*
+ Bab + A b~),
b.
= 1, we have 15 = 2A + B
a = 2, b = - 1, we have 15 = 5A - 2B
putting
whence A = o, J5 = 5; and thus the required result
Putting a =
1, b
Example
Find the
2.
(&3
+ c 3)
at once follows.
factors of
(b-c)
+ (c 3 + a 3 (c-a) + (a 3 + b 3
(a
- b).
then
is a function of a which vanishes
therefore contains a - b as a factor [Art. 514].
Similarly it
contains the factors b-c and c-a; thus
contains (b c) (c a) (a - b) as a
;
when a = b, and
factor.
first
.-.
E = M (b-c)
3.
Shew
that
+ y + zjt-x5 -y b - z? = 5
(y
+ z)
(z
+ x)
(x
+ y)
(x2
+ y 2 + z~ + yz + zx+ xy).
therefore
contains
(y
+ z)
(z
+ x)
[x
+ (/)asa
factor.
Also since
y=-z,
factors;
is
of the
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
438
A
Put=2/=z=l;
x=2, y=l,
put
(x
thus
2
+ y2 + z 2 + B
)
+ zx + xy)
10=^1+5;
= 5A + IB
A=B = 5,
= 0;
thus 35
whence
(yz
it is
result.
We
^bc (b
c) = (b-c)(c- a)
(a
b).
a +
may be
-3abc = l(a +
c)
2c
2b c
+ 2abc =
+ c)(c + a)(a +
b).
b).
Hbc
(a
c) (be
(b
c)
(b
V + 2a
2 2
c)(c
c)(b
+ c-a)(c + a-b)(a+b-c).
EXAMPLES. XXXIV.
Find the remainder when
by x + 5.
2.
a.
3^ + 1 1^ + 90#2 - 19# + 53
may
b).
-tf-fr-c*
= (a +
1.
+ a) (a +
be divisible by x - 3.
is
divided
_ 5#4 + 9 iV3 _ q xi _ iq v + 13
tf _ 2xA
5.
Expand
x2 - 3v + 2.
divided by
j >s
may
4.
439
be a factor of
- 4^ + 19.V2 - Six + 12 + a.
^.^^.g ^
7.
8.
(a
9.
a (6 - cf + &
6 2 ).
- c4 ) + b
10.
11.
(6c
12.
(a + 6 + c) 4
13.
(a + 6
14.
(tf
(6
(c
- af + c(a- 6) 2 + 8a6c.
(c 4
- a4 + c(a i - 6 4
)
+ ca + a6) 3 - J 3
3
**
- c%3 - a 3 6 3
).
- a) 3 (6 - cf + (x - b) s (c - af + (x - c) 3 (a - 6) 3
15.
i0,
c{a-bf _
a(b-cf
He-*)*
fl|M
(c-a)(a-6r (a-6)(6-cr (6-c)(c-a)
17'"
J^6
18.
iy
a+
_?L
6
+c
2c
(6-c)(c-a)(a-6)_
+a
(6
+ c)(c + a)(a+6)
(a-6)(a-c)^(6-c)(6-a)^(c-a)(c-6)
20.
21.
ty+z)*(e+x)*(x+y)*=tx*(y+zY+2(^z)3 -2^
22.
23.
6c (2a) 3
24.
5(6- c) 3 (6 + c - 2a) =
2z*'
hence deduce
- y) ( + 7 - 2a ) 3 = -
"
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
440
25.
(b
If
if
27.
3s
we
= 2(a + 6 + c).
w
,w
i
(a-b)(a-c)(x-a)
,
a 2 b 2 c2
29.
30.
31.
33.
'jp
,y
_ w _ +
+ /1
(b-c)(b-a)(x-b)
cz a 2
;+77
7
+
ft7
wt
(b -c)(b a)
(a -b)(a- c)
c2
b2
a +P)( a + <l)
Z>
-a) (c-b)
(b+p)(b + q)
(b-c)(b-a) (b + x)
(a-b)(a-c)(a+x)
__
(c
a2 -
s (a-
32.
'
+p)(c + (J )
(c-a) (c-b)(c + x)
b) (a
c) (a-
'
'
d)
A /. _ #\ + / _ A /> _ y\
+ fp__
p) \zs pj\xs p) \xs pj\ys p)
_y\(p__z\
p)\zs
4
'
Miscellaneous Identities.
524.
Many identities can be readily established by making
use of the properties of the cube roots of unity; as usual these
will be denoted
Example.
by
The
it
2
.
Shew that
(x
hence
1, w, o>
expression, E, on
must contain xy
(x
the
left
+ y)
(x
(x 2
+ y)
vanishes
+ xy + y 2
2
)
when x = 0, y = 0, x + y = 0;
as a factor.
E = {(1 +
ta)7
- W7 -
1}
y7=
{(_
w 2)7 _ w 7 _
!} y
= (_ w 2 - w -l)y7 = 0;
hence
(x-
ury)
(x
2
to ?/),
or x^
+ xy + y 2
it
con-
MISCELLANEOUS IDENTITIES.
441
E being of
Further,
+ y)
(x
Putting
- x - y7 = xy {x + y) (x
2,
y=-
1,
.-.
aa +
we have
a*
hence a + b 3 +
thus
a3 +
Example.
3,
c) (a
-be- ca
ab)
3abc can be
+ c 3 - 3abc =
Shew
(a
+ ub +
+c) (a + mb +
(x
a;
arc) (a
<a
<D
wc)
wc).
+ y 3 + z3 - Sxyz
A 3 + B 3 + C3 - SABC.
+ y + z)
(a
+ u>b + w2 c)
ore) (a
= [a + b + c)
(a
(a
a3 + b 3 + c 3 - dabc and
By
be ca ab =
The product
2
)
- 3abc = (a+
seen in Ex.
have 21 = 2^+5;
We know from
525.
A = 7, B = 7
2
2
(x + y) 7 - x 7 - y7 = Ixy (x + y)(x + xy + y
whence
also
= l, y = l, we
a;
putting
(x
+ cry + uz)
and
(a
+ b + c)
(x
+ urb + uc)
+ y + z);
(x
+ wy + urz),
partial products
A + B + C, A + wB + u-C,
A+u B + u)C,
2
where
+ wB + u 2 C)
= A 3 + B 3 +C3 -SABC.
C) [A
(A
+ orB + C)
526.
a,
b,
a+
ah+
k,
ioh
2
(x>
k,
ufh
u>k.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
442
+ b + c = 0, shew that
3
3
3
5
6 (a 5 + b 5 + c ) = 5 (a + 6 + c )
If a
Example.
We have
(a 2
+ 6 2 + c 2 ).
identically
+ bx)
(1
p a + b + c,
+ ax)
(1
where
(1
r abc.
= bc + ca + ab,
(a n
'
of
of
putting
xn in
= 2,
rc
3,
we have
T- = -
'
= 7 -a,
= a-/3,
<?r;
/3,
is
satisfied;
hence
{{-
is,
(/3-7)
compare Ex.
3)(a 2 +
Shew
2.
(a + <ob + a)
c) 3
b.
is
a positive
+ (a +
a>
1l
),
if
3.
Shew that
4.
(bz
-/37-7a-a^;
that
2
Shew that
3.
If (a
integer (a b
1.
^+7
3, Art. 522.
EXAMPLES. XXXIV.
a3
we have
'
is
a 5 + b 5 +c 5
xn
5
6{(iS-7) 5 + (7-) +("-/3)
that
of
coefficients
+ rx 3 ) 2 + ^ (qx2 + rx3) 3 -
3 =r
a=fi-y,
{qx2
a3 + b 3 + c 3
we obtain
j =*
whence
= l + qx 2 + rx3
+ rx3 - ^
[qx2
a2 + b2 + c 2
If
bx)(l + cx)
+ b n + c n = coefficient
= coefficient
By
(1 -t
logarithms
Taking
(~
+ ax)
cy) 3
+ b 3 (ex - azf + c3 (ay - bx) = Sabc (bz - cy) (ex - az) (ay - bx).
3
MISCELLANEOUS IDENTITIES.
5.
(6
may
a>c) (c
- a>a)
(a
- cob) + (6 - eo 2 c)
ca - ab)
(c
- arc<)
(a
2
a> 6).
2
2
y + z yz - zx - xy)
the form A 2 + B 2 + C 2 -BC-CA- AB.
Shew that
be put into
7.
443
(a2
+ b 2 + c2 -
be
(x2
-f
Shew that
A + AB + B and
2
Shew that
8.
9.
11.
2(a 4 + 6 4 + c 4 ) = (a2 + 6 2 + c2 ) 2
12.
a5 + 6 5 + c5 =
13.
a6 + 6 6 + c6 = 3a
14.
,_
a7 + b 7 + c7
15.
/6-c
16.
17.
18.
2
(6 c
- 2 (6c + ca + a6) 3
5
5
5
= a + 6! + c
c--a
a-b\
a0
+ 62 + c2
-R
( a
J\b c
ca
+-c
a
-J
=9-
= 21
19.
{(y
- zf + (z - xf + (x- yf] 2
(x-yf
20.
(6
- cf + (e - a) 6 + (a - 6) 6 - 3
(6
(6-c)
+ (c-a) + (a-6)
= 7(6-c)(c-a)(a-6)(a2 + 6 2 + c2 -6c-ca-a6) 2
7
If
a + 6 + c = 0, and
x+y + z = 0,
4 (ax + by + czf -3(ax + by + cz) (a2 + 2 +
22.
- c) 2 (c - a) 2 (a - bf
shew that
2
)
(x2 +y 2 + z 2 )
+
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
444
If
a+
+ c + d=0, shew
g? + b 3 + (? + d3
-
24.
25.
23.
(a3
If 2s
3
Z>
that
+ c3 + d3 2 = 9 (M
a2 + b 2 + c2 + d2
2
= a2 + 6 2 + c2 prove that
2
2
2
(4s2 +
5 (s - b) (s - c) (a - a + 5a6cs = {s -
=a+b+c
and
2o-
cr )
26.
Shew that
(a?
cd).
2
a- ).
3
)
27.
Shew
a
that
2 (a b)(a c) (a - d)
= a + b + c + d2 + ab + ac + ad+bc + bd+cd.
2
28.
Elimination.
cally useful.
ELIMINATION.
445
the eliminant expresses the condition that must hold between the
coefficients in order that the equations may have a common root.
4>
(a)
<f>
tf)
<f>
=0.
(y)
We
left is a
now
shall
The
example
is
due to
Euler.
Eliminate x between the equations
Example.
ax* + bx 2
+ cx + d = 0, fx 2 + gx + h = 0.
common
to both equa-
tions,
ax 3 + bx 2 + ex + d =
fx 2 + gx + h =
and
k,
I,
m, n being
From
unknown
these equations,
(axs + bx 2
Equating
(x
(x
+ k)
+ k)
(ax 2
+ lx + m),
(fx + n)
quantities.
we have
identically
+ cx + d)(fx + n) = (ax 2 + Ix + m)
coefficients of like
powers of
x,
(fx
+ gx + h).
we obtain
-an + ag-bf=0,
gl +fm -bn + ah- cf= 0,
fl
Jd
+ gm- en
- df= 0,
hm-dn
=0.
From
n,
we
/
g
ag-bf = 0.
ah-cf
-df
unknown
quantities
I,
in,
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
446
can
of the equations f(x) = 0, <f> (x) =
be very easily expressed as a determinant by Sylvester's Dialytic
shall take the same example as
Method of Elimination.
The eliminant
530.
We
before.
Example.
ax* + bx 2 +cx +
d=0,
=0,
fx 2 + gx + h = 0,
= 0,
fxs + gx 2 + hx
fx 4 + gx 3 +
is
The
=0.
ltx 2
= 0.
method
due to Bezout;
it has the advantage of expressing the result as a determinant of
lower order than either of the determinants obtained by the preceding methods.
We shall choose the same example as before,
and give Cauchy's mode of conducting the elimination.
531.
Example.
ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d=0, fx 2 + gx + h = 0.
From
we have
these equations,
_ bx 2 + ex + d
gx2 +hx
f
ax + b
cx
fx +g~
whence
and
(ag
bf)
'
+d
Jix
'
is
ELIMINATION.
and regarding
x'z
and x as
532.
If
bh - eg
cf
=o.
g
ah -cf
ag - bf
ah
we obtain
distinct variables,
447
- df
- dg
-df
of
the form
<,
(x,
y)
0,
we have
If
0, (* y> z)
>
(^
y> z )
>
03
a;
>
y *)
>
we
If
>
y)
>
= -
we have
a result of
= 0.
By
V)
(>
A,
n variables between n +
follows that
it
we can
eliminate
equations.
533.
The general methods of elimination already explained
may occasionally be employed with advantage, but the eliminants
so obtained are rarely in a simple form, and it will often happen
that the equations themselves suggest some special mode of
elimination.
This will be illustrated in the following examples.
Example
Eliminate
1.
lx
By
squaring the
first
= cos0,
+ m2 =l.
+ m-x 2 + V + *V = a2 + & 2
(Z
the equations
is,
If
m between
+ my = a, vix-ly = b,
7-.c
that
Z,
2
)
is
m= sin $,
(.t
.t
+ y*) = a 2 +
2
2
?/
>
2
Z,
= a 2 + ZA
is
the eliminant of
x cos 6 + y sin 6 = a
is
x sin 6 - y cos
x 2 + y* = a + b*.
Z>
is,
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
448
Example
2.
Eliminate
z2
y*+z*=zayz,
v
We have
*
z
x, y, z
+ x 2 =bzx, x 2 + y* = cxy.
x y
=c
= h -+"
x
x
~
+ -=a, -x +
y
hence
Example
3.
w2
z2
z2
t/
z2
z2
a;
z2
2/
2
.
X'
+ (a 2 - 2) + (6 2 - 2) + (c 2 -2) = abc
2
2
2
.-. a + & +c -4 = a&c.
Eliminate
#,
?/
first
equation by
x,
y,
we obtain
x s + Sxy~=p {x 2 + y 2 )\
hence, by the third equation,
p = x 3 + Sxy 2
2
q = Bx y
Similarly
p + q={x+y)
Thus
.:
Example
4.
(p + q)*
Eliminate
We
have
a+o+c=
>
+ (p-
x, y, z
v
z
?--= a,
z
+ ys
p-q={x-y) 3
q)*
= {x + y)* + {x - yf
= 2(x2 + y 2 );
x
= b, --^y = c.
T
x(y 2 -z2)+y(z2
-x2 )+z(x 2 -y 2
xyz
_{ y-z){z-x) (x-y)
xyz
If
we change the
and
hence
Similarly,
and
a-b-c
(y-z){z + x)(x + y)
xyz
b-c-a = (y
+ z){z-x)(x + y)
c-a-b = (y
+ z)(z + x){x^y)
xyz
xyz
ELIMINATION.
.-.
441)
{ul
"
Z )2
= -a?b- c
2
2
.
26V + 2c 2 a 2 + 2a2 6 2 - a 4 - i 4 - c 4 + a 26 2 c 2 = 0.
EXAMPLES.
Eliminate
1.
z) \y
y) \x
\z
. .
^~fJ^ztl
XXXIV.
c.
2.
m\v my + a = 0,
3.
Eliminate p,
q, r
),
nx + my = 2amu,
Eliminate
(1
??i),
wy - x a (1 - m).
y, z
a:,
yz = a
2
,
p-q = k(l+pq),
xpq = a.
Eliminate
x,
10.
x(p + q)=y,
9.
a 2 + x2 - 3ax = 0.
Eliminate
y + mx=a
8.
ax2 - 2a 2 x + 1=0,
7.
a(qr+rp+pq) = 2a-x,
qr= 1.
apqr=y,
6.
m +n =
p + q + r Of
5.
mn + 1 = 0.
mx ny a (m 2 n 2
4.
n2x ny + a = 0,
Eliminate
x,
11.
Eliminate
z,
12.
Eliminate
x, y, z
x+y + z = 0, x 2 +y 2 + z2 = a 2
aP+ff+sP^fc, ^ +y 5 + 25 = c5
,5
n. h. a.
29
x)
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
450
Eliminate
13.
y
14.
z^x^y
Eliminate
2
(y+z)
=y
+ x) = g2 fo+ff) a
(z
c3
b3
a!l(
x,
Eliminate #, y,
2
x, y, z
xy =
2
.
= 4a 2yz,
Eliminate
y)
abc
Eliminate
(y -f- z)
17.
xj\x
zj\z
\y
'
#, y, z
a3
16.
#, y, z
'
ff
15.
(2;
+ #) 2 = 46^,
(a;
y)
= 4c2#y.
is
18.
Eliminate
19.
a?,
+ c) (c + a) (a + 6) + 5a&c=0
(b
the eliminant of
cm;2
20.
Eliminate
#,
& 3c3 + c% 3 + a 3
Shew that
=c.
P= 5a b c2
2
the eliminant of
ax+yz = bc,
22.
Eliminate
by + zx=cai
x, y, z
cz
+ xy = ab,
xyz=abc.
from
x2 +y 2 +z2 =x + y + z=l,
^(x-p)=-(y-q)=
23.
Employ
Bezout's
method
-{z-r).
to eliminate x,
from
= 0.
CHAPTER XXXV.
THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
Ix Chap. ix. we have established certain relations between the roots and the coefficients of quadratic equations. We
shall now investigate similar relations which hold in the case of
equations of the nth degree, and we shall then discuss some of the
more elementary properties in the general theory of equations.
534.
"~ 2
+ Pn-ix+ Pn ^ e a
n dimensions, and
ra tional
us denote
let
it
by
the general type of a rational integral equan degree. Dividing throughout by^> we see that
without any loss of generality we may take
f(x); then
tion of the
(a?)
is
th
+2
:>
n-i
'
coefficients
536.
Any value of x which
root of the equation f(x) = 0.
>,
any degree.
-2) n
^>
pn will
is
always
called a
537.
292
HIGHER ALGEBHA.
452
nth
the
Every equation of
538.
degree has
where
Denote the given equation by/(a;) = 0,
n ~'
+ P*'
+
x
+2>
?
+PJXT
=p
2
f(x)
Q
1
let this be
has a root, real or imaginary;
so that
is divisible by x-a
then/(a)
a,;
f(x) = (x-a
)<f> l
(x),
n-1 dimensions
a rational integral function of
= has a root real or
Igain, the equation
that
is divisible by x-a 2 so
this be denoted by a2 then <
where
(x) is
<t>
"0^^**
fa^^ix-aj^x),
where
<f> a
(x) is
/(a>)
Thus
,) (*
/() = PoO* ~
i)
dimensions.
O *b(*>
we
n-2
(* -
a " ^)
a-)*
any value
different
that the
may be equal; in this case, however, we shall suppose
all different.
equation has still n roots, although these are not
investigate the relations between the
To
539.
coefficients
roots
and
the
J
in any equation.
xn
+p
n-
+2> 2 x
n ~2
+Pn-lX + P =
>
j
and the
roots
x"+p x n
by
-l
a, b,
+2)
k; then
c,
xn ~'+
we have
identically
+Pn -ix+ P
= (x-a) (x-b)(x-c)
+p x
l
+pax
- wT - S x
x
n~l
(x-k)'}
we have
+Pn.^+Pm
+ Ssx*~* -
+ (-
THE011Y OF EQUATIONS.
Equating
coefficients of like
- %> S ~ sum
x
453
of the roots
pa = S = sum
taken two at a
time;
pB Sa -sum
taken three at a
time
poi
]? ui
+ ;- xn
1
aj"
+ P=1 X + P =
+ ]-^x"- 2 +
Po
Po
Pu
we have
& = -&,
Po
Example
Po
abc...k
(-
1)"^
V,
Po
1.
x + ay + a 2z = a 3 x + by + b 2z = b*, x + cy + c 2 z = c*.
1
From
we
these equations
see that a,
&,
which
hence
Example
= a + b + c,
or
that
is,
But
hence
(x
a) (x
(x
{x
Thus
(a;
b) (x
- a)
(x
(y
(x
b) (x
+ a)(x + b)
- a 2)
6 2 ) (x 2
- c)
(x
(y
b 2 ) (y
- c 2 ) = 0,
+ a)
(x
+ b)
- c 2 )=0,
if
(x
y = x2
+ c) = 0.
- c) = x 3 +p 1 x 2 +p 2 x +pt
+ c) = x3 - p
x 2 +p.& - p v
is
-p xx2 +p*x -p 3 = 0,
(x3 +p&) 2 - (p xx2 +p 3 2 = 0,
x6 + (2ft - j^ 2 x 4 + (p. 2 - 2p 1 p.i x 2 - p. 2 =
(x3
or
+p 1 x' +p 2 x +p 3
z
(x3
or
and
is
- a2 )
-
x = abc.
If a, b, c
2.
-yt-x = 0;
y= -(bc + ca + ab),
-zt 2
if
we replace x 2 by
y,
we obtain
f + (2p,-p
2
)
2
y + (p.? - 2p dh ) y
-p 2 =0.
:
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
454
stituted for x.
and
let a, b, c
a+
ab
= ]
+ ac + bc=
:>
x
>
ps)
abc= p 3
2
Multiply these equations by a - a, I respectively and add thus
.
rf
that
= -l\rf-l\u>-p 3i
+ p 2 a + p 3 = 0,
equation with a in the place
3
a +p
is,
which
is
the original
a?
The above
process of elimination
applicable to equations of any degree.
541.
If
two or more
is
of x.
quite general,
and
is
of the roots of
Example
1.
+ 18 = 0, having
given
sum
3a = 6,
from the
first
3a 2
-Z>2
= ^,
a( a2 -6 2 )=-|;
6=-,
and
a
equations are consistent.
THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
Example
2.
24a; 3
14.r 2
(ftx
455
+ 45 = 0, one
root being
double another.
then we have
a, 2a, b\
Sa + b = ^, 2a 2 + 3a&=--^,
From
the
first
.-.
It will
2a-6=-^.
be found on
-2a-3 = 0;
1
5
25
-or--and&=--or-.
25
trial
15
a= --,
=^
do not satisfy
a=-
Thus the
roots are 7
-o
>
b=--.
1.
of the equation
a, b, c
then
a + b + c=p, bc
+ ca + ab = q.
a 2 + b 2 + c 2 = (a + b + c) 2 - 2
Now
of the roots
-px + qx-r 0.
2
(bc
+ ca + ab)
p 2 - 2q.
Again, substitute
a3 +
b3
, b, c for
=p 3 - Spq 4- dr.
Example
2.
If a, 6, c,
x A +px* + qx 2 + rx + s = 0,
find the value of
Ha 2 b.
a+b+c+d=-
(1),
+ ac + ad + bc + bd + cd = q
(2),
We have
ab
abc
(3).
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
456
From
we have
these equations
-pq = Sa 2 6 + 3
= Sa
.-.
(dbc +
6-3r;
2a-b = 3r-pq.
EXAMPLES. XXXV.
Form
a.
1.
|, |,
3.
2, 2,
V&
-2, -2,
0,
5.
0,
2.
0,
4.
a + b, a-b,
2,
2,
-3, -3.
-a + b, -a-b.
roots being
and
5.
a?
6.
7.
8.
7.
zero.
equal.
geometrical pro-
gression.
2a?
9.
3:
22#- 24 = 0, two
4.
10.
roots.
11.
opposite in sign.
12.
gression.
13.
gression.
14.
being
2.
16.
27.27
-195.27 3
+ 40 = 0, the
metrical progression.
17.
18a 3 +
other two,
8U + 121.37 + 60 = 0,
2
sum
of the
THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
If a,
the value of
18.
If a,
19.
'
>,
c2
.r
(1)
(2)
'
i + i,+t
W
+ 1^+1
6
a
(1)
Xs -paP+qx - r = 0,
b, c
g'.r
(2)
457
c 2 rt 2
find
aaja
Find the sum of the squares and of the cubes of the roots of
20.
#*
+ qx2 + rx + s = 0.
21.
x3 +qx+r=Q.
543.
an equation with
7?i
imaginary
real coefficients
roots
occur in pairs.
is an equation with real coefficients,
Suppose that f(x) =
and suppose that it has an imaginary root a + ib we shall shew
that a ib is also a root.
;
The
(x
a ib)
(x
a + ib),
or (x
f(x) = Q{(xIn
(x
this identity
- a) +
2
a)
by hypothesis
is
real
is
= a-ib
is
is
2
.
+ Rx + E.
by hypothesis
and imaginary
also
parts,
Rb = 0;
R=
and
exactly divisible by (x
(x
hence x
roots
not zero,
.-.
Hence f (x)
',
a)
Ra + E=Q,
b
and
two
a-
ib)
(x
#=
0.
a) 2 +
a + ib)
2
,
that
is,
by
also a root.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
458
<j>(x)
Now
1.
is
- ^3.
Since 2-^/3 is a root, we know that 2+^/3 is also a root, and corre2
sponding to this pair of roots we have the quadratic factor x - 4# + 1.
6z 4 - 13z 3 -
Also
- x + 3 = {x 2 - 4x + 1)
35a: 2
(6a; 2
+ 11* + 3)
+ 11a; + 3 = 0,
3
--
Example
coefficients,
2.
Form
or
--
(3a;
is ,J2
(2z + 3)=0;
+ ^/3, 2-^3.
the equation of
+ 1)
rational
+ sj - 3.
roots,
and
x 2 + 2 J2x + 5.
f
or
or
Example
3.
Shew
is
+ 2,J2x + 5) (x 2 -2 J2x + 5) = 0,
(x2 + 5) 2 -8a2 = 0,
a^ + 2x 2 + 25 = 0.
f
A2 + B2
C2
7 +
x-a x-b x-c +
H ,=&,
x-h
2
...
'
p + iq
be a root
and subtract the
B2
A2
2
i)
{(p-a + q
which
is
(p-b) + q
2
impossible unless q =
then
p - iq
first result
is
also a root.
C2
^(p-c) 2 + q 2
Substitute
thus
H*
'
""
'
(p-h) 2 + q
THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
459
546.
positive root.
(ii)
sign,
and the
coefficients
sign, the
x7 + x 5 - 2x4 + x3 - 3x 3 + 7x-
=0
root.
(iv)
An
equation f(x) =
cannot have more positive roots
than there are changes of sign in f (x), and cannot have more
negative roots than there are changes of sign in f (-x).
547.
polynomial.
Writing down only the signs of the terms in the multiplication, we have
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
460
Hence we
(i)
of sign in the
original polynomial;
the signs before and after an ambiguity or set of ambiguities are unlike;
(ii)
(iii)
a change of sign
is
Let us take the most unfavourable case and suppose that all
the ambiguities are replaced by continuations; from (ii) we see
that the number of changes of sign will be the same whether we
take the upper or the lower signs; let us take the upper; thus
the number of changes of sign cannot be less than in
+ - + -+,
+ +
and
we suppose
/(-
>
Example.
a;
+ 5x 8 - x* + Ix + 2 = 0.
sign, therefore
there are at
most two
positive roots.
x 9 + 5x 8 + x 3 -7x + 2, and
EXAMPLES.
XXXV.
b.
3xA
2.
3.
lO.'o"
+ 4x 2 - a 6 = 0,
root being
- 1 + ,J ^1
THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
+
+ G.f2 + 4x + 5 = 0,
4.
X*
5.
^3 and
4./,-"
another
Form
s iZ+J^2.
-J2-J^2.
8.
2J- 1.
4G
7.
-J^l+J5.
9.
N /5
+ 2 x/6.
10.
Form
4 a/3,
11.
Form
1 >/- 2, 2
12.
Fomi
is J2
2 */
1.
J -3.
+ J3 + x/ 1.
13.
14.
Shew
=l
efficients
2.v 7
- xA + 4.V3 - 5 =
imaginary roots.
What may
15.
a-
Find the
16.
least possible
number
x o?> + xA + x 2 + 1 = 0.
equation
17.
-4a 6 + xA -2.y-3=0?
may have
If
if
are in
they arc
19.
xn -
b, c
20.
Za 2 b 2
22.
S (* + !)
If a,
b, c,
24.
%a*b&
1, a, /3, y,
.,
shew that
-px2 + qx -r = 0,
find the
21.
(b
23.
$a 2 b.
. .
=n.
(l-a)(l-/3)(l- 7 )
If a,
value of
are
$a\
= 0,
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
462
"~ 2
n
n
Let f(x) =p Q x +p x
+P 2 X
n
fix + h) = p (x + h) +2\ (x +
l
h)
h),
when
+2> 2 (x
a rationed
(x) is
+Pn-i x + Pn
+
H~ }
h)"-*
then
+2\-A x + h ) + Pn
Expanding each term and arranging the
powers of h, we have
n
result in ascending
~l
Pox -\-2\x
+ ^{n(n-l)p
+
+
x"-
p^}
3
+ (n-l)(n-2) Pl x'>- +... + 2p n _ 2 }
^{n(n-l)(n-2)...2.1 2>
\n
}-
This result
is
...
*i/,
are called
f"(x), f"(x),...
derived
functions
oifix).
second, third,...
(x),
the
first,
of the Differential Calculus will see that the above expansion of f(x + h) is only a
(x), f" (x),
particular case of Taylor's Theorem; the functions
f'"{x) may therefore be written down at once by the ordinary
by successive
we
differentiations
obtain fix),
\X), ....
By
writing
in the place of
h,
we have
to
is
xf
I)-
%-f{x).
+
(h)
*r
,n
(h)
...
(h).
f/*
\n
;
.
THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
463
Here the expressions f'(h) f"{Ji),f "{1b) ... denote the results
obtained by writing h in the place of x in the successive derived
i
If
Here
/' (x)
= 8z3 - Sx- - 4x + 5,
so that
1,
ana /'
(3)
/ (x + 3).
/ (3) = 131
= 182
^- =12a-3aj-2, and -^ =
)
97;
3)
and /-^ = 23;
QS-te-1,
ii
4
/ (x + 3) = 2s + 23r* + 97x2 + 182* + 131
Thus
The
549.
Let
put x y +
Now
h,
=p xn +p
f{x)
n~
+ p 2x"~ 2 +
...
+pn _ x + pn
l
~
+p xn + p xn 2 +... +pn _ x + p
(x- h) +q (x- h)- +
+ q _ (x - h) + qn
= qo
x"
Similarly q n _
expression by x-
is
h,
9o( x
and
by x-h;
-h
so on.
Thus q n
plained in Art. 515.
equal to j)
-
+q {x-hy-'+...+qH _
2
3
T' + QA x - h T~ +
qn _
1 ,
The
qn _ a
+ Qn- 2
'
may be found by
last quotient is q
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
464
Find the
Example.
result of changing
2a;4_^_2x +5x-l.
2
Here we
divide successively
2-1-2
-1
15
39
132
by x -
3.
Or more
briefly thus
THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
4G5
intermediate values; but since f(a) and f(b) have contrary signs
for some
the value zero must lie between them; that is, f(x) =
value of x between a and b.
It does not follow that f(x) =
and b; neither does it follow that
signf(x) =
b.
553.
/( + oo) = +
If
oo and
and + co
if
pn
f(0)=pnJ
has a
f(x) =
then
is negative f(x) =
is positive,
pn
co,
co
0,
-co
/(-oo) = -oo.
last
554.
least
is
negative.
For in
this case
/(+co) = +co,
but
pn
and +
is
co
f(0)=p n
f(-co) = + co;
and
If
Suppose that a
f (b)
greater
Hence
f(x) (x a)(x/3)(x- y)
...
(x
k ) < (x).
y)
...
(a
f (a) = (a a) (a
/3)
(a
k)
</>
()
Now
and
<f>(b)
<j>(.x')
H. H. A.
30
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
466
Hence
thesis.
if
signs, the
ex
pressions
(a
must have contrary signs. Also the factors in the first expression
are all positive, and the factors in the second are all negative;
hence the number of factors must be odd, that is the number of
roots a, /?, y, ... k must be odd.
/(a) and /(b) have the same sign the number of
factors must be even. In this case the given condition is satisfied
k are all greater than a, or less than b thus it does
if a, /?, y,
has a root between a and b.
not necessarily follow that y* (as) =
Similarly
if
. . .
556.
If a,
b, c,
...k are
/ (x) = j?
If
(x
a)(x-b)(x c)
b,
c, ...
to
b,
k).
/(x) = p (x a) r (x -
In
(x
...
= 0, then
b) (x
c)'
/{x)
a distinct root.
557.
equation
1/
f (x) =
will have r
Write x + h
+ '(x) + %/"(x)+..
= Ux-a) + r(x-a)
r
In
then the
divided by (x a) r ;
is
to a,
this identity,
h)
h + ...\U(x) + hcf>'(x)+~
by equating the
<}>"(x)+ ...]
coefficients of A,
/'(x)=r(x - ay-'^x) +
(x
- a)
we have
$ (x).
'
THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
4G7
and so on.
1.
ar
equal roots.
4
3
/ {x) = x - lis + 44a? - 76a + 48,
Here
/' {x)
/'
rule
(x
we
2)
is
/(a;)
Example
2.
2, 2, 3, 4.
aar3
36a;
+ 3ca; + d
roots equal.
axs + Sbx 2
ax 2
-f
3cx
(x)
= 0,
that
By combining
(1)
and
is
+d=
2bx +
(1),
=Q
(2)
will be obtained
we have
(2),
bx2 + 2cx + d =
From
(2)
and
and
(3),
(3).
we obtain
a;
2 (bd
2
)
be-all ~ 2{ac -
2)
ft
is
(bd -
<-).
302
by
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
4fi8
has r roots
the equation/^) =
But
has r - 1 roots equal to a.
equal to a, the equation /(a) =
(x); hence the equation
r(x) is the first derived function of
to a; similarly the equation
f'\x) = must have r-2 roots equal
IheseL
f>t x \ = o must have r - 3 roots equal to a; and so on.
discover the equal
considerations will sometimes enable us to
= with less trouble than the method ot Art. 559.
We
560
if
roots of
f(x)
561.
If
prove that
=
f(x)
v
'
We
a, b, c, ...k
M MM
+
x-a
x-b
f(x +
hence f(x)
is
member
h)
=/()
...
+ lW
x-kk
(x-k);
.+
4-
h)(x-
+ h)
(x-k + h)
...
...
(1).
',
right-hand
equal
...
0, to
x,
f (x + h) = (x - a + h)(x - b
But
x-c
-b) (x-c)
a) (x
(x-k) +
...
x
A
w
*,,
f'(x)
is,
The
562.
to find the
Example.
equation
Let
-a)(x- c)
Ax + A
^-x
+^-{
x-b x c
)
= J^^xa
)
J
...
(x-k)+
x)
/ ^/
+ f(
...;
...
xk
sum
If
(x
of
an assigned power
of the roots of
an equation.
then
/'
t',
fix)
3
Now Z^=rf+(a+P)x
+ (a2 + ap)x2 +(a* + a2p + q)x + a4 + a?p + aq-,
a
so
for
fw />) /w
x-b' x-c' x-d' x-e'
/(*)
'"
THEUltY OF EQUATIONS.
Hence by
409
addition,
5ar*
S 1 + 5p = p, whence 8X . - p
S 2 +pS l = 0, whence S 2 =p z
Sk
+px
-Sq;
whence S 4 =p i + 4j)q.
k~ 1
we proceed as
follows.
+ qx*~ 3 + to* -5 = 0.
c, d, e
results,
Put k = 5
S 5 +pS4 + qS2 + 5t = 0,
thus
S5 = -p 5 - op 2 q -
whence
Put k = 6
S 6 +pS 5 + qS3 + tS x = 0,
thus
S6 =p 6 + 6p'*q + Sq 2 + bpt.
whence
To
find
bt.
5_4 put k = 4,
succession; then
3, 2, 1 in
S_.2 = -
2,/
%-
Ap
.
we may
Example.
x*-2x 2 + x-l = 0.
= x*-2x2 + x-l,
2
f'(x) = Sx -x + l.
Here
Also
f(x)
-.-'
f(x)
x- a
xb
x-c
= 2 /l-
a
a
a3
+_++ +...
\x x- X
x*
= -+
X
Oo
i>,
X~
o
"
X*
also pro-
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
470
hence #4
which
is
is
method
by f(x),
of synthetic division as
follows
3-4 + 1
6-3 + 3
-1
4-2 +
41
1
2
2
+2
10-5 + 5
3 + 2 + 2 + 5 + 10 +
is
- +
2
+
2
2
-3
10
5
+ -4 + -g +
S.
thus
= 10.
XXXV.
EXAMPLES.
1.
If f{x)
2.
If
3.
If /(#)
4.
If f(x)
5.
If f(x)
= ax9 + bx5 + ex +
6.
Shew
of/(# + 3).
1).
and -
between
c,
c.
- 4).
+#+6=0
has a root
1.
has a root
=0
has a root
7.
Shew that
3,
-9a; 2 + 4a;+12 = 0.
- 13#*+67#3 -
10.
a;
12.
a,-
13.
15.
16.
x6 - 2x* - 4xA +
17.
17la;2
12a,*
11.
+ 216^- 108=0.
14.
8^ + 4^3-18^+11^-2=0.
- Sx2 - 18a; + 18 = 0.
TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS.
471
21.
+ x2 + 3x -6 = 0, 4#* - 2s 3 + 3x -9 = 0.
4#* + 2x* - #2 -15.*; = 0, 6^ 4 + 1 3a; - 4a; 2 - 1 bx = 0.
Find the condition that x -px 2 + r=0 may have equal roots.
Shew that x + qx2 + s = cannot have three equal roots.
22.
Find the
2s* -
18.
2a- 3
19.
1l
20.
may have
(1)
Shew
23.
ratio of b to
=0
xn + nxn
~1
+ n (n - 1) x n ~ 2 + ... + \n =
24.
shew
roots,
If the equation
25.
is
equal to
^r
roots,
+ =
In the equation x3 - x -
28.
In the equation xi
and
S6
=0,
- x3 -1x2 + x + 6 = 0,
S6
Transformation of Equations.
discussion of an equation is sometimes simplified
by transforming it into another equation whose roots bear some
assigned relation to those of the one proposed. Such transformations are especially useful in the solution of cubic equations.
564.
The
565.
To transform an equation
those
Let f(x) =
Put
-y
signs.
with
0.
its
f(y) -
sign changed
is
satisfied
by
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
472
then
it is
py
-py~
2
+ p 2 f~ -
+ (-
ir A-,y + (- W. = o,
x
which
is
Put y qx,
given quantity.
equation
is
so that
x -
let q
denote the
f ( - = 0.
J
The
an equation
of
fractional coefficients.
Example.
Remove
fractional coefficients
*-*-* .+1-0.
Put x = - and multiply each term by q 3
By
thus
13
2,
we obtain
y
-Sy 2 -y + Q = 0.
567.
To transform an equation into another whose roots are
the reciprocals of the roots of the proposed equation.
Let f(x) =
X
put y = -
so that
0.
One
symmetrical functions of
TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS.
Example
473
1.
Xs -px2 + qx r = 0,
-+r +
b-
Write - for
y
multiply by
x,
has for
c-
and change
y'\
all
-1 = 0,
ry 9 - qy2 +py
suiting equation
-s
.,
a2
111
its roots
''
a' b'
2- = ^, S-= =-:
hence
ab
a2
Example
- 2pr
r-
2.
-3x-l = 0,
a -3 + b~ 3 + c~ 3
3 + 2x 2
find the value of
Writing - for
x, the
transformed equation
-2y-l = 0;
y* + Sy 2
is
is
Ss
in this equation.
S 1= -3;
Here
S3 + 3S.2 -2S1 -3 = 0;
whence we obtain
S,= -42.
568.
is
an equation
If
is
it
x + Pl xn
n
-l
+p x"- +
+1
x +Pn _ iX + ^=0,
i
->
n_2
x,
and clearing
of fractions
is
n
V? + l\-p
If these
Fl
from the
+ p n -X~ +
+l\n
+PF +1 = 0.
'
?' 2
last result
''
'
V -*~
we have p
=*fc 1,
'
*--
'
P "-p
>
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
474
pn =l
If
(i)
then
P*=P*-
Px=Pn-^
Pb=P*-B>
'>
that
is,
If
(ii)
2> n
=~
1)
then
p,=-ps _
p 2 =-p n Ps=-p n - 3
is of 2m dimensions p = pmi
m
2
or > TO =0.
hence if the equation
In this case tlie coefficients of terms equidistant from the beginning and end are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign, and
if the equation is of an even degree the middle term is wanting.
Suppose that
569.
f (x) =
If
is
f (x) =
f(x) =
1
is
is
and
of
and
of
has a
is the
it
first class
an odd degree, it
in this case f(x) is divisible by as 1, and as
is a reciprocal equation of the first class and of
is
has a root +
before <j> (x) =
a reciprocal equation.
(x)
root 1; so that
quotient, then <f>(x) =0
and of an even degree.
If
is
an even degree.
If f(x)
has a root
2
is
and a root -
1,
class
it
is
an even degree,
Hence any
equations.
570.
duced
to
an equation of half
its
dimensions.
ax2m + bx2m
m
dividing by x
a xm +
+ cx 2m
~2
...
+ kx m +
...
+ ex 2 + bx + a = 0;
TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS.
475
Now
* +,+
hence writing
^^4)K)-(*-
% for
x+ -
and giving
to
,+
^);
we obtain
1, 2, 3,...
- = s*
x2 +
3
a + -j = z
x
(z
2,
-2) -z =
- = z (z -
x4 +
2>z)
(z
m
and so on; and generally x +
To find
571.
is
of
the equation
- 3z
2)
is
= z* -
of
iz
2;
dimensions in
z,
and
dimensions.
of a proposed equation.
2
Let f(x) =
be the given equation ; putting y = x we have
Jy\ hence the required equation is f(Jy) 0.
,
Find the equation whose roots are the squares of those of the
Example.
vP+p^+ptfc+p-^Q.
equation
Putting
x=Jy, and
transposing,
we have
(y+P2)Jy= -(PiU+2h)>
2
whence
{y
3
or
2/
Compare the
+ 2p 2 y +pf) y =p x hj 2 + 2p x p z y + p 3 2
2,
Art. 539.
To transform an equation
Let
into
f (x) =
quantity
equation
is
f(y h) 0.
Similarly f(y + h) =
h than those oif(x) = 0.
is
less
by
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
476
Example.
equation
+ 83a; 2 + 76a; + 21 = 0.
TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS
Sometimes
477
it will
following example.
Remove
Example.
px? + qx 2 + rx + s = 0.
Let
a,
7 be the
/9,
equal to - -
roots, so that a
+ p + y= --.
Then
that
is,
if
sum
we
increase
of the roots
be zero.
will be effected
by substituting
x--~
6p
for
574.
From the equation f(x) = we may form an equation
whose roots are connected with those of the given equation by
some assigned relation.
and
<f>
(x,
y)
Example
= 0.
If a, b, c are the roots of the equation
1.
11
x 3 +p>x 2 + qx + r=0,
When x = a
,
ab
ca
be
y = a-
=-
1
a
a
= a =a + -;
a-
abc
be
r
but
will be obtained
or
x=
r y
ry
~1
+r
by the substitution
is
Form
Example
2.
x 3 + qx + r = Q.
Let
a,
b,
equation are
c)
2
,
(c
- a) 2
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
478
(b-c) 2 = fc 2 + c 2 -2fcc
Now
= a2 + & 2 + c 2 -a 2 -
= (a + b + c) 2 -
2 (be
+ ca + ah) -
2a6c
a2
2abc
= -2 5 -a 2 + ^;
a
also
when x = a
given
the
in
equation,
= (b-c) 2
the transformed
in
equation
.*.
Thus we have
?/
= - 2o-
a;
2r
.
J
xs + qx + r=0,
and
.r
By
(2#
+ y) x - 2r = 0.
(#+?/)# = 3r
subtraction
y
Cor.
If a, &, c are
27r + 4g 3 is negative.
+6
^2
(2
real, (&
or
a:
we obtain
+ 9^ + 27,-2 + 4^3 _
- c) 2
(c
a) 2, (a
6)
therefore
+ 4<73 must be
If 27r 2
negative, that
is
(-)
may have
+(f) must
be negative.
+ 4# 3 =0
since it is only such a pair of roots which can produce a negative root in
the transformed equation.
EXAMPLES.
1.
XXXV.
d.
integral coefficients,
and unity
2x4 + x3 -6x2 + x + 2 = 0.
4.
^-10^ + 26^-10^+1 = 0.
5.
6.
into another
TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS.
7.
479
3./,-3
roots of which
gression
The
roots of
find them.
x3 - lLr2 + 36#-36 =
2
If the roots of the equation x3 - ax
progression, shew that the mean root is 3b.
9.
10.
are in harmonica!
pro-
the roots of
13.
14.
afi
15.
x
Transform the equation a^-j
12.
7=0 mto
3
exceed by - the corresponding roots of the given equation.
22
16.
greater
is
17.
by unity
18.
Find the equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of
x* + x3 + 2x2 + x+ 1 = 0.
19.
Form
x3 + 3x2 + 2 = 0.
If a, b, c are the roots of
roots are
20.
+c
24.
~n
26.
21.
a+b
+a
r
b
b 2 c\ c 2 a 2
b).
a2 b 2
25.
6 3 , c3
- + -, T + -a
c
a
b
29.
gression,
x3 + 3px2 + 3qx + r =
shew that 2gs =r(3pg r).
If the roots of
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
480
Cubic Equations.
575.
x3
of a cubic equation is
+Px
+ Qx + fi=0,
which we
To
576.
Let x = y +
x3
+ qx + r =
0.
then
=y + z + 3yz (y + z) = y3 + z3 + 3yzx,
3
q)x+r =
0.
At
present y, z are any two quantities subject to the condition that their sum is equal to one of the roots of the given
equation
if we further suppose that they satisfy the equation
thus obtain
3yz + q = 0, they are completely determinate.
;
We
y +
hence y
3
,
=-r,
-^;
=-\
sr
we
J
V
it
27
= y + z; thus
-2 +
fr
V4
27}
11r
H-V"
'
3 ^
+ 97
4
CU13IC EQUATIONS.
An
1505.
481
will
be
By
however,
is
and
2
ii>
where
y, a)Z,
Hence the
<x)
y+
wz.
= 126.
15.r
for x, then
y"*
put
+ z* + {3yz-15)x = 126;
3f/2-15 = 0,
y^z3 = 126;
y*zs = 125
then
also
hence
wy + w 2z,
z,
Example.
or are the
y+
Put y + z
co,
y's , z :i
= 125, sfc=l;
y = 5, 2 = 1.
.-.
Thus
j/
-126 + 125 = 0;
2/3
+ 2 = 5 + l = 6;
u,y
+ u~z =
^-
+-
= -3 + 2^/^3;
w-y
+ wz = - 3-2^/^3;
6,
-3 + 2*7-3,
-3-2 J -3.
0,
yz = \
o
H.H.
A.
= - q^
which
31
;;
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
482
would also hold
yz =
if
2
,
or yz
x3 + wqx + r
x +
0,
+r=
<p;
ou
0.
We
v
If
(i)
y and
q
+ ~ h
.
-r
cube
y+
are
The
positive,
first of
these
z,
is real,
wy +
2
oy z,
(o
y+
roots,
let
wz.
and by substituting
for
a>
and w 2 the
r
(ii)
If -j
3
<7
is
^=-
zero,
(iii)
If
co
2/(00
),
or 2y, 3/,
to ),
?/
= z, and
?/.
~
<7
is
negative, then
3
?/
and a ib.
m + in and
m + in + m in,
(m + m) o> + (m in) <o 2
or
2m
or
mw
(m + m) co + (m in) <o, or
2
and
^/3
m + n ^3
This case
is
solution.
x = (a +
ib)
(a
- ib)
3
;
BIQUADHATIC EQUATIONS.
a = r cos
put
6,
then
= r sin 0,
Now
3
+ ^) =
so that r 2
{r (cos
= a2 +
i
483
b\ tan
sin 6)f.
this ex-
pression are
r3 (^cos - +
,
;.,:
sin
+ 2tt
J/f cos l^fl
0+27A
H
+ i sin
*\
-\
<9
and
r3
(cos
4tt
sin
and
r,
the
a'
1
24cos^T,
2r!co8'
2,icos^ti^
Biquadratic Equations.
581
We
shall
now
thus
58 2
first
ob-
make
(ax +
b)
2
.
- q + a2
pk =
ab,
If
=s+
b'
312
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
484
by eliminating a and
- r) 2 =
(pk
2k3
or
From
-qk +
2
(21c
+p* - q)
k +p
2 ( pr
s)
(k
- s),
- qs - r 2 = 0.
(x
.'.
of
+px +
W=
ax + W'>
x 2 +px + k = (ax + b);
(
x2 + (p
x2 +
and
(k
b) =
+ a)x+
(k
+ b) = 0.
(2)
x+
a)
Example.
xi -
Add a 2 x 2 + 2abx + b 2
x* - 2x* + (a2
2.x 3
- 5x- + Hh; - 3 = 0.
- 5) x 2 + 2
{ab
and assume
+ 5) x + 6 2 - 3 = (x 2 - x + k) 2
a2 =2fc
= -k-5,
2
(2fc + 6)(fc + 3) =
+ 6,
.-.
2k* + 5k 2
.-.
By
trial,
we
find that
k= - 1
it
(x2
-M-
z 2 -3.r + l = 0,
b,
= 4, ab= - 4.
= (2x - 2)
and x 2 + x-3 = Q;
x + qx 2 + rx +
1
assume
583.
&2
-x + k) 2 =(ax + b) 2
x2 - x -
+ 5) 2
7 = 0.
follows that
is,
=k 2 + 3;
(7c
hence a 2 = 4,
that
b2
ab
x4 + qx2 + rx + s =
(x
+ kx + 1)
is
(x
in 1637.
- kx + m)
BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS.
then by equating
From
vi
the
we have
coefficients,
k 2 q,
l) =
k (m
two
first
Im = s.
r,
we
of these equations,
2m = AT +
485
obtain
v
q+ t
2l=k 2 + q -j;
+ qk + r)
+ 2qk
or
(k
(q
+ qk -
r)
- 4s) k 2
= 4sk 2
r
= 0.
is
x2 + kx + I =
Example.
and x 2 kx +
0,
m=0.
z 4 -2a; 2 + 8j;-3 = 0.
x4 -
Assume
2a; 2
+ 8# - 3 = (x 2 + kx + 1) (x 2 - kx + m)
+ m-k 2 = -2,
whence we obtain
{k 3
= - 12& 2
6
-4fc 4 + 16fc 2 -64 = 0.
- 2k + 8)
or
fc
(A;
- 2k -
This equation
Thus
hence
and
as*
7n-l = 4]
- 2.r 2 + 8.r a;
3=
+ 2.r-l = 0,
584.
8)
is
m+l = 2,
The general
lm = -Z;
k(m-l) = 8,
that
-4 = 0, or k 2. It will be
putting k = 2, we have
A;
is,
= -l, m = 3.
+ 2x - 1 {x 2 - 2x + 3)
and x--2x + 3 =
(.r
J2, 1 J^2.
equations of a
degree higher than the fourth has not been obtained, and Abel's
demonstration of the impossibility of such a solution is generally
accepted by Mathematicians.
If, however, the coefficients of an
equation are numerical, the value of any real root may be found
to any required degree of accuracy by Horner's Method of approximation, a full account of which will be found in treatises on
the Theory of Equations.
algebraical
solution
of
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
486
We
Example
1.
some
miscella-
x + y + z + u = 0,
+ by +cz + du = 0,
a2x + b 2 y + c 2z + d2 u = 0,
a?x + b 3 y + c 3 z + d3 u = k.
ax
Multiply these equations, beginning from the lowest, by 1, p, q, r respectively ; p, q, r being quantities which are at present undetermined.
Assume that they are such that the coefficients of y, z, u vanish ; then
x
whilst
(a 3
+pa2 + qa + r) = k,
b, c,
Hence
a3
and therefore
+pt2 + qt + r = 0.
+pa2 + qa + r = (a-b){a-c){a- d)
(a -b)(a- c) {a -d)x = h.
is
z,
by symmetry.
Cor.
If the
equations are
x + y + z + u = l,
ax + by + cz + du = I;
+ b 2 y + c*-z + d 2 u = k 2
a 3 x + b s y + c 3z + dhi = 3
before, we have
x (a 3 +pa 2 + qa + r) = k 3 +pk 2 + qk + r;
2
a x
A;
by proceeding as
.'.
of x is found,
of y,
z,
u can be written
down by symmetry.
The
Example
{x
are
2.
-a){x-
b) (x
- c)
all real.
From
we have
{x-a){(x-b)(x-c)-f*}-{g*{x-b) + h*(x-c)-2fgh}=0.
Let p, q be the roots of the quadratic
{x-b)(x-e)-f*=0,
BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS.
and suppose ^
than
to be not less
By
q.
487
we have
2x = b + cJ(b-c)* + tf
:i
now
or
and
c,
than
is less
is
greater than b
(1);
c,
so that
is
greater than h
b or c.
q>
v,
30
-fajp^b-h Jp ~ c
since
{p
-b)(p-
+{<J
>
Jb-q- h Jc - q)~,
=f* = (b - q)
c)
(c
real roots,
cc
q).
2',
one
between
2
If p
q, then from (1) we have (6-c)
In this case the given equation becomes
(x
-b){{x-
a) (x
+ 4/ 2 =
-b)-g*-
lr}
and therefore
= c,f=0.
=0
all real.
it occurs
of considerable importance
is there known as the Discriminating
;
Cubic.
586.
of
equations occurs in
a+\
x
a
+\
+\
z
-\-fji.
/j,
+ fx
+ + c+v =
a+f b+
x
y
J
-,
1.
x
a
x, y, z
y
b
+d
+
c
6,
(0-X)(g-ft)(g-y)
(a
+ e)(b + 6){c + 0y
known quantities.
many
::
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
488
satisfied
;
To
..
thus
(--X)(-^)(-"-'0
(b
that
a) (c
= 0;
a)
. = fe+Lfe+i4!ttd.
is,
(a-
(a-c)
b)
By symmetry, we have
y=
(b
+ \){b + fx)(b + v)
{b-c)(b-a)
{c
and
+ \){c + fi)(c + v)
(c
-a)
(c
b)
XXXV.
EXAMPLES.
e.
a3 -18a = 35.
2.
3.
a3 + 63a- 316 = 0.
4.
ff
6.
+ 21# + 342 = 0.
7.
28^-9^+1=0.
2a3 + 3a2 + 3a + 1=0.
8.
5.
is
2^/2-^4.
Solve the following equations
9.
11.
12.
a-
13.
15.
16.
17.
10.
a4 - 10a2 - 20a- 16 = 0.
+ 2a3 - 7 a2 - 8a + 1 2 = 0.
**- 3^-6^-2=0.
a*-23?-12afi+10x + 3=0.
14.
4a4 - 20a-3 + 33^ 2 - 20a + 4 = 0.
a6 -6a4 -17a3 + 17a2 + 6a-1 = 0.
a + 9a3 + 1 2a 2 - 80a - 1 92 = 0, which has equal roots.
4
Hence
8a3 -36a + 27 = 0.
BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS.
489
If
If they
20.
If
have two
the equation
is
equal
to .
rs?
1
2 (etc - b 2 )
as a quadratic
if
roots,
may
be solved
r2 =p 2s.
22.
23.
/3,
gfl
- 1 SxA +
is
J6 2.
y, 5
1 6.1*
+ 28x2 - S2x + 8 = 0,
&c.
25.
unity
26.
27.
If a,
b, c,...k
^ 409^ + 285 =
whose sum
is
is 5.
Xn +p 1Xn ~ 1 +p2Xn ~ 2 +
shew that
(l+a 2 )(l+b 2 )
The sum
+ k 2 = (l-p,+p- ...) 2 +
)
Pl
-p,+p,-
...)
2
.
of
.-r
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
If s l s 2i *3 are the sums of n, 2n, Sn terms respectively of an
arithmetical progression, shew that s 3 = 3 (s 2 sj.
1.
difference,
2.
3.
4.
5.
first
is
sum and
product,
(1)
(#+2)(#+3)(a;-4)(#-5)=44.
(2)
x(y + z) + 2 = 0,
z(2x-y) = b.
y(z-2x) + 2l=Q,
sum
of the
a{p + q)q
^
pl
[R.
M. A. Woolwich.]
6.
(
11
(a + b) (ax +
(2)
x*
b)(a- bx) = (a 2 x - b 2 )
(a + bx).
+ (2x-Zf={l2(x-l)Y.
If a,
fi
a 2 + a/3 + /3 2
9.
10.
If
x-+px+q = 0, find
a 3 + /3 3 a 4 + a 2/3 2 +
the values of
4
3"
+ Vl5)" + (4-Vi5)'
(6
+ V35)" -(6-\/35)'
[R.
11.
If a
and
/3
M. A. Woolwich.]
+ ^ + a4
^-
= 0.
shew that
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
Shew that in any scale, whose radix is
12.
number 12432 is divisible by 111 and also by 112.
401
greater than
4,
the
Eliminate
x, y, z
x 2 yz a 2 y 2 - zx = b 2
,
- xy = c2
z2
x -f y + z<= 0.
[R.
15.
M. A. Woolwich.]
ax 2 + bxy + ey 2 = bx 2 + cxy + ay 2 = d.
[Math. Tripos.]
waterman rows
and back in
14 hours: he finds that he can row 4 miles with the stream in the
same time as 3 miles against the stream find the rate of the stream.
16.
17.
+ ab + be + ea) {be + ca + ab + b 2
(1)
(a 2
(2)
l-.r+\/22^-15-8^2
(be
+ ca + ab + c2
).
10
18.
Find the
coefficient of
term independent of x in
xG
-x2 -
\^S
19.
AX
:i
and the
3^-8
/1N
2.r-3
(2)
x2 -y 2 = xy ab,
ff+3
(x + y) (ax + by)
= 2ab(a + b).
Shew that
if
a(b-c) x2 + b (c-
b, c
a)
xy + c(a-b)y 2
is
a perfect
If
and
x, y, z are real,
22.
find in
shew that
x=y =
z.
(z
+ x-2y) 2 + (x+y-2z) 2
what
would be represented by
-17.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
492
A man
sum
of their squares.
and
25.
The sum
of four
numbers
(2)
v
'
27.
if
a{b-c)x2 + b(c-a)x+c(a-b) = 0.
x-a
x-c-d
(x-a)(x-b)
1
l (x-c)(x-d)
\
^
If /s/a-x
+ ^/b-x+\/c-x=0
(a + b
and
is
[Math. m
Tripos.]J
r, r
L
..
shew that
^a + 4/6+4/c = 0, shew
that (a + b + c) 3 = 27abc.
A train,
M. A. Woolwich.]
31.
In how
5.
4s. 2d.
and fourpenny-pieces ?
[London University.]
do
In
33.
in six
it
the time 1
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
34.
.,
35.
sion of
36.
If the equations
a2
b2
,
.
prove that
+-7
= 1,
terms
first five
in the
expan-
'
493
x 2 -f- px + q
is
+ q = 0.
2
1)
xi -5x^-6x-b = 0.
[Queen's Coll. Ox.]
38.
for
x3 - ax2 + 19.27 - a 4
x?-(a + l) x2 + 23x-a~7
Eeduce
admits of reduction.
39.
If a, b,
c,
it
(a + b + c) 2
and
= 3 (be + ca + ab- x2 -y
a = b = c, and x = 0, y = 0,
shew that
[Math. Tripos.]
- z2),
= 0.
[Christ's Coll. Camb.]
i
40.
What
is
is
the value of
x]
when
Find two numbers such that their sum multiplied by the sum
of their squares is 5500, and their difference multiplied by the difference
of their squares is 352.
[Christ's Coll. Camb.]
41.
42.
If
x = \a,
y = (k-l)b,
2
2
1
= (\-3)c, X= zb0"2+ 3c
~p
_|_
'
Qj
x2 +y 2 + z 2
in its simplest
form in terms of
a, b,
"T"
express
c.
xa + 3j*=16x + 60.
(2)
+ z 2 -x = z 2 + x' -y = x 2 +y -z = \.
i
log (x + z)
+ log
{x
shew that
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
494
Shew
45.
that
1.3.5 /lV
1.3/1\
._
/oN
,_
3a-26~36-2c~3c-2a'
b(x+y + z) (5c + 46 -
then will
13^) (a
+ b + c).
With
47.
17 consonants
and
words of four
middle and 1
Shew
49.
that
l-x
(l+x)
5x*
9^5
+ 2.3 + 4.5 +
l+?-^
13^7
6.7
+ "'
when
it
51.
52.
V (a + x) + 2 V(a^0 = 3 \/a
(2)
(x - a)* (x
- 6)2
- {x
2
.
(6
- d)K
Prove that
3/,
v/4
N
= H^62
t
6.12
2.5.8
+
6.12.18
[Sidney Coll. Camb.]
53.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
405
vessel contains a gallons of wine, and another vessel contains b gallons of water: c gallons are taken out of eaeh vessel and
transferred to the other; this operation is repeated any number of
times shew that if c(a + b) ab, the quantity of wine in each vessel
will always remain the same after the first operation.
54.
55.
m+n
-: find
m and n in terms
b.
56.
sum
is
constant, and
if
(z+x-2y)(x+y-2z)
varies as yz, prove that 2 (y
+ z) - x
varies as yz.
57.
1.2. M CV2.3.'
if
greater than
is
3,
C_ + 3.4.<X_ 2 -
+ (-l)'-(r+l)(/-+2)=2.- 3 C
53.
(1)
*J'2x
- 1 + */&v -
= *J~4x - 3 + *Jbx^~i.
a
a
8
(2) 4{(s -16)*+8}=# +16(# -16)*
another,
.j.
f
l+yz
if
must be equal
x, y, z
to one
-x
+ x y =n
l+zx l+xy
z
2-
0.
61.
If
!=?'-"
[Emm. Coll. Camb.]
62.
(1
63.
x4n
coefficient of
x+ x x
2
3 )' 1
in the expansion of
is
unity.
x-a + x-b =
a
x a
x-b'
[London University.]
is ab.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
496
65.
" q+
(1
+q) x+q ( q ~
are equal,
If a 2 + b 2
66.
^J
* 2+p
= lab,
lg
1)
+ f =0
M. A. Woolwich.]
[R.
shew that
jg ( +
V)
=g
lo S
If
67.
is
if
[Wadham
If n + 2
68.
W" 2
8
P = 57
4
Coll. Ox.]
16, find n.
loan
if
70.
{(^
If
71.
x2 + ax + b
an d xy + 1 (x + y) + m = 0,
M. A. Woolwich.]
72.
(1)
6*=y-6-.
(2)
V5M-V5-*=|q.
Find two numbers such that their sum is 9, and the sum of
[London University.]
their fourth powers 2417.
73.
set out to
75.
factor.
+ 1 as
Prove that the integer next above (^3 + l) 2m contains 2 m
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
The
76.
407
series of natural
and so on
5, 6, 7, 8, 9
th
group is (?i- l) 3 + n 3
?i
;
Shew
77.
that the
sum
of
[3
\2/
|2_W
is
n terms of the
series
+
|4
,,
1.3.5.7
=
to
equal
1
\2J
(2n-l)
2'*
[R.
78.
coefficient of
xn
M. A. Woolwich.]
1
in the expansion of
+ 2x
j2
is
w-2
n-1
\n
is
79.
(1 )
..
x
y
3m + 1,
3i
+ 2.
= ^_ 2 _
yyz
x+y + z
ii
The value
80.
of xyz
is
b is arithmetic or harmonic
to be positive integers.
81.
and y
no real values of x
If
82.
(#+l) 2
is
greater than 5x
- 1
and
less
integral value of x.
83.
log 10 P-log 10 #
= p-2 + l.
A man
85.
rilen they
11.
11.
32
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
498
number
If the sum of
to the sum of the next
87.
terms
= (wi +p)(
Prove that
88.
+
+ 74 + 7-. = 7 +
(y-z? {z-xf (x-y)vi2 \y-z z-x7 x-y)
[R.
If
89.
M. A. Woolwich.]
negative, or positive
is
m + 3 + 5 m +
1,
shew that
90.
root,
Pi +P-?
prove that
+ P32 + 4
(?i
and B travelled on the same road and at the same rate from
Huntingdon to London. At the 50 th milestone fioin London, A overtook a drove of geese which were proceeding at the rate of 3 miles in 2
hours and two hours afterwards met a waggon, which was moving at
the rate of 9 miles in 4 hours. B overtook the same drove of geese at
the 45 th milestone, and met the waggon exactly 40 minutes before he
came to the 31 milestone. Where was B when ^4 reached London ?
91.
st
92.
that
- bd)
[R.
An
93.
terms
A.
P.,
shew that
a G.
(?i
+ 2)
and an H.
P.,
their
77-0
th
tn
ba(b 2n -a2n )
94.
cd).
M. A. Woolwich.]
{ah
coefficient of
[Math. Tripos.]J
xn
in the expansion of
(x
in ascending
01power of
in the expansion
of
r
a n bn
is
(l-#)L3
-,,
a-b
is
7-
n bn
'
two
2
2 n_1 hi
+ 4w + 2l
'
r
a) (x - 0)
r-,
coefficient of
x2n
__
r
r
[Emm. Coll. Camb.]
,
-.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
Solve the equations
95.
#--1
*/x - y
96.
499
Till
1
sF+y*
ay =34
15.
...
ratio surd.
in the
[R.
form of a quad-
M. A. Woolwich.]
98.
infinite series
1 + 1 + J3 + i + '"
|5
13
"
If
99.
|7
+ d+ b+ d +
a
and
d+
+ d+ b+
bx-dy=a-c.
then
100.
n th term
If a,
6, o
and the
a+b
c+b
(1)
(2)
b 2 (a-c) 2 =2{c2
by x - a
'
101.
102.
|9
(b-a) 2 + a 2 (c-b) 2 }.
x3 - 3b 2x + 2c3
= b = c,
or a =
is divisible
26 = 2<\
Shew
104.
Shew that
according as a
is
is
negative or positive.
If
real,
322
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
500
"
105.
JL3
+
2?4'
2
106.
If a,
of
2~
^ + 1.3.5.7
x
1S
/ l-Vl-a;2
a
+
2. 4. 6.8* 10
/3
is
.r
107.
+ l + (#+l) n = 0.
the
the infinite
of
continued fractions
a+-b
2a+
^,2a +
^..
2a+
"'
"
aD0
+ 2c+
d
2c +
2c +
109.
sum
'
(2)
110.
If
of
money
b+c
is
+a
a+ b
&&+"=*&
+ x*+f= l3 i>
a*-b n >
b) (ab) 2
values of x and
y which
= 12.
m times
To complete
as
m+l
n+l
it
alone are as
+ -^ = 2.
p+l
m + 1 +l
:
[R.
jp
+ 1.
,_
,
M. A. Woolwich.]
,,
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
501
If
x2y = 2x y, and x2
is
shew that
1,
[Peterhouse, Camb.]
115.
X
V
c2 shew that when a and
i = Ti and xv
h sr
2
a -y- a -x2 o
If -sl
are unequal,
(a 2
116.
If
-c 2 2 -b 2 c2 = 0,
(1
+ x + x 2 f r = 1 + k\x + 2 x2 +
l'
. .
(1)
(2)
l-k^ + hc.,
and
(x
prove that
a2 + c 2 -b 2 = Q.
or
1 ) 3r
.,
. .
!3r
=
\r\2r
[R.
117.
118.
y) 2 + 2ab = ax+by,
x2 -y 2 + z 2 = 6,
(2)
M. A. Woolwich.]
xy + ab = bx + ay.
x-y + z = 2.
If there are
square roots of
that
/
all
n\
<
(i + +
Vaia2 + Vi3+
+ an);
hence prove that the arithmetic mean of the square roots of the
products two together is less than the arithmetic mean of the given
[R. M. A. Woolwich.]
quantities.
119.
If
6 + V=a
2 6'i
,
first
2
)
n terms of the
|~_,
(2)
series
whose
r th
terms
(a+r*6)*-'
[St John's Coll. Camb.]
121.
x+ 2
o
2iX" t~ *iX
+~a
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
502
122.
l+^ 4 = 7(l+#) 4
(2)
3#y+20=ff0+6y=2^s+3d?=O.
123.
(1)
a2 a 3> ai are an y
If x,
f ur consecutive coefficients of
an
124.
Separate
'
=r into
3x 8
term when
is
partial fractions
and
of X.
125.
- lx + 2x* + lx3 + bx 4 + 7x +
>
126.
and
If x, y, z are unequal,
if
2a-3z^^^
z
2a-3v
9 = -^2,and
y
(
(v
2a -3.?=
then will
*)
and
x+y + z = a.
[Math. Tripos.]
Ob
127.
(1)
xy + 6 = 2x-x2
(2)
{ax)^ a = {by)^ h
xy-9 = 2y-y 2
b Xo & x
= a lo%y.
128.
(1)
(2)
x \fx2 + 2 -
*JxA
++ x-?
\fa
\/Za
+ a when x = oc
4
2x\/3x
University.]T
[London tt
rr
when xa.
2sjx
There are two numbers whose product is 192, and the quotient
of the arithmetical by the harmonical mean of their greatest common
measure and least common multiple is 3f | find the numbers.
129.
[R.
M. A. Woolwich.]
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
130.
(1)
J/2.
6Vl-2 2 + c\/l-y 2 = ,
(2)
c \/l
- #2 + Vl - 22 = 6,
503
2^3 "
1.3
24)4
sum
1.3.5
+ ~Wb
*
"
.23
1S
3*
~
24
[Math. Tripos.]
Find the
x 12 and xr
coefficients of
n_
1+x3
2ui_
an( * 1
in the product of
-*+*"
[R-
M. A. Woolwich.]
may
[London University.]
take ?
Prove that
= 192 abed.
[Trin. Coll. Camb.]
136.
pressions xt + aaP +
square.
137.
bx'Z
which will make each of the exand xA + 2ax3 + 2bx2 + 2cx + 1 a perfect
[London University.]
a, b, c
+ cx+l
(1)
4^S
(2)
\j2x2 +\
= 3(
+ \l& -
^=65.
=
V3 - 2j--
less
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
504
Sum
139.
n terms
(1)
(2~l)+2(2-3)+3(2-5)+....
(2)
The squares
(3)
If a,
140.
that
to
3 (a
/3,
+ /3
a?(%-5)=
(1)
15
(2).
3
y are the roots of the equation x + qx + r=0 prove
2
5
5
5 =
3
3
3
4
+ y ) (a + /3 + y ) 5 (a + /3 + y ) (a + 4 + y 4 ).
[St John's Coll. Camb.]
141.
1, 3, 6, 10,
41
(2)
y(2A + 7) = 27J'
A3 +y3 + z 3 = 495)
ar+y+*=15V.
Ay2=105
[Trin. Coll. Camb.]
142.
If a,
equation whose
143.
b, c
Sum
the series
(1)
(2)
3 - x - 2x -
(3)
6+9
1 6a-
+ 14 + 23 + 40 +
..
to
to infinity
n terms.
[Oxford Mods.]
144.
Eliminate
a, y, z
x-i+y-i + z- 1 = a~ 1
.v
+ y 2 + z 2 = c2
if a, y, z
The
unequal
x+y + z=b.
A3 +3/ 3 + 3 = c?3
16(a-3
[R.
1)
are not
M. A. Woolwich.]
=
1
mile the
day 2 miles
After he had been gone
147.
11111
3+ 2+
3+ 2+
1+
""
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
505
148.
x3 + 3ax2 + 3
(a 2
be)
as
+ a 3 + b 3 + c3 - Zabc = 0.
[India Civil Service.]
is
:i
Find the ?t th
150.
sum to infinity is (1 -
series
whose
[Oxford Mods.]
If a,
151.
b, c
x3 + px + q = 0,
+c
-,
+ a
+b
find the
2
.
Prove that
152.
(y
153.
(
(2)
+ a,
b,
c.
If
155.
sn
denote the
sum
n terms
to
of the series
1.2.3.4
shew that
+
+
2.3.4.5 3.4.5.6
1 8s n cr n _
"'
- s n + 2 = 0.
[Magd. Coll. Ox.]
156.
(1)
(12a?-l)(&p-l)(4a?-l)(&e-l)=5.
(2);
I fo+^ fo-S)
5 (x + 2)(x - 4)
x+3)(x-5)
(x + 4) (x- 6)
_2_
(a?+5)(a?-7)
{x + 6)(* - 8)
""
1
92
~ 585
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
506
Shew that
158.
1.4
4.8
1.4.7
+ 4.8.12 +
i+?_l
+ + ll?
6
+6
12
1.4.7.10
+
4.8.12.16 '"'
2.5.8
.
12
+6
18
2.5.8.
12
18
24
+ '
[Peterhouse, Camb.]
are equal.
159.
11
x(x -
x{x - a) (x - /3)
a)
~aPy~
a/3
x(x + a)(x + p)
x(x+ a)
+
|
\
|
a(5
a/3-y
_x>
a
If
is
1,
shew that
[Wadham
a multiple of 120.
Coll. Ox.]
much
as the last
x
(1)
(2)
2
y -3
x2 -S
-7
x3
+f
+ z2_ x{]/ + z) = a ^
z 2 + x2 y (z+x) = b 2
y2
x' -t-y
- z (x +3/) = c
2
.
'
507
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
Solve the equation
163.
a 3 (6 - c) {x also
-c) + b 3 (c- a) {x - c) (x - a)
b) (x
shew that
3
c-
__+-_
+ -j- = 0.
Sum
(1)
(2)
165.
a b
the series
Shew
b)
+
il
[St
John's Coll. Camb.1
L
s/b~ sfc
- a) (x -
if
s]a
164.
(a - b) (x
that, if a,
+-
n terms.
toiuf
d be
6, c,
to
= + + c + d, then
(s
166.
(1)
\/x + a
(2)
x + i/ + z = x 2 +f + z* = ^(x3 + i/ + z 5 ) = Z.
[Math. Tripos.]
Eliminate
167.
I,
Simplify
a (b + c - a) 2 +
a 2 (b + c-a) +
+ + (b + c - a) (c + a - b) {a + b - c)
... + ... -(6 + c-a)(c + a-6)(a + 6-c)
.
. .
. . .
[Math. Tripos.]
169.
(x 2 - yz) 3 + (y 2
is
expression
- zx) 3 + (z 2 - xy) 3 -
its
square
3 (x2
root.
- yz) (y 2 -
zx)
(z
xy)
[London University.]
from
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
508
Shew that
171.
integer not less than
172.
?t
is divisible
by
840, if
is
an
3.
(1)
w
,~x
(2)
y(u z)
z(y-x)
u(y-x)
^
=
= &,
=a, -^
x(u-z)J
-^-y = d.
'
2-W
c,
[Math. Tripos.]
173.
sum
If s be the
of
++
=
>
...
a, b,c...,
then
[Math. Tripos.]
for oil
175.
Prove that
2 (b + c - a - x)*(b -
c)
176.
If a,
/3,
y are the roots of the equation st? paP+r =0, find the
^-~
p
-.
TR.
M. A. Woolwich.]
Given that (a2 + b 2 )(c2 + d 2)(e 2 +f2 )(c/ 2 + h'2 )=p 2 + q 2 find p and q in
terms of a, 6, c, d, e,f, g, h.
[London University.]
,
178.
x2 +y 2 =6l, a*-y*=91.
179.
M. A. Woolwich.]
A man
papers with a
number
[R.
(m + 1 ) (2m2 + Am + 3).
[Math. Tripos.]
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
509
180.
j3
M. A. Woolwich.]
[R.
Shew
181.
(1
that
if
,s
- + .,-...+(-l)-/
(n~l)(n
l).
+
,
A 2)...(n-m
;
2U(-i)--i.
m _ 1 = ^
>
|w _^
[New Coll.
number
Ox.]
certain
is
number.
+ =
2x* + 2x2
[R.
184.
Prove that
if
is
a positive integer,
nn -n(n-2) n +
185.
If
prove that
186.
(6V6 + 14)
NF =20
2>t
2n +
=:jr,
+1
.
M. A. Woolwich.]
= 2 B [w.
-'(n-4) n -
and
if
x+y+z = 2, x2 +y 2 + z 2 = 0, x3 +y 3 + z 3 = - 1.
x*-(y-z) 2 = a 2 y 2 -(z-x) 2 = b 2 z 2 -{x-y) 2 =cK
,
land,
and Wales,
188.
respectively.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
510
3c*2
a3
Prove that
189.
3a
13
If
190.
progression, unless b = a
= (a-l)
1
1
ab H cb
+ 2a 2a+l
2a+l + 2
a, b, c are in
+ c.
harmonical
191.
(1)
(2)
.r
2 + \/-~3.
[R.
root ex-
is
M. A. Woolwich.]
If
193.
x +y + 2 + w = 0, shew that
mr (w + a;)2
-+-
yz (w
x) 2 + wy(w+y) 2
194.
a +
-a 2
a2 + + c2
be
fc2
b, c
On
195.
two down
Am + 5#o
*53/i)
VO
where
196.
is
the
Jb
number
Am
-+-
1 Ox,
-t
of miles in
AB.
^-4
+ (1 ~ y)
i+V(i -#)
(i
-y)
= l + ^+y) + ^(3.* + ^ + 3y
8
2
2
2
).
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
Shew that the sum
197.
a,
a b, a -2b,
a {n -l)b,
of the form
is
3m8 1,
(m + 1)6.
198.
shew
2)
511
and 2a = (3m -
is
na{a 2 + (w 2 -l)/32 }.
If ,
199.
b, c
111
g8
shew that
+ 68 + C8
a3 b 3c 3
was -
3u+v
-.
[Peterhouse,
Camb.]J
L
hours.
'
[Oxford Mods.]
202.
*/ x
+ 27 + v 55 - x 4.
[Ball. Coll. Ox.]
203.
Shew
ab +
(a
+ x) (b + x) + (a + 2x) (b + 2x) +
to 2 n terms,
the excess of the sum of the last n terms over the sum of the first n
terms is to the excess of the last term over the first as ril to 2n 1
204.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
512
If
206.
a,
#,
qx+r = 0,
ma + n
ma n
in terms of m, n, q,
m{3 + n
my+n
m(3 -
my n
r.
= '3010300,
+ x + x2 n =
If (1
208.
7i
is
(n
= 3-1849752,
x
n
a =
(n- r )
'
What
3.
prove that
+ (- 1
+ -y72~ r-2-
a multiple of
+ a x + a^c2 +
P -wa r -i
unless r
log 1531
is its
r
)
r!
>
210.
211.
is
whose n th term
is
[Oxford Mods.]
n(n2 -l)
[2
n(n 2 -l)(n2 -2 2 )
|2J_3
*K
\r \r
(n2
-r2 )
+l
;
'
6,
(2)
213.
to
n terms.
1.3
series
-x
3.
55. 7
7.
Ax
6x + 2
8.r+l
inf.
tomf
+ ^r + ^3-+-^r +
to
Qx + 2
8#+l
+3
12#
l6x + 2
9.r
12.r
=0.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
214.
(1)
Shew
that
a2 (l
,>
(2)
the
number
215.
of quantities a,
being
6, c,...
n.
+ a\
zx=a(z+x) +/3>.
xi/ = a(x+y) + y\
216.
513
If
l(2-^l) + 2^- 1
is divisible
by
+^+3f4-^!U...+(-l)^-^^
[Queen's Coll. Ox.]
n.
Prove that the expression x> - bx3 + ex2 + dx product of a complete square and a complete cube if
218.
be the
e will
126_9^_5e_^
5
"
~ c2
ft*7*7
a black ball
220.
will
Shew
squares of the
be drawn next
that the
first
sum
is jrr
of the
n whole numbers
is
n(n 2 l)(4?i2
l)(5?i
+ G).
221.
If
xa
x-b
'4._i
x-c
=o
is
a positive integer,
(n-4)(-5)(-6) ,_,.
j3
"
+,
H.A.
33
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
514
223.
.r
(1
(2)
? + + -=3
c
b
a f
ax + by + cz = bc + ca + ab
-mn{m-\){n\)
[Math. Tripos.]
times.
225.
in the form
;
1.
227.
22
32
1+ 1+ 1+ 1+
infinite
continued fraction
n2
1
[Euler.]
of
marks
is
II
(1245
;
1144
_ 6<
r
'
[139
[5 {[240
~
, f
Mods.]
[Oxford
J
L
143)
i \
+ll>
-|38j
229.
x*
1.3.5.7
1JJ
+ 2.4"6"
+ 2.4.6.8
2
x*_
,
1.3.5.7.9.11
+ 2.4.G.8.10.12*
10
Shew
for its r
-,
>
th
sum
of
n terms of the
4 (2* - 1) i (2* - 1) - ^
14
series
x*_
formed by taking
is
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
515
will
be shining.
232.
x 2 + (j/ -z) 2 = a 2
2
2
2
y + (z x) b
z 2 + {x - i/) 2 = c 2
Eliminate
233.
x 2 x<ixz
2
x,
?/,
S^ =
y 2 -yz yx
=s*
z2
-zx zii
k
and ax + by
J + cz = 0.
7
[Math. Tmros.]
Tf
234.
of opposite signs,
235.
Sum
(
236.
shew
If (1
+ px2 + qx + r =
be equal and
[Queens' Coll. Camb.]
+ 2\v + 3 V +
+ ?ih; n ~ \
25
12
o.{
o:?
is.23.33
that pq = r.
the series
1
.v5
5?i 2
52
~i"
'
o3
22
Tx*
3
.3 .4
o33
+12/i + 8
"
w2 (w+1)3(tH-2) 3
[Emm. Coll. Camb.]
'
+V) (1 + a\i*)(l + ax
lc
+a*x**)
>)(\
&ndA 8n = a 2n A in and
;
terms
[Corpus Coll. Camb.]
find the first ten
237.
On
current from
to
man
238.
?i
th
2+ 2+ 2+
is
3 +1 + 3(-l)" +1
3 +1 -(-l)* +1
xn + p xxn ~ 1 +p 2 xn ~ 2 +
+pn =f(x) = 0,
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
516
Shew
240.
ax + a + \]bx + /3 + *J ex + y =
if
Ja s/b Jc = 0.
1 5.i-
- 7 + V4.r2 - 8x -
11
- \/2x2 - 5#+ 5 = 2# - 3.
fifth
243.
th
tYl
,
rth terms a,
a(b-c)\oga + b (e-a)
log b + c(a-b)\ogc = 0.
Find four numbers such that the sum of the first, third and
fourth exceeds that of the second by 8 the sum of the squares of the
first and second exceeds the sum of the squares of the third and fourth
by 36; the sum of the products of the first and second, and of the
third and fourth is 42 the cube of the first is equal to the sum of the
cubes of the second, third, and fourth.
244.
245.
If
1 {T\
246.
Eliminate
1
fi
-aTn Tn + + bTn*} =a
1
x, y, z
+-+y
z
Xs + y 3 +
constant.
z3
=-,
.r*+y2 +
= c3
Z>
xyz = d 3
.
i
are in proportion.
px3 + ox2 - rx + =
Hence
solve
.r
1 2.r
+ 47.^2 72.r + 36 = 0.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
517
And
249.
Sum
1+0-1+0 + 7 + 28 + 70+
(1)
2-2
I.2.3.4
(2)
(3)
if
l-
6- 23
'
(1)
x(g + z-x) = a,
y(z + x -y) = b,\
(2)
+ zx + x* = ay, I
x + xy+y2 = az.)
z
+y - z) = c.
(.</
[Peterhoisk, Camb.]
If
251.
h t
b
+ =
c
and a
,
J
111
+ + -=
7-
bn
aH
If
a+b+c
is
an odd integer,
shew that
1
'
an + b n + c n
252.
w2-v2 )6=16^V(l-w8)(lp8
).
..
If
and
(.'/
2 ~"
Find the
253.
{a (b + c)
2 2
}
z,
*')
= 27j9 3 - 24/-.
of
254.
Shew that
255.
By means
x+y+z
J
>.r*yy.s>(
J
J
[St John's Coll. Camb.]
of the identity \l
'
"
==
prove that
r=n
r=1 <
1;
r!(r-l)!(-r)!
"
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
518
256.
(1)
ax-\-by+z=zx-\-ay-\-b=yz + bj.
(2)
x -fy +z
~u =
12,\
+ a = 0.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
263.
264.
519
(y+z-8xfi+(z+x - y)i+(#+y - 8^ = 0,
is
265.
equation
1
x+a
x+b
are then
+ = +
abed
or d, or else -
- a, a,
'
'
b,
b,
or 0,
0,
'
'
have a pair
of
L
is
equal to one of
x+d
x+c
a+b
[Math. Tripos.]
Solve the equations
266.
(1)
x + y + z = ab, x- l + y- 1 + z- l = a-
(2)
ay z + by + cz = bzx + cz + ax = cxy + a.
b,
>;
xyz=az
+ by = a + b + c.
267.
(a-j8)(a-y)(a-*)(a-*)
+
+
>
^ +
...
^_
'
(*-.)( -/3)(e-
7 )(e-
8)
[London University.]
In a company of Clergymen, Doctors, and Lawyers it is
fcund that the sum of the ages of all present is 2160; their average
a;e is 36; the average age of the Clergymen and Doctors is 39; of the
268.
octors
ages.
269.
sum
its coefficients,
4<
two linear
[London University.]
of
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
520
Find the
270.
=a 2
2
2
2
2
y -f w + u = b
x2 + v 2
vw-hu{y + z)=^bc,
wu + v (z+x)=ca,
uv + w(x+y)=ab.
-\-w2
[Math. Tripos.]
no consonant or group of consonants
can stand immediately between a strong and a weak vowel the strong
vowels being a, o, u and the weak vowels e and i. Shew that the
whole number of Gaelic words of n + 3 letters each, which can be formed
It is a rule in Gaelic that
271.
ft + 3
2
of
aeo
is
where no
+2
ft
Shew
272.
that
if
x2 +y 2 = 2z 2 where
,
r,
I,
273.
and k are
x, y, z are integers,
2y = r(k2 + 2lk-l 2 ),
2x = r{l 2 + 2lk-k 2 ),
where
letter is re-
2z=r(l 2 + k 2 )
[Caius Coll. Camb.]
integers.
112
then
6
"
1+ 1+ 3+ 5+ 7+
to inf.
Sum
the series
-2
(1)
2.3
2.1-3
+ - +
3.4
3.^
B
inf.
.
+
4.5
-
to
|1
[2
-^
+
a+l (a + l)(a +
(2)
275.
[ft
+ (a
2)
+ l)(a + 2)...(a + n)
2^ + 3 = (2^-l)(3y + l)(42-l) + 12
(1)
= (2x+l)(3y- l)(4g + l) + 80 = 0.
3ux -2oy = vx + uy = 3u 2 + 2v 2 = 14
(2)
276.
Shew
that
a2 + \
ab
is divisible
by X 3 and
ab
b
+X
ac
be
ad
bd
c2
xy = 10v.
ac
ad
be
bd
+X
cd
cd
d +\
2
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
If c, b, c,... are the roots of the
277.
equation
sum
find the
521
a"
b'
a*
c2
2
I/
(t
>
Pn-iOr -2/*.,)
J
2> n
Hy the expansion of
278.
l-3+
wlien n
j-g
"
-cVo.-(-l),
1.2.3.4
is
279.
+ 2a'
(3/t-2)(3/t-3)(3w-4)
lT 273
first
number
was
2880, and the product of the numbers of shots fired by each was 48
times the product of the numbers of birds killed by each. If A had
fired as often as B and B as often as A, then B would have killed 5
more birds than A find the number of birds killed by each.
home
10
of the
of shots
280.
281.
Shew
that the
2
n lh convergent
3- 4- 5What
is
282.
If
is
the
?i
th
... is
'"
when n
2 +1
22 r (n-r)\
'
is infinite?
111111
a+
a+ b+
b+ c+
shew that
_
2-
to
p 3n + 3 = bp 3n + (bc+l)q 3n
c-\-
(/i
2)
(2* - 5)
-3+3 (-
1 )"}
[Math. Tripos.]
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
522
284.
and
?i
shew that
is
it is
of the form
by
divisible
(x2 +
+ z2 -yz zx xy
th
powers,
the sum of the products
If S is the sum of the
a
a
a
a
shew that
...
together of the n quantities lt 2
n
3,
286.
2
)
n- 1 S >
.
n-
\jm
P.
Prove that
287.
the equations
if
x3 + qx-r =
if
?' 2
=Q
common
have a
and
each
If
ax -
/C\)
x\
a1 ~
Cl
bx
a x -b n
b2
X.,
OC-%
an -
Oj
bx
+a
~~
+...+
^2
bo
+ ...+
X
a2 -
r
,
bn
x,
an ~
K
[London University.]
290.
yz - xl
Shew that
zx
- y2
xy z 2
where
r2
= x2 +y 2 + z 2
- yL
xy -z 2
yz x2
zx
xy -
z-
yz- x*
zx - y 2
r2
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
523
292.
Shew that
if
>S' r
is
the
sum
o H _ r = /6
then
.'-
sum
of
'^'T(t)'('*"-"i''
[St John's Coll. Camb.]
294.
(a
- 8a 2 b-c 2
Prove that
4{a 4 + /y 4 + y
/i{)
L^L.M_^,
,,.-^(^;)(;-^3^M,,,, t0ittcn
Prove that,
if
n be a positive integer
i-fc+?yq-*
< t
r??
~ B)
+""(->'[Oxford Mods.]
297.
If
x=y = z = u
if
this condition
is
satisfied the
[Math. Tkipos.]
524
298.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
Shew
that
if a, b, c
ax+yz + z = 0,
zx+by+z=Q, yz+zx+c=0,
[Oxford Mods.]
299.
A = ax -by-cz,
If
prove that
D=bz + cy,
E= ex + az,
F= ay + bx,
B=by-cz- ax,
C = cz- ax - by,
ABC- AD - BE? - CF 2 + 2DEF
= (a 2 + b2 + c2 (ax + by + cz) (x2 +y2 + z
2
2
).
certain
ANSWERS.
Paces 1012.
I.
1.
4
10.
20.
25.
26.
(1)
546
a.
(2)
7.
5.
11,
bx
(3)
2.
13.
6.
= y = *-,or^- = Q.
17.
18.
385, 600.
3.
6 or - 3
5.
abc+2fgh-af*-bg*-cti>=0.
22.
7,3,2.
-3,4,1.
21.
3,4,1.
2
2
a (62 - c 2 ), b (e 2 - a 2 ), c (a - ft ).
be(b-c) ca(c-a),ab(a-b).
3,4,1.
23.
Pages
II.
'
ay.
45
2.
5-
14.
(1)
12.
19, 20.
(2)
300a3 6.
15.
0,j 3,> 8.
13
li.
u, o,
18
21.
45 gallons.
25.
19
5 parts of bronze.
g, 9, 10, 15.
23.
20.
z3
3.
3 gallons
17:3.
-.
,.
7T
cm- bm -2aii
from A 8 gallons from
a = b.
24.
;
B.
63 or 12 minutes.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
526
IV.
1.
277.
153.
2.
a.
Pages
3.
0.
31, 32.
4.
n (v 10 -*>'
30.
5.
o
6.
10.
-42.
820a -16806.
-j,
16.
z2 -a:+l,
20.
612.
1325^/3.
8.
11.
--,..., -9|.
a;
14.
-2a; + 2,
...,
21
12.
1,
-l,...,-39.
15.
x.
(11a -96).
a
o
2a
Uff5.
b.
?i
22.
1, 4, 7.
26.
n(+l)a--.
4.
First term 8,
5.
First
6.
...,a%
3.
19.
5.
23.
495.
24.
160.
Pages
-31z,
18.
35, 36.
8 or -13.
10 or -8.
2.
-33a;,
17.
+1
1.
3.
2,5,8,...
8.
25.
fi
2(l-.r)
(2
13.
3, 5, 7, 9.
14.
20.
2,4,6,8.
10p-8.
22.
3, 5,
+ rc~ 8 ^r)
12.
%2
12,
-te + 2)-
[Assume
15.
7.
10#
for tbe
7; 4,5,6.
V.
1.
75^/5.
+ l)a-n2 b.
{n
4, 9, 14.
21.
IV.
9"
9.
1
13.
25.
-185.
7.
a.
21.
8 terms.
23.
ry = (n + l-r)x.
Pages
41, 42.
ANSWERS.
1-g"
1-a'
(l-a)2
8
3'
10
10>
4/2 a +
Pages
46, 40.
(i
2ft '
'
10
^ ^i'"
r=(.r 5 -l)
x--l
l'\
15.
^r.
16.
li.
21
VI.
Pages
a.
xy-1
23
1-pJ.
9
(i + .)iy-d
f
c -
a 7/ (x"//"
2 /
1H
n(n+l) a
*-l
2o
Zl
(l-r)fl-H
s(.r-l)
14.
b.
mi"
'
-
V.
527
B.2"+f -2* + 2.
19.
'-"!S'":""
-
?*-
52, 53,
2
1.
4.
11.
13.
(1)
5.
Gaud
(2)
3*.
(3)
2.
24.
^w(?t +
0^, 79-
l)(?i 2
3.
4:9.
5.
10.
|,
12.
gn(n+l)(2+7).
14.
+1
J (3
4" +1
18.
The n th term = + c
,l
1)
J, I
>r (
+ ?i + 3).
15.
11
1).
2' 1 + 1 .
term
19.
3H-
is
+ b + c;
v\
22.
1.
12,0.
6.
52.
(2n
n greater than
1),
(2a
+ n^ld)
la*
VI.
Page
b.
+ (n -
1)
+ 3c,
"
1}
ad + -
1140.
3.
16646.
4.
2170.
7.
11879.
8.
1840.
9.
11940.
300.
12.
18296.
15.
120.
16.
n-1.
d*
a.
Tack
59.
2.
728G26.
3.
1710137.
4.
*7074.
6.
334345.
7.
1783212G.
8.
1625.
9.
2012.
10.
13.
1456.
14.
7071.
15.
16.
(1)
121.
12.
231.
(2)
122000.
VII.
b.
190.
10.
333244.
M90001.
21321.
5.
1.
11.
fr
14.
VII.
5c,
Tho first
+ 7c,....
56.
2.
11.
-f
1.
Pages
65,
112022.
5.
842.
-
66.
1.
20305.
2.
4444.
3.
11001110.
4.
2000000.
6.
34402.
7.
6587.
8.
8978.
9.
26011.
5.
10.
87214.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
528
11.
30034342.
12.
710^3.
16.
20-73.
17.
125-0125.
20.
Nine.
2714687.
13.
14.
-2046.
15-1*6.
15.
25.
31.
18.
Four.
21.
Twelve.
22.
Twelve.
30.
2 n + 27 + 2 6
Ten.
26.
39
Pages
a.
Eleven.
72, 73.
^6 + ^15
3+
z.
- \/ a6
a*/ 6 + & \/ a
+ 6)"'
~~2^
~~
a-1
33
+ 33 2^+3
8.
56
9.
a6
+ 33
541322
.
56
23+
56
19
10
11
23-
22
56
-2 2
12.
10
11
+5
22
18.
33
10
21
11
1-33 + 33
+3*.
17
22
1 \
33
5
.
22-
33
23.
31262116
17#
25
11
+26+2 6 +26+26+2 6 + l
J
5
3*+3+l.
+ 33.23-33.22.
+ 36_ 3 6 +3
2 \
3
10.
33
21
11
15
22- 3
2+
|S&4 33 1\
6_
i(36_36
22-
23".
23
32
145
-
56
3 4 +. ..+53.34
4~.
1
.
2 2 + 22.
13
"-7
.7 4 +2.7 2
53+53
32
:1
110
23
(a - 1)
+3
-a 6 6*+a%2"-...+a6*-6 4
11.
+ N/2a
7.
y/a 2 - 1
^2 + ^/3 + /5
6.
a-1
24.
5.
16
Eight.
15.
5
o
+ ^/2 + ^/6
23.
5
6
o
19.
-3 8 -3 7 -3 -3 + 3 3 + 3 + l.
6
l.
14.
2
.
VIII.
3*
gj
+ 8 6 + 86
19.
Q
o
aA " 4/^
25.
+ ^/3.
3-2^/2.
28.
JU-2J2.
30.
3^/3-^/6.
31.
a/^^+a/|-
36.
289.
37.
5v/ 3
V 5 -\/7 + 2^3.
21.
1+^/3-^/2.
23.
24.
3-
26.
+ Ja-JSb.
2 + ^/5.
27.
29.
2^/3 +
35.
ll
+ 56 x/3.
+ ^7-2.
22.
20.
^/5.
v/5
^7 + ^2 - <J3.
ANSWERS.
41.
3^3 + 5.
3 + ^/5 = 5-23007.
43.
Sa+Jlr^^r.
38.
1.
0-2^/6.
4.
.i-
-x
_8_
7
-
29*
3a 2 -
10.
39.
529
40.
3.
42.
44.
a^ +
8^3.
l+^+a
x^/2
s 2.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
530
IX.
7.
1.
-2.
7.
(aa'
- bb'f + 4 (ha'
\bb'
10.
(ac'
- a'c)
2.
2ac'
2a' c)
= (ab' -
5.
+ Jib)
= (b
a'b) (be'
(Jib'
96.
(ln'-l'nf=(lm'-l'm)(mn'-m'n).
+ Ji'a) = 0.
- 4ac)
(b'
- 4a'c')
which reduces
b'c).
X.
1.
Page
c.
a.
Pages
101, 102.
to
'
ANSWERS.
X.
8
-p
1.
*=5,
3.
*=1, -
5.
.r
= 8,
15
-
y=4,
y
PAGES
b.
= l, -^.
2; y = 2,
8.
531
L06,
4.
.i= o,
13.
ar=5,
14.
= 4,
15.
.r
16.
.t'=r>
-2,
d=
!/
=3
>
8.
~;y = 20,
17.
5.
21.
23.
x = l,
25.
<r=
26.
*=6, 2,4,3; y = l,
27.
x=5,
28.
a.^
29.
a:= -
30.
.r
32.
s*-
*=i.V^;y=2,3^/i.
35.
36.
.r=?/=2.
37.
x=o,
= 0,
3,
>
5L-
/a
,
~3
= 2,
2
-.
i25; y = 9.
4
31.
/rt
~u
=f
.c
= 0,
33>
1,
*=
^
2,
y=0,
Vl,
2;
2,
^.
T/---2,
v/-18.
=0
-^*
--^
((Sa-
_//-'
;
1 3^/^143
>
3, 9.
a (26 -a)
2.
|,
'>
y=0,
'
48
3;
9,
-, 2; y=5, 4, 10, 8.
107
tr
fe
9.
;^!,-.
+ ^143 V-
. 1
6,
2.
16.
.r
y=l,
24.
= l,
as=2, 1;
19.
# = 5; y =4.
4,
J.
15.
22.
1; y
= 3, 5.
20.
= 9,
vy
r
v -ll + l; y=2,
s=6, 4; y=10,
a; =16, 1; y=l,
18.
97
4=f>/-97'
>
x=5, 3; y=3,
10.
.7,
,,
.r
^^,^^=0,^6^/1.
4 v/-^7
2,
= 45, 5; y = 5, ]:,.
x = 2, 3; 7/= 1, 2.
6.
12.
3,
8
-_
x=
11.
9.
2.
x=9, 4; y=4, 9.
.r= 2, 3; ?/= 3, 4.
s=2, 1; y=l, 3.
7.
107.
'
~T
342
2-/4, 6.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
532
40.
41.
x/7,
x = 0,
#= 1,
2a
1.
x = 3;
3.
af=5,
5.
.x
6.
x = 3;
8.
# = 8, -8; y = 5, -5;
= 5; z
Pages
c.
2Vi5i
^
3,
?/
*=1;
?/
12.
.t=1,
-2;
13.
# = 4,
?/
*/
4,
= 3,
# = 8, -3;
;
7.
jr=
9.
.c
11.
-3;
= 6, ;
?/
= 2,
= 7.
= 3; 2 = 3,
1; 2
?/
5; y= 1;
= 3;
?/
= 4;
=a, -2a,
1.
o
.r
= 5, -7;
y = 3, -5;
.r
= a,
y = 0,
14.
0, 0;
a, -
y = 2,
Page
d.
a, 0; 2
"
a;
= 2a,
-4a, (l v/-15)
a?=l,
3, 5, 7, 9;
2/
3.
ar-20, 8; y = l,
8.
4.
5.
# = 30, 5; ?/=9,
32.
6.
.t
7.
x=7p-5,
8.
s=l$p-2,
y=5p-4,
5, 8, 11.
19, 14, 9, 4.
1.
3; y
= 3,
13.
11 horses, 15 cows.
16.
To pay
17.
19.
an infinite
To pay 17 florins
37,99; 77,59; 117,19.
20.
21.
18.
1147
?/
3 guineas
14.
10.
4.
12.
1.
44.
11; y=6p-l, 5.
= 17/), 17; = 13^, 13.
x = llp- 74, 3; y = 30p-25, 5.
11.
.t
y = 8p-5, 3.
= 23^-19,
= 50,
= 21^-9, 12;
x = 19p-W, 3;
9.
a.
113.
2.
2;
0, a.
' a-
z = 29,
= 24,
= 0,
1.
21, 13, 5;
-8.
'
-6.
X.
= 6,
a; y = a,
==
= -; w = -.
^-^3'
16.
8.
11
= 3,
= 2,
11
= 3.
= 7,
4.
-3.
# = 5;
i5.
2
109, 110.
2=7151
y = S,
= t2; 2=
= 2;
10.
-"2 - 1
16 * 4
2.
4.
-1; y = l 5; =2.
= 4,
= 2a, =
?/
,716a4 -a8 -1
X.
?/
ift^/13, 3a,
101.
?/
15.
56p.
'
ANSWERS.
XI.
533
Tacks 12212-4.
a.
1.
12.
2.
221.
3.
4.
6720.
5.
15.
6.
40320; 720.
8.
6.
9.
120.
15, 860.
7.
10.
720.
11.
10626, 1771.
15.
230300.
12.
1440.
13.
6375G00.
14.
360, 144.
16.
1140, 231.
17.
144.
18.
224, 896.
19.
848.
20.
56.
21.
360000.
22.
2052000.
23.
3(19600.
24.
21000.
25.
yJ^-p.
26.
2520.
27.
5700.
28.
9466.
29.
2903040.
30.
25920.
32.
41.
33.
1956.
34.
7.
XL
Pages
b.
3326400.
(2)
129729000.
151351200.
4.
360.
5.
nr
8.
531441.
9.
1.
(1)
3.
7.
1663200.
131, 132.
(3)
72.
n
11.
1260.
12.
3374.
13.
15.
4095.
16.
57760000.
17.
19.
127.
2.
4084080.
6.
125.
10.
455.
30.
14.
yunrwr
1023.
720; 3628800.
18.
inn
315.
20.
21.
'
24.
*Jil>-i<zi> + l;
(1)
P(p-l){p-
(2)
113; 2190.
2454.
28.
XIII.
6
26.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
6666600.
29.
Pages
a.
(p + l)*-l.
30.
142, 143.
15a; 4
//
32.c
<
6
,
1.
- 80x*y +
80.r
y -
40.r-y
+ lO.r//
- if.
18rt 2
*/
*/
81a;8
16
8.
1+
Ix
21x 2
T + ~T~
35a; 3
35a;
~8_ +
l<T
21x n
~32~
23.
\ii
64; 325.
22.
'
{\m) n
^+~
7xG
64
x7
128"
5199960.
42.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
534
64a;
10
32a; 4
7ft
135
+ 4a; 2 _
20a-
729~~2~r
^~
2
45
10
35ft
5~ + n
+
8
X'
a'
13.
- 35750a: 10
16.
J~(5a;) 3 (8?/)- 7
64a; 6
,
'
+ 7ft 6 + 4ft 7 +
r+
a;
729
210
252
210
5-
7ft
+
x*
120
1- + -Z
,
12.
8a;
7ft 3
+ ytv
+ t?
^T^
2ob
lb
lb +^T
4
11.
243
120
14.
- 112640a 9
17.
40ft7 6 3 .
ft
8
.
45
10
iC
:8
130
.
x,.io
15.
1120
18.
81
;27|3_
10500
19.
a:
20.
(16a; 4
22.
2x
24.
2 (3 65
27.
110565ft 4
30.
+ 5ft 4 ).
20a; 2 ft 2
28.
21
'"I6
70x 6 y 10
189ft17
312a; 2
a 19
252.
25.
84ft 3 & 6
31.
MK
21.
2x4 + 24a; 2 + 8.
23.
140^2.
26.
-^a; 14
29.
1365, -1365.
32.
18564.
34.
7
18*
Bn
In
33.
|i(-r)!4(H + r)'
9 th
The
5.
The3 rd = 6|.
10.
11.
b.
The 12 th
2.
Pages
The 4 th and
6.
The
3.
147, 148.
14.
5.
5 th =Jrj>
9.
x = 2,
xr-i a n-r+l.
14.
-2
5*
1
__8_
25*
- x - a; 2 - - a; 3
x-
a.
13.
(- l) p
15.
2r = n.
Page
155.
?/
+ 2 a- + _a;-__a:-.
4.
6.
14
7.
l-aj+ga^-g^3
1+X+
6-U-
- z*>-*"+\
,
.,
p + 1 2n -p
125
+ a; + 2a; 2 +
a;
3
.
8.
10.
a; + ;r
a;
l-2ft + -ft-
ar
11*.
= 3, n=5.
I2n+1
2.
The 10 th and
XIV.
3>
4.
6 th .
n
12.
1)
|| 2/i*
XIII.
1.
ANSWERS.
U.
18.
1040
lr
(r
21-
-i
a-
lb
<//
250
10//
19.
2 43rt
+ l)(r+2)(r + 3) a?-.
_,
lr
*J
i(l + * + * + |).
!4.
._
20.
,.
(-1)
22.
2 3
(r
+ 1)**
(2r-3)
...
23
'
24.
-1848.1 13
535
3r| r
10719
-i^-z<\
25.
XIV.
Pages
b.
1.3.5.7...(2r-l)
*
(>
^y
x
>
161, 162.
+ !)
+ 2)(r + 3)(r + 4 )
^1.2.5... (3r-4)^,
p
2.5.8. ..(8r-l)
4>
3'-
3.5.7... (2r +
l)
t
/_nrfellt2) *~.
5
r -r
*{-*)
fi
6.
xr
xr
^_
br
r+1
2 .1.4...(3r-5)
9<
V>--'
3'lr
2.5.8... (3r-l)
17.
The 3**.
The 4 th and
20.
9-99333.
13.
24.
14.
5* h .
21.
1.3.5... (2,-1)
U
"
(n
18.
5 th
\r
The
15.
The
10 00999.
3 r<1
22.
19.
G- 99927.
16.
The
7 ,h .
989949.
23.
-19842.
.r
J
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
53G
/
14.
18.
2\-'
1V H
(2)
20.
Series
21.
2 2 "- 1
on the
[Use
(c
left
+ (
1) q n 2
{l
+ x) n f 1 + -
= coefficient
45.
(1)
(1
(2)
+ x)9^ 1 .
=z 2 (l +
of x- n in (1 -
.t
o;)
n-2.
2 )-*
|2w
- J
'
In
ire
+c1 + c2 +
..
2
.c
XV.
1.
|2n
2 (Coc,
+ c lCs + ...) = c 2 + Cl 2 + c 22 +.
Pages
173, 174.
.c
].
6561.
answers.
XVI.
Pages
b.
537
185, 186.
1.
4,1,2,2,1,1,1.
2.
3.
5, 2, 4, 1.
4.
5.
1-8061800.
9.
1-1583626.
13.
units' place
1-9242793.
6.
decimal place.
fifth
1-1072100.
7.
2*0969100.
8.
10.
-6690067.
11.
-3597271.
12.
-0503520.
f-5052973.
14.
-44092388.
15.
1-948445.
16.
1915631.
17.
1-1998692.
18.
1-0039238.
19.
9-076226.
20.
178-141516.
21.
9.
25.
4-29.
28.
4-562.
301.
23.
3-46.
24.
.-_.
log 3 -log 2'
29.
31og3-21og2
32.
-,
2
9.
e*~-cy~.
7i
= 50
12
in
10.
= 10
?*
(2.r)
^.
2 ji +
/)4
/>-
Pages 195197.
log, 3
-log,
2.
in (1);
and
?i
= 1000
13 .
in (1) respectively.
"'
1 r 3r + 2r
<-
^.
(2x)- r
(2x) 4
/y*-7*
/y6
,*
1^+iog.a-*).
E
a=
= - log,
-0020000000666670.
1"
6.
.,*,
J = 5-614.
lr ..ri>.
r
14
log 2
2.
(2)
-log 2'
log 3
l0g
XVII.
log, 2.
(1
A^ - -040821995
XVIII.
a.
-log, (l -
= log,
Page
f1
=-105360516;
iA = -012422520.
202.
1.
1146.
14s. 10J.
2.
720.
3.
14-2 years.
4.
6768.
7s.
10hd.
5.
9-6 years.
8.
496. 19*.
9.
little less
than 7 years.
10.
XVIII.
1.
6 percent.
4.
3 per cent.
5.
8.
6755. 13s.
9.
13.
14-200.
27.
lo S 2
log3
?,
log 7
1.
fr
J
1-206.
26.
2.
1308. 12s. 4 U.
b.
3137.
28J years.
183. 18s.
15.
4200.
Pack
2s.
6.
10.
4frf.
207.
2U.
3.
1275.
3} per cent.
110.
7.
920.
11.
616.
2s.
9s.
ld
538
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
XIX.
8.
14.
22.
a 3 + 2& 3
The
4
4
.
is
the greater.
greatest value of
5
;
12.
is 1.
when x = 3.
XIX.
,n
3 3 .5 5
a.
/3
/2
b.
Pages
x s > or
213, 214.
< # 2 + x + 2,
15.
23.
9,
Pages
according as x > or
8.
when #=1.
218, 219.
< 2.
ANSWERS.
5.
8.
x<-
x> -
11.
or x
10.
x-1,
convergent;
e
9.
or
y- a - (3
if
5:5!)
divergent.
Divergent,
7.
,.
divergent.
divergent.
If x = l and if 7~a-/3 is positive,
negative, 01 zero, divergent.
is
The
XXII.
Page
a.
256.
jn(n+l)(n+2)(n+3).
l.
-n(4n-l).
2.
3.
in(n+l)(n+2)(3n+5).
4.
?t
5.
6.
p3
7.
&3
8.
ad=bf, 4a%-0=8ay.
13.
= 27a 2
- a/ 2 -
+ 2/^ft
flic
c*=27acP.
3
6jy -
<Z,
2
c/i
+ Zx + 4x2 + 7x s
+ x-- x - + - X 3.
5.
- aX + a
6.
a = l, b
9.
3.
Page
b.
3
-
= 1, &=-l,
X3
1)
260.
4.
+ 1) x* - (a 3 + 2a 2 -
= 2.
11
X+s
X2
:i
21
+mX
.
.,.
7.
is
l-7x-x 2 -4Zx
(a
2.
(2n 2 -l).
= 0.
XXII.
1.
= 2.
+ -00000000000003.
an
11.
(1
- a2)
a) (1
(1
- a3 )
(1
4
r^
l-3.c
2
4.
zr
X-l
7.
+3
X*+l
41.r
10.
*'
1-2.T*
-
a:
i.
3.r-5
^.
-3'
a:
5
}
?;
3.
4x+H'
,11
1+--
5.
.r
5 (x
l-2x
+2
(x
+ 2) 2
1)
'
11
17
16(s + l)
4(.c+l)
17
2
1(5
(x- 3)*
15
x + 5'
7
3.r
13
(.r-lf
T I-l
'
.r
+ 2.r-5
1-x'
8
3
"
;,T
TTl-7
7T,+
(.l-l)
(*-!)
-,
265, 266.
- 1
x-2 +
8.
7
n
n
x -2
1
.t
5
^
Pages
XXIII.
!
- a")
.r-3"
5(2.r
+ 3)
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
540
12
'
13
ld
X-l
X+l
{x
+ l)
{X
BiiWsoW
4
_il
+
'
8(I^j-3(I^) + (r^y-
"
4lI^)
18
19
'
1
4(l
31
2la^I)
3a;
;?
2(rT^)
3
d
(l-sc)
(a
(l-x)
b) (a
+ llr
+
c)
(6
- c) (6^o)
11)
a:'-
(+-?)*
1{{
eVen '2
'
-(2^p-2^ + (I^-)2 +
f9\
'
!{9r + 8+(-l)'2~}V.
12
1-sc
2
*" +
23
2^+V
-2 r +2}^.
1)2
_JL J_l_
2
n
c^" 2
r^; f+-
7.
+x
(4r+1)
x
(l-3
(l-.r) 2
'
xn+l
i_ xn+i
x*
l-^
272.
l-4x
'
+ x-2x*
>
6'
'
+ ax)
'
W*
<
1)2 }XT
3 - 12* + Use2
'
+ -
XXIV. Page
(TT^25
-h
5r + 9)
25
(c-a)(c-b) 1
+ aP+tx
.-r(l-a)(l-.'c 2)
(1-a) \l + a x
*'
- 3}a;r;r0dd
'
'
;4M
+1
'
^r+2
22
^p
-1
(- l)' r
{1+
>'-V
3V5'-
"
V~* J
3(x + 2)'
{X+l)*'
flll(+
+ *)' 3\
3(2
3(* + 5)
+ 1)3
Pn-r-4n*.
3(1-*)
15.
1-Sx
+(-
1 ) r2r
r
-
3- + 2n-l;-(3-l) + 2n-l.
3(1-2^*)
1-2*
'
"
ANSWERS.
11.
12.
-3 n _ 1 + 3 u _o-j/ n _3=:0;
Sn =5aD -S, where 2 = smn
?/
may
13.
13
1'
6'
'
2'
5'
10
'
323
150'
074
313*
232'
1497'
1174
95
85
121
11
26
37
'
'
'
1+ 1
6.
JL _L JL JL J_ JL *
3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+3'
_1_JLJ^JL_!
3+~
3T 5+ IT 1+
J__l_ J_ J_
10.
16.
"30"
^
109"
Ill
2+ 1+
_1_1.
11
35"
_7
19"
11111111
3
3+ 3+ 3+ 6+ 1+ 2+ 1+
4
'
'
2+ 1+ 2+ 2+ 1+
12
'
157
4+ 3+ 2+ 1+
"359
1117
+ 2+
'
'
'
J__l_l
3+ o+
n - 1
+7
(n
3'
r-
10'
jt
7i
- 1
+l
and the
n2
?j
XXV.
j
11
a+
(203)
4.
and
"'
151
11
"2(1250)**
+ !)+
- n2 + n -
Packs 281283.
b.
+2) + a +
"
3'
?5i
223'
39
161'
47
194*
first
~n*~
(a
33'
29'
i'
+ l) + (n-l)+
~T~' n+~l'
7+ 5+ 6+ 1+
208*
GO*
+ J_J^AJl_
G3
259
//
277, 278.
JU3
36
Pages
43
105'
13
a.
22'
'
term.
f7'
1
2
'
.r"
to
XXV.
28
13'
15
12
shewn
easily be
This
l-2'
l-3.r"
l-.r
541
115'
a*+3a+3
+ 3a- + la + 2
'
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
542
XXVI.
7m + 100,
1.
a=
2.
x = 519t-73,
3.
x = 3934 + 320,
4.
Four.
8.
290, 291.
2/
?/
?/
?/
Seven.
5.
^3117
12'
Pages
8*'
12'
\
8'
6. 13s.
L
12
^
;
-.
1_
12*
8'
x = 9, y = S,
9.
-,
6.
= l.
= S.
10.
x = 5, y = 6,
= 9,
s=7.
11.
x = 4,
13.
<c
14.
aj=l,
15.
280 + 93.
17.
19.
20.
21.
425.
18.
= 3,
y=2,
7, 2, 6,
3,
2; y
1; y
= 5,
= ll,
3; z = 2, 4,
1,
J
'
d
-
7.
899.
2T4T'-
11
+ 3+"6+"
3-f
d
-
198
2
-
3970
1197
2889
1292"
IT4+ -
99
35"
1
1
J_
+ J. J_
1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 6+"-
6
'
119
;
33
""'
31
197
.
"''
42
1351
'
4+""
116
1+ 2+ 1+ 6+
+ _1_ J_
2+ 6+
294, 295.
+ _L J_ JL J_ JL J_
1+ 2+ 4+ 2+ 1+ 8+
9
Pages
a.
1111
23.
485
;
1, 2, 2, 3.
181,412.
"15*
?/
= 7.
3.
26
"
= 1,
16.
XXVII.
1+2+
4, 8, 1, 5;
22.
as=2,
12.
J_
JL_
"390"'
111111
11111111
111111
JL
1_
1+ 1+ 1+ 10+
198
;
35
161
11.
12.
1+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 1+ 12+
12
1
13.
ie
D
'
21
1+ 1+ 1+ 5+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 24+
4+ 1+ 1+ 2+ 1+ 1+ 8+ ""
_1_
'
'
Jj_
J_
_1
1_
'"'
253
'
'
20
12
55*
47_
1111111111
5+ 1+ 2+ 1+ 10+
_1
10+ 2+
270'
1+ 3+ 1+ 16+ 1+ 3+ 2+ 3+ 1+ 16+
1_
280
.
'' 351*
5291
>
'"' 4830*
ANSWERS
4030
401
9
'
'
3+3T-
21,
483
1111
a
4+
24
1(577
20
+ r
1+ 1+ 1+ 4+
22.
"4.*>
23.
...
'
11111
rT2+8+3+3+-
26.
Positive root of x-
28.
4^/2.
+ 3 -3 = 0.
111
+ 3+ 1+
2+2 +
""
"
25
'
27.
30.
-.
-4 = 0.
XXVII.
1
a+
1.
2a
+ 2a+ 2a+
4.
a+
6.
:,
-8a + l
8a-4
2a- -1
8a 2
301, 302.
2T 2(a-l)T 2+ 2(a-l)+
,;
1111
1111
+ 8a + l
8a 2 + 4a
2a2 6 2 + 4a& + l
"'
'
'
1111
b+
2a + b
+ 2a +
2a
8a
2a+ 2+ 2a + 2+
a-l-t
6.
8a 4 + 8a2 +
""'
8a + 4a
1_
J.
a-l +
3.
Pages
b.
'
2a&*+26
'
2a/i-l
""
1+ 2(n-l) + 1+ 2(a-l)+
432a + 180a 3 + 15a
141a 4 + 36a 2 +1
'
"
2/i
7.
Page
XXVIII.
s=7
l.
or
1,
2/
= 4; s=7
or
5,
311.
y=6.
4.
6.
x = 79,
7.
x = 15,
?/
9.
x=32, y=5.
3.
12.
2.r
y=157,
x = 170, y = 39.
8.
x = lG4, y = 21.
10.
2V
'3
2^/5
4.
= 4.
n
# = 2, y = l.
2.
y = {2 + s/3)
11.
(2
x=4, y = l.
- v/3);
/t
being any
integer.
13.
2x = (2 + v/5) n +(2-^/5)'
even positive integer.
14.
2x =
(4
mode
^=
2 V/17.
(2
?/
+ ^5)"- (2 - v/5);
n being uny
= (4 + x /17) - (4 - v/17);
n being
to 15
17, 19, 20 will vary according to the
of factorising the two sides of the equation.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
544
x = 11 fi -
15.
3/t 2 ,
y = m? - 2mn.
x=2mn, y = 5m?-n*.
m--n-\ 2mn; m 2 + w 2
Hendriek, Anna Claas,
17.
19.
16.
x=-
18.
20.
m2 -n2
21.
m 2 + 2mn + n~;
2mn + n'
y = m2 -
?i
2
.
XXIX.
Pages
a.
321, 322.
1.
3.
(3>i
2) (3n
1) (3/i
2.
+ 4)
(3n
+ l)(n +
fc
n
3;i+l'
'
=^^
t-t^
^r
+ 1) (2/7 + 3)'
5
2/1 + 5
+ l) (?? + 2) 4*
4(2/1
'
9.
,~.
12"
'
(7i
16.
(n + 1) (n + 2) (3/r + 36n
1?
(n-l)(n+l)(n+2)
6(2n+l)
4).
50)
3)
?i(7i
+ l);
+ l) 2
5.
rc(+l)(n+2)(n+4);
(l-.r) 3
+ 3)(h + 4)
(n+l)(n+2)
n+1"
20
Z)'
Pages
b.
-77 (/7+1) (n 2 - 3u
6*
H+
-7l+~r
332, 333.
5/t
+ 3/7;
(n
+ 1)
(5/7
+ 7).
l-a; +
7
2).
^n(n+l) (n+2)(n+3)(4+21).
2
*
1
;
(n+l)(n+2)(3n+l).
-4raa (n-3);
.r
(u
n
j (-l)(w + l)(n + 2)(2n+l).
2.
4.
15.
7t
24*
'
4)
3.
(/i
ig
XXIX.
3 2 + 7i;
h+3
l) (3//
+
+ 2~^2~
~^~
(n+l)(n +
n(/t
12.
(/t
i'
3)
1
^T 24
6(3/i +
-?i2 (n 2 -l).
1.
1
3*
11
14.
19,
7.
t^ 12
12
5.
1.
n+1'
'4
+ 7).
6)(/i
,
;
8.
+2)
1) (n
11
-( n
6.
n (n+
7)
71
4.
6.x-
-2.r 3
(l-a;)3
2-.r + .r 2
(I-*; 3
1-aJ
1 + lLc + lla^+g3
(1+.t)-
(l-z)
gj.
13.
3.2 +
/7
+ 2; 6(2"-l) +
'
^+5
^
.
ANSWERS.
545
14.
n-(n+l) s ; ^(Sn+2n*-15n-26).
16.
17.
3--1 + 1 n
- xn
1
18.
'
+ 1)
(n
(3
+1
8)
2n
(3k3
n
- xn
>i.r
"
(1-*)"
(1 - xf
n
+
n- 1 4 1
2
19.
21
'
'
+ 27k 2 + 58n + 2)
23.
)i
"
(n
1)
2(1 -a?)
60
25.
12
1
- -
2'1.3.5.7
(2k
+ 1)'
2t+i
1-
26.
27.
+ 2'
|k
(n-l)3+1 +3.
28.
n
30.
31.
n+
(e
(e
- e~ x ) - x.
- c~ x
+ x)e x
(l
5.
1-
33.
XXIX.
-
1-3-5
2.4.6
2""^T2
1.
-k + 4)2"-4.
+ ie~ ix ).
1+
2(k+1)(k + 2)
*3"'
{p
k+4
(K + l)(K+2)
'
1
n
2 +1
'
-log(l-ar).
1
4.
(2k + 2)"
Pages 338340.
c.
2.
ie ix
(2/t+l )
1
32>
(k 2
29
2.
n+
(r-2)|r-T
+ q) r
7.
1.
0.
10.
4.
3(<3-l).
13.
e*-log(l +
II
8.
k(2-1).
9.
2-,
12.
lo g<
11.
...
14
>
<
15.
5
?i
?f
3
71*
+ 2--6 +
n8
K
42'
17.
(1
2 \
-'
)2
+ k+
lo-a+.T)-
n2J
?i
(J)
lot'.
20.
6
71
?l'
X
'
(1)
7kb
7k 4
12
24
.r).
ir
12
n + 1.
k+
'
^.
21.
(n-fl)2~.
4.r
22
-
H. H. A.
2+i
xn
7TT2-~^~ 3
n (k + 1) (12k 3 + 33na + 37n + 8)
15
24.
( + l)(. + 5) _
n+1
22.
11
1
20.
+g)
nx
1 - x
- a;) 2
(1
(n
3*+ n~+"
S*-i + n;
15.
+ (-!)+'}
<-)
+ (_1)
5l2
(n+l)(n+2)/'
35
'
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
54G
XXX.
1.
3, G, 15, 42.
7.
23.
(jl,
where
is
2.
1h
10.
2 to 3.
2197
20825
11
16.
18.
Pages 356358.
a.
Pages 367369.
18.
2.
6.
integer.
XXXII.
5.
b.
an
XXXI.
348, 349.
8987.
33.
x = 139t +
Pages
2.
:.
20.
a.
a.
it
Pages 376,
377.
ANSWERS.
11.
14.
A 5; B
MX
(1)
20
11.
12.
...
I, ,
shillings.
276
(2)-
XXXII.
1.
13.
27
250
7770
.j
15.
4a".
16.
17.
31+
in.
d.
Pages
309, 400.
47
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
548
26.
27.
The determinant
is
w'
v'
v'
v!
10
equal to
=0.
a?
ANSWERS
XXXIV.
1.
x3 + xy 2 + ay- = 0.
2.
4.
y-
= a(x-Sa).
5.
7.
9.
6 e
+a
+6
-3=1.
1
1+<Z
+d
+c
13.
ab = l
15.
(a+6)*-(a-5)$=4c$.
17.
abc = (ic
(o
c.
+b-
a-b - c) 2
1)-
(a
-b)cr+(a- c)
bq
1) (a-
(b
c)
+y=o*
+ys =2as
10.
12.
5a 2 6 3 = 6c 5
14.
a3 + 6 3
a
1
i
aB
+ c 3 +abc = 0.
+ c 2 2abc = l.
18.
2 -4a&c + ac 3 + 46 3 -&V = 0.
- 2a6 + & 2 - a - b) + ab = 0.
22
6.
16.
{a+
3.
8.
abed
20.
= 0.
rt
11.
449, 450.
a*-a*=l.
+ c a + a 6 = cf-b-c-J
a -4</c 3 + 36 4 = 0.
4
Pages
c.
z+
549
ap +
(b
a) cr
b2
+
(c
a) bq
+ (c - b) ap
1
23.
ac'
a'b
- a'c
ad' - a'd
ac'
XXXV.
3.
4.
re
6.
-2
(a 2
+ b 2 x 2 + {a 2 )
b2 )2
cd'
2'
2'
_3
2'
4'
113
2' 4*
c'd
+ 2xr - lis*-
1,3,
p
~-
= 0.
456, 457.
x*
5.
b'c
b'd
2.
6x 4 -13x 3 -12x 2 + 39.r-18 = 0.
4
3
2
6 ox* - 8x + 40x + 1 G.r - 80r = 0.
x
1.
Pages
a.
- a'd
bd! - b'd
ad'
a'c
3"
5, 7.
12.r 3
+ 3Gx 2 = 0.
'
.)
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
50
9.
11.
s4 - 10^+ 1=0.
3
2
ar - 6a; + 18x - 26a; + 21 = 0.
10.
re
12.
8
a;
10a; 3
-19.r 2 + 480a;
1 6.r 6
+ 88a;
+192.t
-1392 = 0.
2
+ 144 = 0.
15.
One
One
16.
Six.
21.
pq-r.
22.
^-3.
24.
pr-ls.
25.
2
2
i
p -4p q + 2q + 4:pr-4LS.
13.
positive,
positive,
1.
3.
5.
10.
4
a,-
2a;
+ 8a;
16aa;7i
2, 2,
(.r
13.-2,
l.
2.
+ 7a;
1,
/*
+ 7a;
1, 1,
1,
17.
a, a,
-a,
19.
0, 1,
-|, -|
22.
(1)
+ h + 2bh
)
- 37a; 2 -
2.
16.
x/3,
(2)
0, 1,
-|, -|.
-1.
27.
d.
20.
3, 3, 3, 2, 2.
'
i^/3, 1
lJ-7
+ 2ch.
7i )
14.
>
- 110.
-24a; -l.
12.
/3
^Wg'"
18.
6.
123a:
+ 10.r 2 /r +
XXXV.
1.
a;
4
(5.T
1, 1, 1, 3.
-1, -1,
15.
/t
470, 471.
a:
4.
4
1J~Z
,
11.
3.
= ^/^3
-2;
Pages
c.
pq-Sr,
23.
XXXV.
554.]
= ^/^1.
/3
; \/2'
l,7r23
n"j*-* = 4p{n-2)-*.
28.
5.
Pages 478,
4
99,795.
479.
-5?/ 3
2.
?/
4.
3 2^/2, 2
6-
2,2l,L(lJl3).
= ^/3.
ANSWERS.
XXXV.
d*Lll.
5,
1.
34 7^~3.
-6,
-ld=7^1.
-2,
4,
13.
172, -17^1.
15.
2,2,|, |.
17.
22.
-276, 72,
25.
273.
28.
.t
8.r 3
72.
+ 21a; 3 -
2
y -
+5
5//
I-
sV + 2s(l-*) + r(l-s)
^?.
26.
?/
4.
(1)
175; 1275.
(2)
35=1, y = S,
z= -
or
x=
a + 2b
8.
9.
14
15.
a4 +
+ a-^"
&4
(p
10.
).
+ (l-4 4 = 0.
7.
original equation.
Pages 490524.
Eight.
y=
1,
3; 2
First term 1
= 5.
common
1
-
difference
-q)(p-3q).
^.
A, 7 minutes;
13.
ZJ,
8 minutes.
or
,-=;
c-a a-b
2 be -ca- ab) = d.
Jc-a (a- + b- + c
a+b+c
16.
17.
(1)
13.
(1)
{b+e)(e+a){a+b).
(2)
^/-g- +
"
~.
'
18.
22G8.
105
(2)x = y=7^;
22.
j/
+ c 4 = 6 2 c 2 + c 2 a 2 + a 2 62<
1
x- = J
y =
where
3.
(2)
3.
-,
23.
respectively, so that
-q
6, 8.
1,
11,11,7.
20a;
2.
(1)
6.
-^.
3
g+8r*=0;?,
-^-5
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
6.
4,
4 715, -
1,
18.
3.
-25j~^S.
3.
12.
1,2,-2,-3.
* 1,-4*^/6.
14.
1, -3,275.
U.
16.
expressions
the
488, 489.
--.-iVJ?.
5.
10.
Pages
e.
10,-57V^8,
a
4.
551
1*5; nine.
a^6=
23.
i {(1
-(J+26)
+ 2 + 3+
..
=
.
\/y+a6-a-
/<)-- (l 2
+ 2-* + 3 2 +
...
+n-)\.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
552
24.
Wages
29.
x = 3fc,
?/
= 4fc,
= 5fc; where
25.
F = l,
32.
35.
31.
37
+ x + ^x 2 -- x - x\
i
-l^y-3
1^/gj-
pr
[a,.4_.r
a = 8;^-.
38.
480.
30.
_5 (a;2 + a; + l) = 0.]
The
40.
term.
first
.r- 5
+ 4ft 2 c 2 + 9c 2 a 2 + a 2
.,,.,, ,
a 2 o- + c-
l
41.
42.
13,' 9.
43.
ft
-|-
(1)
3,
(2)
x = l,
2,
^^-|, -1,
ssl, -|,
0,
2=1, -\,
0,
[Add
0,
0;
-1,
0;
a-
+4
to each side.]
0,-1.
5780.
17.
48.
majority 350.
51
'
[Put (a - c)(6- d)
ad -be
(2)
K
53.
a-b-c+d
= {(x - c) -
--577-.
6,
936 men.
50.
. _ 2 m -l
1 ) 0, 7Ji*
'2 m +lrrt.
(x
- a)} {(x -
55.
m = -r
30
^/a
4 ^[putting
(1)1.
60.
64.
Common
difference of the A. P. is
which
b-c
males; ^
is
b-c
a(n-r)
b(r-l)
+ -^
'-
n-1
68.
...
,-
(x
ft)}
=-,
v/a
then square.]
+-^St.
^/6
the in - r +
63.
n-1
,...
th
l)'
69.
common
-=->
is
ab (n -
term
is
0,
[The
r th
term
1)
aft(n-l)
a(n-r)e + brr
(r -.
a+b
+ b,
= 0.]
4)
rv -1
1)
78.
-1*^-3
lV-3
'
[(a
+ ^/6
females.
19.
U
*
a;
d)
58.
(2)
first
ft)
'
-a 3 -ft 3 = 3aft(a +
ft),
and (a-
ft)
- a 3 + 63 = -3aft(a -
ft).]
is
ANSWERS.
72.
73.
-.
79.
*4U
.,*]
(1)
v
'
log b
a
-=*f=-=sO,
!f
'
or
85.
Sums
86.
95
T 6
5
*-
100.
?/
29
..
,
,.
r
Generating function
is
l) n }
+6-
a-
109.
(1)
111.
1+ JL -=-
117.
(1)
c-
1-x- 2i-
a(J
1)
.,
= 3.
126.
84.
/5
96
'
!
"21'
\/3'
"
l-(-l).r
2(l-2'\r)
=
-'
\
1 - 2.c
1+x
suru= -^
x = 3, or
(2)
+
122.
x = 0, y = 0,
(2)
1;
|f=l, or
3.
x = 948, *y = 492.
{*+"-
113.
12. 15*.
(1)
lO.r-1
- 3x -
3 (**+*+
= 1;
1)
scale of relation
125.
127.
(1)
128.
(1)^".
130.
(1)
x=
(2)
.r=-6,
2; y
= 9,
2^+1
'
3.
'
-3.
(2)^.
(2)
129.
*=-;
2' 1 ~ 3
{
(- l) n_1
.r"-'.
y=y
7.
= I = - = JL
b
r-1.
133.
11,
137.
(1)*=-^,
V2'
3.
is 1
1)
r+4
2
(.r
^-
or
= 0; x=2, y=l 2=
- 23
13.c
ar
x = a, y = b; x = a, y = 2a\ x = 2b, y = b.
x = 3 or 1, y = 2, 2=1 or 3;
W l ~^TW"'
124
82.
x n ~K
-L
-i-
= v.]
2y
+ 4x
-z
= c.
10^
108.
(2)
138.
, 1;
1+12+1+1+1+9
'
d.
x = a, y = b,
(2)
121.
and y -
25
3
'
107.
.<c
ItthE}.>*>-_ d3
!
*
'
n ih term= {2" + ( -
12 -
x-a = u
= y = 2 = l.
,
2)
[Put
81.
1.
...
a6c
a = 3, 6 =
a+6+c
80.
'
8 hours.
74.
** *
(1)
v
l0 2)
*=* 2(^?
~*l-189.
1
log S
2
(2)
2.
7,
553
2s. at
134.
the
where & 2 = 26 2c 2 + 2c 2a 2 + 2a 2 6 2 - a 4 -
2abc
384sq.yds.
y=^.
y"
(2)
v/2
first sale
and 2.
136.
a= 2,
^; *^/^12*. at the
second
sale.
64
c 4.
6 = 3, c
= 2.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
554
139.
141.
142.
(1)
i(+l)(2 + l).
(3)
|n(+l)(4w-l).
(1)
x = l or
(2)
x, y, z
?/
=3
may have
y.
or
y/
(1)
1)
2' l +i
x-l'
(x-iy
(3)
146.
overtakes
nth term
is
A=
,
where
(an b n )
n
L
-*
a-b
a;"
n n
a(l-na
x
- ax
a).
12, 13,
14,15,16,17,18,19,20,
-1
miles,
(a
2
(o'
+ wc).
Sum = A - B,
a2x
)
'-
11,13,15,17,19,21,23,
148.
c 2) (b
^6-1
147.
in 2 days
subsequently gains on
(&
1, 3, 5, 7, 9,
B walks
'
- d3) = 3
2 (6 3
144.
so that
+ Ua; -157a: 2
+ 5x -50a; 2 -8a; 3
'
+ -u(/t + 7)-2.
145.
150.
5, 7.
+ <jy2 - g 2 - q's - 8r = 0.
x (x n -
143.
y;
(2)
(1
- an- 1 x n ~
*_
(1-aa;) 2
and
denotes a corre-
sponding function of B.
- 2p 2y 2 - 5pqy - 2p 3 -
151.
qif
153.
(1)
-7,
156.
(1)
78 y~ 8
-
^
,
0
T92
22 years nearly.
162.
(1)
(2)
[It
2)
= 0.
89
^4
157.
x -=r=
[(12a;
11
>
r*-
154.
1) (12a;
2) (12s
3 days.
3)
(12* - 4) = 120.]
"I
161.
-7V217
44 hours.
.s=i,
2; y==F2, Tl;ar=-y=V3
163.
2 (a
164.
(1)
(2)
2e-5.
555
ANSWERS.
166
J + f*
1
l )x
{
#,
(2)
/2
z are
?/,
(*+y+*) 9 =3*
170
He
172.
(1)
9.
168.
AB = 37h C =
= 10
i/
b(d-c)
* M fa / + ( 6c * ad} t? T '?)
- ac * bd if T eh>'
q = (be T ad) (<?0 />0
7>
ac
/l
*+*+** -Says.
a(d-c)
''
. = 6, -5;
178.
rr + 3^- + (3,-r)^r-0.
"6.
3200.
177.
.,
or 13.
c(.-ft).
d ia-b)
rides
drives 7* miles,
30, CA = 15 miles.
or 10,
2,
169.
2.
3| miles,
walks
= 13
[Eliminate..]
167.
a;
a,y= .
if
'
>
14*^/^74
-18*/^47
y = 5,
-6;
[Put
a;
3=^5
1
183.
8987.
182.
?/
2
ft/
-aci/ -
= 0.
186.
(1)
x,
?/,
quantities
are the permutations of the
a(Z> 2
+ c2
1,
+ n/^3- 1-n/?
g
191,
(1)
-3.
2J-3, -2J-h
(2)
a-ft
a~ b
-n J. I.-"-.
2b n =a+b--gr.
2aw =.+6+-yr;
201.
07,
192.
54,
202.
m+
3
nvi q
24
7 Poles, 14 Turks, 15 Greeks,
210
J1U
1_? _l+^iog(l
+
6
212.
213.
(1)
2.c
jm + n-2
|m _ x
4+ 1
)n
204.
^,
207.
81 years nearly.
Germans, 20
4 +! _(_!)
Italians.
a;).
'
jn(n+l)(n+2)(n+3);
"Ti+iyr
'
_x
+ 4(-l) w +
n8
209.
187.
7, 9,
(3)
556
(l)^ = l (15V 33
or* = 4,
6,
y = 6,
4,
-6;
-6, -4;
= 5,
5,
-5,
a;
(2)
)j
(15W ^
);
-5.
-rt)~c^rT6)- X
where (&- c )( C -a)(- & )x = a2 62
+ + c2 _
of
6( C
'
relation
2*-i
^n = s
23-i
TH
Lim
&c
_ ca
_^
f (^-l)} =|;
convergent.
Xtenn = -1 { + 8
"21
ar =
232.
2T3-
229.
1-12., + 32.-
is
11
231
=1
- V~ b _ g-c
fl
a(6-c)
Scale
230.
-4,
226.
P+?*
N /a=*
+ 6- c a, & c
a3
233.
235.
4)
- (3m + 3n - 3k +
3
(2)
(n
fl
3hours51min.
237.
1)
*M + %+
J
8
236.
240
2 or ^
242
+ a20;r,6<
_ 140
244.
3,4,5,6.
246.
a*(c*-Sd?)*=:(ab*+2&) (ab*-f.
247.
2,
248.
6,
3.
1,
13
249.
(1)
(2)
-_^!L_
_ 2
(n
<
+ l)(n + 3)
T^
3
>
when n
250.
is
S'
*P -he- . U even
(l)* = 2/ = * = 0or|.
(2)
If*^ + 'Jiz*^)
odd.
If
a(-a + b + c)
is
0)
then
indeterminate.
z
b(a-b + c)-^(^b^c)
1
flM
253.
HIGHER ALGEBRA.
223.
'
+ + cjja -b +
+
-&+BE1 C,H-A, + B, + c.)<4s/l+
,- B , +
+
(i
c) (a
*>
, )(Alf
A=
y/a
(6
c),
&c.
b~^~c)
Xre
ANSWERS.
256.
(1)
.>
(2)
z=-(a + b),
x = S, or 7
y = 7, or 3
w,
1,
to-
-(rtw
|
)
257.
262.
266.
To
places.
Tea,
258.
2s. Go".;
#=
as=f/= = l;
(2)
\ a (b -
la(b-l+sJb*-2b-3),
a,
268.
3r-2
at least
55?
j_
(i
= c
JJfi^W^
3).
-f-
&c.
267.
0.
- a 32 = (afy - a 22 ) 2
2 a.2 a i + 2a a. a - a a
afaA - a 2 3 = 0.
x 2 3
3
a 2 - afl
(a
or a
270.
X=
(a.
a4
Va + 6 + c
2
274.
275.
'\fl-?Viog(l-a;)-2.
xj
*=?,
(1)
?,
4'
4'
z=4,
(2)
= 5
3
2
279.
^, 6 birds; B, 4 birds.
287.
a,
294.
300.
-^
a-1
jl(
(a +
c~$.
273.
w '^
w=l.
^ t2 v!' u= 4v-3'
Vi>
a2 +
+ c 2 + d 2 + \.
-5a,
(2)
2/= 5, t<=2,
276.
ft
&c
-1;
-g,
3
'
2;
3
2
V 2 + ^ 2 + c 2
(1)
v
?/=-l,
291.
u=
&C.
-5a.
277.
-p 8 + 3^0- Bp 3
281.
2.
289.
S1= - ft"?
u= \^.
^'fl'-fr"?? &*
,
CAMBRIDGE
ft
PRINTED BY
C.
J.
tV f
Date
(\i
'DJEC
Due
JAM 3^
*-*"
*&**
mm
12.M.
MAY
6 4
m
W
P 2 7
\JU^s^'
>)
L
_L
_.
L. B. x:at. No. ii 37
3 5002
03079 0690
QA
Hi 8
AUTHOR
4?212
TITLE
Higher al gebra
BORROWER'S NAME
DATE DUE
r~v
t
V^
.,
2jt-AW-$-:
H^APp"
Vy
422*