Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Aerodynamics
2009/2010
Prof Andrew Rae
Learning Outcomes and Assessment Methods
Learning Outcomes - On successful completion of this Assessment Methods
module, the student will be able to:
Fundamentals:
• Static dynamic and total pressure; Bernoulli’s principle; Speed of
sound and Mach number; ISA tables.
Lift generation:
• Circulation, lift and downwash; Kutta condition; Kutta-Joukowski
theorem; spanwise lift distribution, loads and bending moment.
Subsonic Flows:
• Contributions to subsonic drag; zero-lift drag, skin-friction;
‘Horseshoe’ vortex system; wing planforms in subsonic flow;
induced drag; span efficiency; tip devices; wing design through twist
and camber including “wash-out” and “wash-in”.
Viscosity:
• Definition; boundary layers; Reynolds number; velocity profiles; no-
slip condition; effect of surface roughness on skin friction; laminar and
turbulent flows; local and global skin friction calculations; boundary
layer thickness definition; momentum and displacement thickness;
equivalent body in inviscid flow; transition and flow separation.
Aerodynamic methods;
• History of aerodynamic testing; Wind tunnel types; low speed and
high speed testing; Open and closed circuit (Eiffel/Goettingen) type
tunnels; Open, closed and slotted/porous working section type
tunnels; Flight testing; Model mounting systems; upwash, buoyancy
and blockage correction methods; Mach similarity; Methods of
increasing Reynolds number; Powered wind tunnel models;
Pressurised, cryogenic, heavy gas and water tunnels; Introduction to
CFD; Description of CFD; Advantages and disadvantages of CFD;
Examples/demonstration of CFD usage.
Supersonic Flows:
• Critical Mach Number; formation of shockwaves; Normal and oblique
shockwaves; Effect of wing thickness and camber; Wave drag and
methods of reducing wave drag (Wing Sweep, Transonic Area Ruling,
Supercritical Aerofoil design, Wing design); Shockwave control and the
Shock-induced separation.
Swept wings:
• Swept wing flows; Effect of spanwise and normal velocity components;
qualitative description of 3D boundary layers on swept wings; Forward,
rearward and variable sweep wings; control surface effects; delta wings
and vortical flows; vortex flap; aerodynamics of aircraft at high incidences.
A ‘curve’ ball
Slice on a golf ball
Purposely ignoring cricket - polishing, seam, boot studs, etc. are all separation control (dimples on a golf
ball)….see later….
• Consider first inviscid flow (no friction) Dye injection shows the streamlines in water flowing at
1mm/s between glass plates spaced 1mm apart. It is
interesting that the best way of showing the unseparated
patterns of inviscid flow (which would be spoiled by
separation in a real fluid of even the slightest viscosity) is to
go to the extreme of creeping flow in a narrow gap, which is
dominated by viscous forces, i.e. boundary layers.
• This circulation is also known as the ‘bound’ vortex and forms part of the
horseshoe vortex system (see later)
• The circulation (vortex) has a strength () and the lift generated by
a 2-D aerofoil (or per unit span for a 3-D wing) is given by:
where is the density of the air and U is the velocity of the aerofoil.
– Thus for a given speed and altitude, higher lift means stronger
vorticity.
Γ ∞
V
4h
─∞ V
y
• Whereas it should be:
(The local lift is the local height of the lift distribution and the total lift is the area under the lift distribution curve)
Γ2 b
Γ 1+
Γ1 2 Γ1
Γ2 Γ2 ∞
∞
Γ2
Γ1
Γ1
Γ2 ∞
b
Γ1 ∞
2
L L 1 Mg
& CL V 2C L WS g
1 S 2 S
V 2 S
2
• Take-off and landing performance
– Rearranging the equation for lift coefficient gives
and therefore
2 gW
V S
V α WS
CL
– So for aircraft with the same lift coefficient at take-off and landing (and in the
same atmospheric conditions) the aircraft with the bigger wing will need less
speed at take-off and landing, or less lift coefficient at the same speed
=
1
V 2 S C L Mg
2 found from
– And the vertical acceleration can then be
1 1
M av V 2 S CL M g av V 2 CL g
– So for the2 same lift coefficient the aircraft with the
2WSlower wing loading will have
the greater initial climb
• Turning performance g
WS
= acceleration due to gravity
= wing loading
– An aircraft performing a constant-speed, av = vertical acceleration
2 R
V R
T
• The acceleration is rate of change of velocity
divided by the time taken to complete a 2π
rotation. The velocity rotates by 2π in time T.
2 V
ac
T
• Rearranging and substituting gives
V2
ac
R
L
MV2 1
V 2 C L S sin
R 2
θ
M 2 2WS
R
S C L sin C L sin
– L S L
Thus an aircraft with higher wing loading has better ‘ride quality’
av
M WS
Moment arm
Reynolds
Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 48
Viscosity (5)
• Reynolds number
• Reynolds number
– Some examples
X15
Re = 6 million
A380
Re = 80 million
Wind Tunnels
Viscosity (7)
QinetiQ 5m
ONERA S1MA
20
Low-speed w/t
• Reynolds number 10
ONERA S2MA
100
DNW-HST
ONERA S1MA
90 ARA-TWT
40
30
20
10
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40
Mach Number
Supersonic w/t 80
60
40
ETW (Cryogenic)
20
0
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
Mach Number
• Velocity profiles
– The rate at which the velocity increases from zero at the wall to
freestream velocity at the edge of the boundary layer
δ u=0.99U∞
Boundary-layer
U∞
y (v) velocity profile
• Shear Stress
– The assertion that the velocity at the surface is zero
– The action of viscosity tugs at the surface (rubbing hands together)
• Generates shear stress (τxy)
• No-slip condition
– The no-slip condition maintains
that the flow at the surface is
stationary
• i.e. that u = 0 at y = 0
– This is difficult to justify
theoretically and is
demonstrably not true in many
cases
– But it is close enough to the
truth (and the convenience of it
as a boundary condition so
large) that its consequences
are accepted
– There is a general mean motion roughly parallel to the surface, but in addition there are local rapid, random fluctuations in
velocity direction and magnitude
– These fluctuations provide a powerful mechanism for mixing within the layer
– Just as viscosity give rise to shear stress, the turbulent fluctuations give rise to eddy shear stresses
– Consequently there a important differences between the characteristics of laminar and turbulent boundary layers
Steeper profile
– Boundary layers on a wing combine to form the wake (profile drag, CDo)
a & b – laminar
c - turbulent
Turbulent
Turbulent
du
xy
dy
– So shear stress at the wall (skin friction) is
given by
du
w
– dycoefficient
And the local y 0 of skin friction (cf),
the skin friction at a point x along a surface,
is given by
w 2 V
cf V f ''
0
1
2 V 2
V
2
2 x
2 2 f '' 0
cf f 0
''
0.664
cf
– Where Re
Rex xis the local Reynolds
number 1 Anderson ‘Fundamentals of Aerodynamics’, 3rd Edition,
Chapter 18.2
2 Schlichting, ‘Boundary Layer Theory’, 8th Revised and
Enlarged Edition, Page 158 and Table 6.1
1 c 1.328 c
1
C f (0.664) x 2 dx
c V 0 c V
– And
1.328
Cf
Re c
– Where Rec is the Reynolds number based on the wing chord
δ u=0.99U∞ u=0.99U∞
y (v)
– We now introduce the concept of displacement thickness, δ*
δ *
x (u)
y (v)
δ*
x (u)
– (b) The boundary layer displaces the flow around an object by acting as
additional volume
y1
– The actual mass flow between y=0 and y=y1 is
0
u dy
– The hypothetical mass flow between y=0 and y=y1 if the y1
boundary layer were not present is
0
e ue dy
– The difference between the two is the missing mass flow
ue u dy
y1
– And this can be expressed in terms of δ* 0
e
e ue *
Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 70
Viscosity (27)
• Boundary layer displacement thickness derivations
– (a) Missing mass flow (continued)
– So
ue u dy
y1
e ue
*
e
0
– Or
y1 u
1 dy
*
0
e ue
. y1
– The mass flow at Station 1 m 0
e ue dy
– At Station 2, the mass flow between the surface and the . y1
m u dy e ue *
same streamline is
– Since the surface and the streamline form the boundaries 0
of a stream tube, the mass flow must be constant, i.e.
y1 y1
Or
0
e ue dy 0
u dy e ue *
y1 u
1 dy as before
*
0
e ue
– The viscous flow is modelled by expanding the shape by the displacement thickness
• Should be an iterative process!
u ue u dy
y1
Aerodynamics 2009/2010
0
Page 74
Viscosity (31)
• Boundary layer momentum thickness
– We can now introduce a thickness (θ) representing the missing momentum if it were crammed into a flow with the free stream characteristics, i.e.
– The missing momentum flow = eue2θ =
– And so
u u u dy
y1
e conditions
– This momentum thickness (θ) is the height of a hypothetical streamtube carrying the missing momentum flow at freestream
0
– The momentum thickness can be used to generate a similar effective or equivalent body, this time representing a body exhibiting an equivalent momentum loss
y1 u u
1 dy
0 e ue ue
uondsurfaces
– The discovery that transition occurred
Re crit 2300 did not come until much later
– Transition on a flat plate crit
U x
Re x crit 3.5 10 10
5 6
Aerodynamics 2009/2010
crit Page 77
Flow direction
Viscosity (34)
Factors affecting
transition
• Pressure gradient
– Positive pressure
gradients suppress Disturbances suppressed by positive pressure gradient
turbulence
– Adverse pressure
gradients amplify
them
Laminar
separation
Transition
– Addition of a trip wire
at the wire
Turbulent
separation
• Take-off
– Predominantly Fowler motion
• Landing
– Fowler motion plus deflection
Fixed leading
edge (D-nose)
Shroud
Vane
Main element
(γ = climb angle)
– Increased resistance
to main element
trailing-edge flow
separation and a
resilience to high
angle of attack
• Engine exhaust
• (Antonov 72/74, YC, Boeing Globemaster III)
NoVG's 10mmwedges
a) Basic
a) Basic flow
flow (no
(no control) b)
x=5 b) Forwards
Forwards
2hfro wedges
msepa wedges
ration
300
spacing=12h
250
control)
Umean: -5.0 5.0 15.0 25.0 35.0 300
200
z (mm)
z (mm)
200
150
100
100
50
z (mm)
200 200
100 100
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
x(mm) x(mm)
No VGs
VGs on
Boeing 727
Gloster Javelin
Boeing 737
• The interaction between mechanical and thermal energy is weak which permits
use of a simplified version of the energy equation
– This assumption does not, however, match reality
• All fluids are compressible, even liquids
– If the pressure changes in a flow are sufficient to cause significant density
changes we have to abandon the incompressible flow assumption
– It is more likely to be of concern in a gas than in a liquid
• A pressure change of 500kPa (~72psi) causes a density change of 0.024% in
water but 250% in air
1
sin-1
M
p
→ or RT
u Mc M R T
p1 p2
M 1 R T1 M 2 R T2
R T1 R T2
p1M 1 p2 M 2 M 2 p1 T2
T1 T2 M 1 p2 T1
Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 147
Supersonic flows (15)
• Normal shock waves
– Now consider the forces acting across the shock wave
– The momentum equation gives
– The force is equal to the pressure difference across the shock wave
– Therefore
or
p1 p2 2u22 1u12
p1 (1 M 12 ) p2 (1 M 22 )
p2 (1 M 12 )
u Mc M R T
p1 (1 M 22 )
p
RT
W = p (V2 - V1 )
– Substituting into the first equation, we have:
E2 - E1 = Q - p (V2 - V1 )
E2 - E1 = Q – p (V2 - V1 )
becomes
H2 - H 1 = Q
– From the definition of the heat transfer, we can represent Q by some heat
capacity coefficient Cp times the temperature T
H2 - H1 = Cp (T2 - T1)
~ ~
h2 h1 c p T2 T1 ~
h2 c p T2
– The specific heat capacity (cp) is called the specific heat at constant
pressure
– This final equation is used to determine values of specific enthalpy for a
given temperature
– Across shock waves, the total enthalpy of the gas remains a constant
2 2
where Q is the heat transfer rate,
~ u12 ~ u22
h1 h2
2 2
Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 154
Supersonic flows (21)
• Normal shock waves
– So we now have five equations:
Continuity 1 u 1 = 2 u 2 (1)
~ u12 ~ u 22
Energy h1 h2 (3)
2 2
~
Enthalpy h2 c pT2 (4)
– And five unknowns, the flow conditions after the shock wave:
~
2 , u2 , p2 , h2, and T2
– These equations then are sufficient to calculate these unknown conditions
in an ideal gas
Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 155
Supersonic flows (22)
• Normal shock waves
– Using the continuity and momentum equations
p1 p
u1 2 u2
1u1 2u 2
p1 p
2 u2 u1
1u1 2u2
a12 a22
u2 u1 a p
u1 u2
u
– We introduce a characteristic Mach number M
a
where a* is the value of the speed of sound at sonic conditions, not the
remember a R T
a12 a22
– Substituting this pair into u 2 u1
u1 u 2
2 2
– Gives 1 a* 1 1 a* 1
u1 u2 u2 u1
2 u1 2 2 u 2 2
– Dividing by u2 - u1 gives
1 *2 1
a u 2 u1
2 u1 u2 2
a* = u1u2
– This is called the Prandtl relation and is a useful intermediate relation for
shock waves
1 ( 1) / 2 M 12
– And solving for M22 M 2
2
M 12 ( 1) / 2
Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 162
Supersonic flows (29)
• Normal shock waves
1 ( 1) / 2 M 2
– The equation M 2
2 1
is an important result
M 1 ( 1) / 2
2
– It shows that the Mach number after a normal shock wave is dependent
only upon the Mach number before it
– If M1=1, then M2=1 and this is an infinitely weak shock wave, or Mach wave
– If M1>1, then M2<1, i.e. the flow after the shock wave will be subsonic
– As M1 increases above 1 the shock wave becomes progressively stronger
and M2 becomes progressively less than 1
– As M1 → , M2 approaches a finite minimum value
M 2 ( 1) / 2
*2 ( 1) M 2
– Substituting M into the above equation
2 ( 1)M 2
– Gives 2 u1 ( 1) M 12
1 u2 2 ( 1)M 12
p2 p1 1u12 u2 u12 u2 u
1 2 1 M 12 1 2
p1 p1 u1 a1 u1 u1
T2 p2 1
T1 p1 2
– Which gives
T2 h2 2 2 ( 1) M 12
1 ( M 1 1)
2
T1 h1 1 ( 1) M 1
2
1 ( 1) / 2 M 12
M
2
2
M 12 ( 1) / 2
2 u1 ( 1) M 12
1 u2 2 ( 1)M 12
p2 2
1 ( M 12 1)
p1 1
T2 h2 2 2 ( 1)M 12
1 ( M 1 1)
2
T1 h1 1 ( 1) M 1
2
1 p2
lim M 2 0.378 lim
M 1 2 M 1 p1
2 1 p2
lim 6 lim
M 1 1 1 M 1 p1
2 p
( 1)
M1
2
0 ,1
1
1 p1
Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 171
Supersonic flows (38)
• Measurement of velocity in compressible flow
– Using the relationship for Mach number
2 0,1
p
( 1)
M1
2
1
1 p1
– becomes
2
( 1)
2 a p
u1
2 1
0 ,1
1
1 p1
M 12 [( 1) / 2]
p2 2
1 ( M 12 1)
p1 1
( 1)
p A p A p0 1 [( 1) / 2]M 2
2
p p p0 1 [( 1) / 2]M A
p p where q 12 V2
Cp
q
1 1 p
q V2 V2
2 2 p
2
p V
2 p
p M 2 (a2 p )
2
– So
2 p
Cp 1
M 2 p
2 2
1 [( 1) / 2]M
( 1)
C p ,cr
2
1
M 1 [( 1) / 2]
– This equation allows us to calculate the
pressure coefficient at any point where
the local Mach number is 1 (i.e. along
the sonic line)
– As we nudge M still
higher we encounter
point e where the drag
suddenly starts to
increase.
– The value of M where
this sudden increase in
drag starts is called the
drag-divergence Mach
number
F-102 F-102A
Boeing 747-400
Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 202
Supersonic flows (69)
• Area rule
Convair CV-990
Airbus A300
Trim Drag
Wave (Wing) Drag
Parasitic Drag
Nacelle Interaction Drag
Unaccounted Drag
Vortex (Induced) Drag
Profile drag
~ u12 ~ u22
Energy h1 h2
2 2
~ ~
Enthalpy h1 c pT1 , h2 c pT2
i.e.
c pT1 12 u12 c pT2 12 u22
p1 p
2
Equation of state 1T1 2T2
p u
Speed of sound a RT ( 1)c pT
M
Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 215
Supersonic flows (A2)
• Isentropic flow (derivations)
– The energy equation c pT1 12 u12 c pT2 12 u22
(a* is the value of the speed of sound at sonic conditions and is constant)
a2 u2 1 *2
a
1 2 2( 1)
V12n V1t2 p1 1 *2
a
2 - 1 1 2( 1)
V22n V22t p2 1 *2
a
– From 1V1n2 = 2V2n -and
1 2 it 2 ( 1)that V1t=V2t
follows
– i.e. the tangential velocity is the same on both sides of the shock
0 2V2 nwe
– Since the tangential velocity doesn’t change t
V2just 1V1nto
need
V1determine
t the normal velocity
after the shock
– Again using continuity we get
– Where p2/2pand
2 p1/1 p
can
1 be eliminated using the equations at the top of the slide
V1n V2 n
2V2 n 1V1n
1 *2 1 1 1 Vt 2 Vt 2
a V1n V2 n V1n V2 n
2 V2 n V1n 2 V1n V2 n
– Which we arrange to the form
1 a*2 1 Vt 2 1
(V V ) 0
2 V1nV2 n 2 V1nV2 n 2 1n 2 n
– This equation is satisfied when either factor is zero
– The solution that the second factor is zero (i.e. V1n – V2n = 0, or V1n = V2n)
corresponds to a shock wave of zero intensity, or a Mach wave
– Setting the first factor to zero gives a non-trivial solution:
1 2
2
V1nV2 n a Vt
1
sin a0 V1 1
– And we can replace a*/a0 and a0 /V1 for terms involving and M to give
V1 1 2 2 1
V2 n sin
sin 1 1 M 12
– Or
1 1 2 2 1
tan
1
sin
2
sin cos 1 1 M 1
2 p
Cp 1
M 2 p
2 p
C pn 1
M 2 n p
Messerschmitt Me P.1101
Grumman XF10F Jaguar
Bell X-5
Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 236
Swept wings (15)
• Variable sweep wings
– But the extra mechanisms are heavy
Tornado
Tupolev Tu-160
Rockwell B-1
Grumman F-14
MiG-23
Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 238
Swept wings (17)
• Delta wings
– Delta wings are a special form of swept wing pioneered by Lippisch
– The wing leading edge remains behind the shock wave generated by the nose of the aircraft when flying at supersonic speeds
– While this is also true of ordinary swept wings, the delta's planform carries across the entire aircraft which has structural advantages
– Another advantage is vortex lift
– Beyond a certain angle of attack, the wing leading edge generates a stable vortex which remains attached to the upper surface of the wing
– This gives delta wings a relatively high stall angle
Convair XF-92
Lippisch P.13
– It occurs due to
adverse pressure
gradients acting
on the vortex
– When the vortex
burst occurs on
the wing (as
opposed to
downstream of the
wing) the lift drops
substantially.