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[2] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ scholar/ index. html
[3] http:/ / www. ptable. com/ ?lang=el
[4] http:/ / www. periodictableontheweb. com/

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[1] The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1901 (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ chemistry/ laureates/ 1901/ index. html). Nobelprize.org
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[35] http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ chemistry/ laureates/ 1943/ index. html
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http://www.nobel.se/chemistry/laureates/index.html
Timeline of Nobel Prize Winners (http://www.nobel-winners.com/Chemistry/)
Nobel Prize Winners in Chemistry (http://www.nobelprizes.com/nobel/chemistry)
25
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(http://www.
greek-language.gr/greekLang/ancient_greek/tools/corpora/anthology/contents.html?author_id=4)
Greek-language.gr
- (http://history-of-macedonia.com/wordpress/2009/08/
06/aristotle-stageira-life-works/)
KIM, JOHANN, , ,
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SON, BYUNG-SEOK, ,
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, ' ' , , . 2 (1948), .387-415
Kullmann, Wolfgang, ,
, 26(1977-1978) , . 135-156
Kullmann, Wolfgang, , , ,
1996
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222-239
Dring, Ingemar, . , ,.,
, , 1991
Berti, Enrico, , : ,
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Anton, John P., , , 100 (2000), .
159-171
Anton, John P., ,
, 61(1986) , . 304-322
Ali, Hassanein Fouad, , (1955), . 317
, , . 104 (1980), 443-445
. , H , 8
(2009) 51-79.
32

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[1] . (http:/ / www. mikrosapoplous. gr/ dl/ dl09. html). . ',

41. .
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44 (1987), 233-238.
, . : 4 (
1983), 57-63.
, . 13-14
(1983-84), 109-124.
G. S. KIRK / J. E. RAVEN / MALCOLM SCHOFIELD, ,
,., ,1988, 2006(4 ),. 404-430
, , .
. 2 (1981), 81-90.
, , . 54
(1981), 109-113.

(Robert Boyle) (1627
- 1691).

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38

(Henry Cavendish) (10 1731 24
1810) ,
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, William Cavendish, 7
1861 1891, ,
, (Cavendish Laboratory)
1870-79.

,
, "On Factitious Airs" (1766).

.

,
Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London ("Experiments to determine the Density of the Earth" by Henry Cavendish Esq. F.R.S. and
A.S., Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 88 (1798), p. 469-526).
, ,
, . ,
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350 (159 ) .

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, 1873. , ,
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.

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,

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(
Coulomb)

. 79,167%
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39
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Lavoisier) . 26
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Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze,
"Ferme Gnrale",
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" ").

[1] Project Gutenberg.
[1] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius
42
43
15 1859
,
19 1906 (46
)
,

Andr-Louis Debierne
(1903)
(15 1859 - 19 1906)

, . 1903
,
.

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1906 .
NOBELPRIZE.ORG: [1]
, [2]
[3]
[4]
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ articles/ curie/ index. html

http:/ / www. nobel. se/ physics/ laureates/ 1903/ index. html
http:/ / www. nobel. se/ physics/ laureates/ 1903/ pierre-curie-bio. html
http:/ / www. aip. org/ history/ curie/ pierre. htm
44

- (Marie Skodowska-Curie, 7
, 1867 4 1934)
. , ,
.

,
(1903) (1911).
.

1867

. ,
(Wadysaw Skodowski),
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45

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22 2007.
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. [4] , [5]
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47

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1903 .
,
[8] . 1903 Davy [9] .
Matteucci. 1906
[10] ,
. 1911
[11] , ' [12]
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, 200.000 ,
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.

. 1929 ,
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1944 -. ,
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( Ci) 96 (
). [13] [14].
: , , .
.
, 1935 (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1935/index.html)
,
.
[5] ,
.
. ...
[6] 14 .
[7] ,
.
[8] , 1903 (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1903/ index. html)
[9] , 1900-1989 (http:/ / replay. web. archive. org/ 20080410075748/ http:/ / royalsociety.
org/ page. asp?id=1756) ( 2 2011)
[10] , , .
[11] , 1911 (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ chemistry/ laureates/ 1911/ index. html)
[12] 50 48.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[13] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Image:Banknote_500FF_Curies. jpg

[14] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Image:20000_zl_a_1989. jpg
48
, . -, 1996
, , , . , 2003

Marie Curie's 144th birthday (http://lnk.co/HY7ZO)
http://www.e-telescope.gr/gr/cat04/art04_031110.htm
http://www.aip.org/history/curie/contents.htm
Marie and Pierre Curie and the Discovery of Polonium and Radium (http://www.nobelprize.org/physics/
articles/curie/index.html)
1903 Nobel Prize in Physics (http://www.nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1903) and 1911 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry (http://www.nobelprize.org/chemistry/laureates/1911)
The official web page of Maria Curie Skodowska University in Lublin, Poland (http://www.umcs.lublin.pl/
index.html?lang=2) .
Detailed Biography at Science in Poland website (http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~zbzw/ph/sci/msc.htm)
Long biography (http://www.aip.org/history/curie/contents.htm)
Maria Skodowska-Curie Museum in Warsaw (http://replay.web.archive.org/20090430164437/http://www.
ptchem.lodz.pl/en/museum.html#InsideMuseum1)
Marie Curie: A Nobel Prize Pioneer at the Panthon (http://replay.web.archive.org/20070714215905/http://
www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/label_france/English/Sciences/curie/marie.html)
European Marie Curie Fellowships (http://www.cordis.lu/improving/fellowships/home.htm)
Marie Curie Fellowship Association (http://www.mariecurie.org)
Marie Curie Cancer Care (http://www.mariecurie.org.uk/), UK
Marie Sklodowska Curie: Her Life as a Media Compendium (http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/chemistry/
institutes/1992/MarieCurie.html)
Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: Marie Curie (http://rsparlourtricks.blogspot.com/2005/11/marie-curie.html)
Annotated bibliography of Marie Curie from the Alsos Digital Library (http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.
aspx?browse=people/Curie,+Marie)
Obituary, New York Times, July 5, 1934 Mme. Curie Is Dead; Martyr to Science (http://www.nytimes.com/
learning/general/onthisday/bday/1107.html)
Marie Curie on the 500 French Franc and 20000 old Polish Zloty banknotes. (http://www-personal.umich.edu/
~jbourj/money1.htm)
Biography resources dedicated to Marie Curie (http://www.biographyshelf.com/marie_curie_biography.html)
49
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50
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Jacobus Henricus vant Hoff () Paul
Walden.
R.S. Cahn, C.K. Ingold V. Prelog ( CIP) (R) (S) [ R rectus
S sinister ]. ,
. n 2n ,
- (. ).
(R) (S) CIP.
, .

, .
- (.. - ).
,
, D- L- Emil Fischer (
Fischer)
( ),
, .
.. (BINAP), - ,
C-C-
. .
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.. .

. ,
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. 360/n
.
.
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(configuration),
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. r s ( .)
R/S, (R) .

. , ..
. re-
si- .
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-.

, (..
, ), ,
(shift) NMR .
51
()
(R)- (S)-.
,
, . 1950

, ( 50%).
, .
( ) .
.. D- L- .( L- ,
D- L- .)
.
, .
,
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.
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( L- ).
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.)
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L- D- )
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.

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C=C . (S) .
52
()
[1] Arnold Fr. Holleman, Egon Wiberg, Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (.) 101. Auflage, Gruyter (. ), 1995, . 747,
ISBN 3110126419
[2] E. J. Arins, Stereochemistry, a basis for sophisticated nonsense in pharmacokinetics and clinical pharmacology, European Journal of Clinical
Pharmacology 26 (1984) 663-668.doi:10.1007/BF00541922
[3] Hisamichi Murakami: From Racemates to Single Enantiomers Chiral Synthetic Drugs over the last 20 Years, Topics in Current Chemistry
269 (2007) 273299, doi 10.1007/128_2006_072 (http:/ / doi 10. 1007/ 128_2006_072).
Pedro Cintas: Ursprnge und Entwicklung der Begriffe Chiralitt und Hndigkeit in der chemischen Sprache.
Angewandte Chemie 119(22) (.), . 40904099 (2007), ISSN 0044-8249 (http://dispatch.opac.d-nb.de/
DB=1.1/CMD?ACT=SRCHA&IKT=8&TRM=0044-8249).
Henri Brunner: Rechts oder Links (.), Wiley-VCH Verlag, Weinheim/Bergstasse, 1999, ISBN
3-527-29974-2.
Uwe Meierhenrich: Amino Acids and the Asymmetry of Life, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, Berlin 2008. ISBN
978-3-540-76885-2.
(Chemie) Chiralitt (Chemie) (http:/ / de. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Chiralitt)
, GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/
3. 0/ ). ( (Chemie) / (http:/ / de. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Chiralitt)).
()
(conformation)[1]
, ,

(-)
[2] .
-

[3] .

, ,

.

, 20 KJ/mol,

-, .
Newman

,
[4] . ,
53
()
54
. ,
.
200 250 KJ/mol
.
[5] .
[6] (
)[3] [7] . ""
.
C2-C3. ""
[4] .
,
(configuration). ,
' [4] .
""
(Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer), (Vladimir
Prelog) (Derek Barton)[8] 1930
19 [9] .

. ""

.
-
,
( )
.
(torsional barriers) 45-50 kJ/mol.
#
,

.

46 kJ/mol
106 .

""
.

, ,

(100C )
.

.
()

84 KJ/mol,

(Hintered Rotation)
(20C)
[4] .
,'-

,
6,6--2,2- .

- ,
.. SO3H,
,
.
(). ,
,
, .. .
, .

.
( )
.

.
55
()
56

Boltzmann:
= 8,31 J/(molK)
Kelvin.
.

:
gauche anti.

.

(Chair) (Boat)[10]

0,1%.

, ,

.

cis-1,2-,

(flip)
,

.
, ,
-
()
( ).
(
).
.
[1] , Conformational Isomerism (http:/ / www2. chemistry. msu. edu:80/ faculty/

reusch/ VirtTxtJml/ sterisom. htm)
[2] IUPAC Gold Book. Conformation (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ C01258. html)
[3] Robert T. Morrison, Robert N. Boyd (1992). Organic Chemistry (6 ). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0136436692.
[4] . (1995). . , , . 1. . ISBN 960-431-178-6.
[5] Meislich H., Nechamkin H., Sharefkin J. ( : . ) (1983). . McGraw-Hill, New York, , .
ISBN 0-07-041457-2.
[6] IUPAC Gold Book. conformer (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ C01262. html)
[7]
[8] Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer (1914 1997). . Vladimir Prelog (1906 1998). ,
Nobel 1975. Sir Derek Harold Richard Barton (1918 1998). , Nobel
1969
[9] H. Sachse, Chem. Ber, 1890, 23, 1363; Z. Physik. Chem, 1892, 10, 203; Z. Physik. Chem., 1893, 11, 185-219.
[10] IUPAC Gold Book. chair, boat, twist (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ C00964. html)
1. McMurry John (2005). . . ISBN 978-960-524-055-4.

2. Morrison R. T., Boyd R. N (:--) (1991). .
. ISBN 0-13-643669-2.
3. Meislich H., Nechamkin H., Sharefkin J. ( : ) (1983). .
McGraw-Hill, New York, , . ISBN 0-07-041457-2.
Michigan State University. Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry. Stereoisomers (http://www2.chemistry.

msu.edu:80/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/sterisom.htm)
Michigan State University. Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry. Ring Conformations (http://www2.
chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/sterism2.htm)
Portrait of Melvin Spencer Newman (http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_Detail.
asp?HH_LName=Newman)
57
()
()

.
, ,
.

, ( )
() .
Evans,
Evans - .
, .
,
. ,
. (steric) (..
) .
,
.
,
(chiral pool).

( ).
Evans
Evans .
3 4. David Evans .
58
()
Evans .
.
( )
( LDA)

(ee=0 %).
Evans ( ,
)
. , .
( )
, .
( LiOH/H2O2) .
a) Evans b) - ( , . ) c)
d) Evans
SAMP RAMP ( Enders)

SAMP (S)-1--2-() RAMP
(R)-1--2-().
( RAMP
SAMP).

8- :
.
59
()
60
2,5-
.
D. A. Evans, Studies in Asymmetric Synthesis - The Development of Practical Chiral Enolate Synthons In:
Aldrichimica Acta. Bd. 15, 1982, S. 23.
R. Brckner, Reaktionsmechanismen (.). Elsevier, Heidelberg 2004, ISBN 978-3-8274-1579-0.
Auxiliar
[2]
[1]
FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 . (/ ).
[1]
, GNU
[1] http:/ / de. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Auxiliar

[2] http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/
()
.
(sublimation). ,
.
()
61
()
universal (. universal indicator)
pH ,
pH.[1]
, ,
pH, ( ) ,
.[2]
pH
0-3
3-6
8-11
11-14
(% w/w) :[3]
37
0,8
0,03
0,03
0,03
0,02
62,1
,
, . , ,
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.[4]
, .
. ,
. 79 C ( ).[5]
, ' .
.
, .[3] .

.[5]
,
.
,
15 , .
()
.
[1] Cambridge Dictionaries Online (http:/ / dictionary. cambridge. org/ dictionary/ british/ universal-indicator)
[2] ISCID Encyclopedia of Science and Philosophy (http:/ / www. iscid. org/ encyclopedia/ Universal_Indicator)
[3] Science Lab.com (pdf) (http:/ / www. sciencelab. com/ msds. php?msdsId=9927029)
[4] Whatman Ltd. (http:/ / www. whatman. com/ UniversalIndicatorPapers. aspx)
[5] Oxford University H-Sci Project (http:/ / cartwright. chem. ox. ac. uk/ hsci/ chemicals/ universal_indicator. html)

.
, ,
, ,
.
17
1718,
(Georg Ernst Stahl) ,
, "".
,
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.
1772, (Antoine Lavoisier)
,
. .
Lavoisier
.
19
19 , . ,
.. Mg + 1/2O2 MgO C + O2 CO2.

(Mg) (C).
. Fe2O3 + 3H2 2Fe + 3H2O,
() (Fe2O3). (2)
.
,
. ,
() .. CH3OH HCHO +
H2. () .. H2 +
Cl2 2HCl.
62
63
20
,

.
, Ca + 1/2O2 CaO (1) Ca + Cl2 CaCl2 (2) Ca 2
Ca2+ : Ca Ca2+ + 2e.
(1)
: 1/2O2 + 2e O2- (2)
Cl Cl2 + 2e 2Cl .
:
.
.
:
.
, :

2 2.
.. :
Ca Ca2+ + 2e ( )
Cl2 + 2e 2Cl- ( )
:
Ca + Cl2 CaCl2 ( )
19 ,
:

(+) .

(.. C + O2 CO2)

.
2 + F2 2HF

,
. HF ( ) 43 %
57 % (1,91 D).
( ),
.

, (.)
:
: H2 + Cl2 2HCl .. ( 2) = 0 .. (
HCl) = +1. .. Cl ( Cl2) = 0 .. Cl ( HCl) = -1.
: Mg + 1/2O2 MgO .. Mg = 0 .. Mg (
Mg) = +2, .. ( 2) = 0 .. ( MgO) = -2.

:
..
.
.
64
O
,
, ...

, .
' ,
, .

:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
.
( )
.
.
.
, , , .

:

. ""
""
.
, (),
(C6H12O6) : C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + . ' ,
CO2 2 .
,

. .
, CO2
() 2 : 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 - Q.
65
,
,

. ,
2
( ).

CO2
. , ,

|
,

Krebs

(ATP).

.
:
.
.
Calvin-Benson.
Krebs ( ).
.
, , , , ...
.
, .
.
(, ...),
,
0. C, Al ..
:
Cr Cr2O3 ( ) : Cr2O3 + 2Al Al2O3 + 2Cr.
: M2Ox + xC 2M + xCO
= Pb, Sn, Bi, Cu, Zn, Co, Mg x = .. .
:
: 2Na[M(CN)2] + Zn Na2[Zn(CN)4] + 2M = Ag, Au.
.
: Ni(CO)4 Ni + 4CO.
66
67
Ag .
Hg ...

.

. :

KNO3, S (C).

.. 2KNO3 + C + 2S K2SO4 + CO2 + N2 ..

: 2C7H5N3O6 3N2 + 5H2O + 7CO + 7C.
C3H5N3O9 ..

2

.
Ag2S

:
2Ag + 1/2 O2 + H2S Ag2S + H2O.

: Ca +
1/2O2 CaO.

( )
. Fe2O3.xH2O.
: 4Fe + 3O2 + xH2O 2Fe2O3.xH2O.

,
( , ( )
( 90% ). . , ..
:
C8H18 + 25/2O2 8CO2 + 9H2O. 2.
() . .. (C2H6O) : C2H6O +
6CuO 2CO2 + 3H2O + 6Cu.

. .
, (NaOCl)
, .
,
,
: OCl- + 2e + H2O Cl- + 2OH-.
68
69

,
.
:
,
, ,
,
(PAHs),
.

, , ,
.

:
,
,
,
,
,
Fenton[1] ..

:
.

.
.
[2] .
.

.
:

,

.
, Leclanc,

.
Ni-Cd
,

,
.
.
: , , ,
..
:
NaCl, : 2NaCl 2Na +
Cl2.
NaOH, : 4NaOH 4Na +
2H2O + O2.
NaCl : 2H2O + 2NaCl H2 + 2NaOH +
Cl2.

.. nylon.
[1] 22 Fe2+. 1894,

1930 .
[2] (, , , ..)
.
1. . . ", ', -- ",

1985.
2. . . " ", 1986.
3. .. " ", 1 2, 1981.
4. ., . " ", 14, 1984.
5. ., . " ", 1976.
6. . . " ", 1986.
7. Morrison R. T., Boyd R. N. " " 1,2,3,
:--, 1991.
8. . . "Test ", 1989.
70

9. . . ", ', - ",
1985.
10. . . " ", 1986.
11. . ., . . " ", 1987.
12. . . " ", .
13. "O" Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox)
14. "" Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemistry)
.
,
.

.[1]
()[2] '
(.. Ca2+
+ )
(.. 4+)
( 2- 22-)
( .. SO42- NO3-)
-.
[3]
(NaCl)
(1:1, 2:1, 1:3
...) .
Arrhenius

.
.
Brnsted-Lowry Lewis, ( , ,
)
.
71
72
-

, . , ,
. :
(.. NH4Cl, NH4NO3 ..):

.
:
(NaNO3) (KNO3).
:
[Ca5(PO4)3F], [Ca3(PO4)2], ()
(MgCO3), (MgCO3.CaCO3), (CaCO3),
(PbCO3) ..

.
: (MgSO4),
(CaSO4.2H2O) (BaSO4).
: (PbS)[4]
(ZnS)[5] , (FeS2),
(HgS) (CuFeS2).
:
(NaCl).
: .
SiO44- .

. ' [6] . [7] .. NaCl, (NH4)2CO3, KH,
CaHPO3, (CH3COO)2Ca, CH3ONa ..
. '
.
(.. KHS, NaHSO4 ..) (.. NaH2AsO4 ..).
. , (-). ..
Mg(OH)Cl, Pb(OH)2.2PbCO3,
Bi(OH)2NO3 ..
73

. 4+ .. CaSO4, Mg(OH)Cl, NH4Cl, HCOONH4 ..
. .. KNaCO3, NH4MgPO4 ..
.
.. CaCO3.MgCO3, K2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O .. ,
.

,
1 ( 1s2).
. ,
1 2 , .
, KH, NaH, CaH2, BaH2 ...,
. .

. .. K4[Fe(CN)6], [Ag(NH3)2]Cl ..

. ( )
.
. .. CuSO4.5H2O, CaSO4.2H2O ..
.
.

. "-"
: NaCl = , Ag2S = , NH4CN = , Al(HS)3=
[8] , FeCl2 = ()[9] , FeCl3 = ()[10] ...
"" "" : =
...
.
: KNO3 = , Na2SO4 = , CaSO3 = , Cu2SO4 =
()[11] , CuSO4 = ()[12] , (NH4)2CO3 = , AgHSO3 =
, NaH2PO4 = ...
. ,
... - : Mg(OH)Cl = , Al(OH)2Cl =
...
.
() : MgSO4.7H2O = (7)
... "" : CaCl2.6H2O =

, CuSO4.5H2O = ...
. : KCl.MgCl2.6H2O = , AlF3.NaF =
...
. KNaSO4 = , Ca(OCl)Cl = -
()
. . :
K4[Fe(CN)6] = () , K3[Fe(CN)6] = () , [Ag(NH3)2]Cl =
...

(I.U.P.A.C.).
, , ,
"" , : CH3-CH2-COONa =
, CH3COONH4 = , (COO)2Ca = ...

.. Na2CO3 Leblanc
Solvay. .
, , :
" + + ".[13] ..
Ba(OH)2 + H2SO4 BaSO4[14] + H2O.
" + " .. CaO + CO2 CaCO3
" + + " [15] .. CO2
+ Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + H2O.
" + + " .. MgO + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2O.
: 2Pb(OH)2 + CO2 Pb(OH)2.PbCO3 + H2O.
"1 + 2 3 + 4", .. AgNO3 +
KCN KNO3 + AgCN, Hg2(NO3)2 + 2NaCl 2NaNO3 + Hg2Cl2.
: AgCN + KCN K[Ag(CN)2].
"1 + 1 2 + 2"
.. CuSO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + Cu(OH)2. : 2CuSO4 + 2NH3 +
2H2O Cu(OH)2.CuCO4 + (NH4)2SO4.
"1 + 1 2 + 2" .
.. 2NH4Cl + H2PtCl6 (NH4)2PtCl6 + 2HCl
" + " .. Zn + Cl2 ZnCl2.
700C : Ca + H2 CaH2.
" + + ..." .. Zn + Cl2 ZnCl2, 3Ag + HNO3 3AgNO3 + NO
+ 2H2O.
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2 Al, Zn, Sn : Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 H2O + CaOCl2, Zn +
2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2.
.. Na2CO3 :
NaCl NaOH, CO2 : 2NaOH + CO2
Na2CO3 + H2O.
: 2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O.
74
75

, , ,
:
" 1 + 1 2 + 2" : CaF2 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + 2HF
" 1 + 1 2 + 2" : NH4Cl + NaOH NaCl + NH3 + H2O
" 1 + 2 3 + 4" : AgNO3 + CaCl2 2AgCl
+ Ca(NO3)2
" + ( ) + " : NaHSO4 + NaOH
Na2SO4 + H2O, Ba(HCO3)2 + BaO 2BaCO3 + H2O.
" + ( ) ( ) + " :
NaHCO3 + KOH KNaCO3 + H2O, Mg(HCO3) + CaO MgCO3 + CaCO3 + H2O
" + ( ) + " : Mg(OH)Cl + HCl
MgCl2 + H2O

:

.. Fe2+ > Fe3+, Sn2+ > Sn4+, +32 > +53 ... .. :
FeBr2 + 1/2Br2 FeBr3.
, LiH CaH2.

..
Fe3+ > Fe2+, Sn4+ > Sn2+, KMn+7O4 + H+ > Mn2+, K2Cr2+6O7 +
H+ > Cr3+ ... .. KMnO4 + 8HBr MnBr2 + KBr + 5/2Br2 + 4H2O,
(KMnO4)

K2Cr2O7 + 3H2S + 4H2SO4 Cr2(SO4)3 + 3S + K2SO4 + 7H2O.

: , ,
.
.
.
.
. , : FeAsS
FeS + As.
, ,
.
2 .
Coulomb
.. NH4Cl NH4+ + Cl-, K2CO3 K+ + CO32- ...

. .. NaCl :
Na+Cl(s) Na+(H2O)x + Cl(H2O)y : Na+Cl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) NaCl
Na+ + Cl.
: KH + H2O KOH + H2

.
K+, Na+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Cl-, Br-, I-, NO3-,
76
ClO4-, SO42-.
, (-) 2
(+) 2 . () ,
.
, , ,
2 .
,
.
-
(),
. .
,
().

.

, .
(Na2Cr2O7)
.
(NaCl),
(KAlSi3O8), (CaSO4.2H2O),
(MgSO47H2O), (PbMoO4),
(CdS) ...
.
550C
1700C. .. ( , NaCl)
801C 1413C.

(CoCl2.6H2O)
.
,
.

.
..
, (
, ),
...

(NiCl2.6H2O)

,
. (
(
) . (
) .
77

( , ..
), (
, .. ) (
, ..
).
:

(NaH).

Cl-
AgCl, Hg2Cl2, CuCl, PbCl2
Br-
AgBr, Hg2Br2, CuBr, PbBr2
I-
AgI, Hg2I2, CuI, PbI2
NH4F, KF, NaF, AgF
F- ( )
K2S, Na2S, (NH4)2S, CaS, BaS, MgS
S2- ( )
K2CO3, Na2CO3, (NH4)2CO3
CO32- ( )
K2SiO3, Na2SiO3
SiO32- ( )
K3PO4, Na3PO4, (NH4)3PO4
PO43- ( )
SO42- ( )
CaSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4, g2SO4,

HgSO4
K2SO3, Na2SO3, (NH4)2SO3
SO32- ( )
CH3COO- ( )
CH3COOAg, CH3COOHg
3-, ClO3-, ClO4-, HCO3-,

H2PO4-
(NH4)2PtCl6
78

.
:
(NaCl)
.

.
(Na+) (Cl-)
,
.

.
Donnan
. 95%
.
( ) .

.
. 85% .
Cu+ Cu2+ -
() .
. '
:
79
[1] I.U.P.A.C. (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ S05447. html).
SnCl4, HgCl2 .
[2] ,

[3]
[4]
[5]
- 2[6] .. Cl , Br , S ..
+
2[7] , , .. NO , HPO , H- ..
3
3
[8] HS
[9] (Fe) +2
[10] (Fe) +3
+
[11] Cu
2+
[12] Cu
[13] Arrhenius.
[14] = , =
[15]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
.. " ", 1 2, 1981.

., . " ", 14, 1984.
. . " ", 1986.
., . " ", 13, 1985.
. " . ", 1995.
. " ' ", .
. . ", ', -- ",
1985.
8. . " ", 1986.
9. . . " ", 1986.
10. . " ", 1986.
80

(http://www.food-info.net)

, (),
.
(AgNO3) (Cu)
(Cu(NO3)2) (Ag):
2AgNO3 + Cu Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag
(NO-3),
, .
" " " ",
,
(valence electrons), ( ).
( ),
.
NO-3 ,
( ),
(AgNO3) (Cu(NO3)2).
. (CH3 -),
(C2H5 -) .
81

Molarity ' ( mol/L, molar, M)
moles . C
[ ] :
n = moles (mol)
V = (L)

( 1000 mL)
. , .
:
(3) 0.2 0.2 mol 1000 mL
. C = 0.2 C =
0.2 mol/L [3] = 0.2 .
(NaOH) 0.01
0.01 mol NaOH ( 0.4 g) 1000 mL . ,
1000 mL.
' 2 mol 4 L , C = 2/4
= 0.5 mol/L.
1 Kg 1 Kg/L. 1 L.
18,0153 moles 1000 g 1000/18,0153 = 55.5 mol. ,
C = 55.5/1 = 55.5 mol/L.
(SI) mol/m3.
mol/dm3, mol/L.
. :
mol/m3 = 10-3 mol/dm3 = 10-3 mol/L = 10-3 M = 1 mM
"millimolar" "micromolar" mM M (10-3 mol/L and 10-6 mol/L),
.
,
mole/ (mmol/L, mM),
mole/ (mol/L, M) mole/ (nmol/L, nM).
82
Millimolar
mM
10-3
Micromolar
10-6
Nanomolar
nM
10-9
Picomolar
pM
10-12
Femtomolar
fM
10-15
Attomolar
aM
10-18
Zeptomolar
zM
10-21 M
Yoctomolar
yM
10-24 M
(1 1.6 L)
-
,
.
:
: C1 = (M)
V1 = (L)
C2 = (M)
V2 = (L)
:
V o .
,
.
: : C1 =
(M)
V1 = (L)
C2 = (M)
V2 = (L)
:
V o .
,
:
moles . .

C1, C2, C3 . V1, V2, V3 .
, V
C. :
1. . . " ", 1980.

2. . . " ", 1980.
3. . . " ", .
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
.. " ", 1 2, 1981.

., . " ", 14, 1984.
., . " ", 1976.
. . " ", 1986.
. . " ", 1986.
[1]
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Molar_concentration
83

,
( ' , ).
( )
' . ,
, ,
.
,
. (. Gustav Robert Kirchhoff) 1860
.
, , , .
, .
.

. ,
.
, .
.
, .

, ,
( .. ).

.

,
,

,
.

, ,
,
.

,
,
.

,
.
( ).
84
85

. T(v),
( ) .
.
.
,
. ,
, RT(v)
.

, ,
- ,
- .
, , (
), :

, .
, .
, n '' ,
, . Rayleigh Jeans
. ,
. :

kT, k . ,
v
Rayleigh-Jeans .
.
, n
, . ,
.
, .
,
. kT
86

pahoehoe,
.
.

1000 C 1200 C.
pahoehoe
, .
,

, . ,
.
:
- :
,
1,5 2 m2 ( = 2m2).
( = 0,98). 32 C, (90F, 305
K), . ,
301 K. .
, 20C (68F, 293 K),
:
100
watt, .
9 , 2000
(kcal). 100-120 Watts,
160 Watts, . ,
,
, .
Wien ,
:
' ,
, 7 14m.

(, - )
,
.
: albedo (
), ( ),
( ).
- ( )
:
87
88

,
.
-,
,
.
. ' ,
. :
, :
,
:
1, 2, 3 :
, :
89
3% 5780 Kelvin.
.
1. WMAP.
2. FIRAS COBE.
WMAP
(Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe) NASA,

- . WMAP

.
() ,
. .
, COBE (Cosmic
Background Explorer).
90
. 34

, .
99,97%
, 2,7K.

,

.
.

,
.

, 3-5
,

.

, .

, .
10
600km,
.
( ), ,
, . ,
. ,
, .
1974 (Stephen Hawking),
, .
,
.
, ,
. ,
.
:
,
, () .
, , () :
(
),
91
,
.
( Schwarzschild) :
- :
- (1), (2) (3),

:

:
1804 (John Leslie), ,
.
,
, .
.
. Experimental
Enquiries into the Nature and Properties of Heat.
1858, Balfour Stewart, (Royal Society of
Edinburgh) An account of some experiments on radiant heat,
,
,
.

1859 , ,

. (e)
(), e/,
.
, Annalen der Physik (1860)
" " " ",
. ,
(e/)
:

( ) ,
. , .
, ,

.

,
,
, ,
.
. (bolometer) Samuel
Pierpont Langley 1881
. 1888 (Heinrich Hertz)
.

.
1976 Adolfo Bartoli
.
.

Eugen von Lommel,
Munich, 1878. Lommel ()
, .
1879 (Joseph Stefan)
:
. 1884 Ludwig Boltzmann

, Maxwell
Bartoli. ,
Stefan Boltzmann.
1888, (Vladimir Alexandrovich Michelson)
, Maxwell
, (,) .
, 1886 Samuel Pierpont Langley,
,

.
. Friedrich Paschen,
(Technical University of Hanover). Paschen
1892,
. 1896
:
92
93
. 5,5.
(Wilhelm Wien) Paschen.

Bartoli Boltzmann
. ,
,
. Doppler
, 1893 :

. ,
,
Maxwell ( ).
,
,
c .
,
- :

Paschen, 5,
(,)
.
1911.

27 1900
, , "Nineteenth-Century Clouds over the Dynamical Theory of Heat and Light"
( ),
:
, ,

,
. , .
, ""
,
( ,
, - ).
, 19 1900,
.

, ,
.
, .

. 1894, .

. ,
,
(
)
.
1898 (natrliche strahlung):

,
.
,
. ,
, ,
.
,
. ,
.
1899 ,
.
. ,
,
. ,
, . ,

:
b :
, .
.
,
, Otto Lummer, Ferdinand Kurlbaum, Ernst Pringsheim Heinrich Rubens
.
,
. ,
1900
.
94

7 1900 Rubens
,
(
). , :
, ,
-
.
:
Rubens, , -
, Rubens
.
, . ,

. ,
,
.
,
, .
The Historical Development of Quantum Theory, Jagdish Mehra, Helmut Rechenberg, Springer-Verlaq New
York Inc, 1982, volume 1, chapter 1,.24). ISBN 0-387-90642-8 ISBN 3-540-90642-8.
, . , . , . , . .
, , 1998.

Physics4u: [1], MAX PLANCK:
[2]
, Max Planck - [3].
: [4]
. [5]
"Annalen der Physik" [6]
. ()
HyperPhysics - Georgia State University [7] ()
95
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
http:/ / www. physics4u. gr/ articles/ 2002/ blackbody. html

http:/ / www. physics4u. gr/ articles/ quantum100. html
http:/ / www. physics4u. gr/ articles/ 2002/ planck. html
http:/ / users. sch. gr/ papsot/ index. htm
http:/ / gate. iesl. forth. gr/ ~kafesaki/ Modern-Physics/ lectures/ modern_physics2. html
http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ */ http:/ / dbhs. wvusd. k12. ca. us/ webdocs/ Chem-History/ Planck-1901/ Planck-1901. html
http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ mod6. html
96
97
23 1858
,
4 1947 (89)
,

Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft

Walter H. Schottky

(1918)
(Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck)

. 23 1858 4 1947
. .

,
.
,
, Gottlieb Planck '
1900,
.

Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck ,
Emma Patzig. 1867 Knigliches
Maximilians gymnasium, Hermann Mller,
. 16 , ,
, ,
: , ,
. , .
, Philipp von Jolly,
, , , .
, .
von Jolly 1874. (..
), .
1877 Hermann von Helmholtz
Gustav Kirchhoff. .
, . , ,
(R. Clausius),
. 1879 ,
ber den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wrmetheorie (
).
.
1880 (Habilitation) Gleichgewichtszustnde isotroper
Krper in verschiedenen Temperaturen (
).

, ,
.
.
. 1885
.
.
.
1889 ,
, 1892 . .
:
, ,
, ( ).
1898
(Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG),
1905 1909.
6 , ,
, , :
James R. Partington. :
20, :
Max Abraham 1897 (1875 - 1922)
Moritz Schlick 1904 (1882 - 1936)
98
Walther Meiner 1906 (1882 - 1974)

Max von Laue 1906 (1879 - 1960)
Fritz Reiche 1907 (1883 - 1960)
Walter Schottky 1912 (1886 - 1976)
Walther Bothe 1914 (1891 - 1957)
1907 ,
. 1909
.
10 1926. .
1930 1937, ,
Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft,
(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institute). 1948
Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
Max-Planck-Institute.

1887 (Marie Merck) (1861-1909), .
, (1888-1916), (1889-1919)
(1889-1917), (1893-1945). ,
(Berlin-Grunewald), , Wangenheimstrae 21.
, ..
(Adolf von Harnack), . ,
:
, , .
, :
1909 , . 1911
(Marga von Hoesslin) (1882-1948)
. , ,
, 1914. 1917
, , ,
. , , .
. , 1945
, ,
1944.

1894 .

.
1859:
( , )
(.. ) ;
, Rayleigh-Jeans
,
, . Wilhelm Wien
( Wien), ,
99

. ,
,
.
, 19 1900, 1901.
14 1900,
.
, : ... ...
....

, ,

. , , E
= h, h
.
, , ,
... .
, ( ),
(
1877
). ,
1918.
,
, :
(h) ... ... .
, Rayleigh, Jeans, Lorentz h = 0
, :
Jeans
, . , .
:
, .

, ,
.
, ()
,
. ,
,
. .
:
,
- .
100

1905
Annalen der Physik.
.
, ,
.
.
, ( )
,
:
, ,
....
1910
. ,
,
Solvay 1911.
.
21 .
1914,
. ,
.
'
:
93 , ,
, (
). 1915 (
Lorentz) , 1916
.
, ,

.
. 1920
"Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft",
.
.
, , 74 ,
.
,
, .
,
.

,
(. ).
101

, ,
, ,
, . "Hauptamt Wissenschaft" (
) ,
1/16.
1938, 80 ,
Max-Planck ( 1928)
Louis de Broglie,
. , , ,

(Gleichschaltung). . ,
, ,
.

. 1942 : ,
,
. 1944
,
.
. ,
. ,
. 1946 300
, . 1946
Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft . 89
.
"Pour le Mrite" 1915

Nobel 1918 ( 1919)
Lorentz 1927
Adlerschild des Deutschen Reiches (1928)
Max Planck 1928 ( )
: , , , ,
, , ,
102

,

, : , , , ,

1069

(ESA),
2007 2009

Physics4u: MAX PLANCK: [2], Max Planck -
[3].
. [5]

[1]
"Annalen der Physik"
Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Frderung der Wissenschaften e.V. [2]
[1] http:/ / replay. web. archive. org/ 20080106041340/ http:/ / dbhs. wvusd. k12. ca. us/ webdocs/ Chem-History/ Planck-1901/ Planck-1901.
html
[2] http:/ / www. mpg. de/
103
104
-
-, ,
(RT)
,
(T):
(RT) (
) SI
(J/s/m), B (W/m). (T)
SI ().
, , = 1. ,
- , .
:
k , c , h .
1879 (Joef Stefan)
(Ludwig Boltzmann) 1884.

. ,
( ), ()
( ).
20 1879, "ber die
Beziehung zwischen der Wrmestrahlung und der Temperatur" (
).
-

-
, v,
( ):
0 ,
. d=
() dd :
( )
105

. (P)
:
,
. ,
. :
- : .

.
Charles Soret,
29
1900C 2000C (
Soret).
.
-
. 3/2
, 29 3/2 = 43,5.
1888 1904.
Soret,
1950C, 2200 K . 43,5 2,57,
2,57 .
5430C 5700K (
5780 K).
. 1800C 13,000,000C.
Claude Servais Mathias Pouillet ' 1838
Dulong-Petit. Pouilett
.
L , - , R T

(effective temperature).
:
, .
- , .
,

TE
:
TS , rS a0 (
), 6C.
21 , 190.000
. - 215 ,
46.000.
1/4 , (342 W
m2 , 1,370 W m2 ).
106
107
T ~ 300 K.
.
12 1824
,
17 1887 (63)
,
(Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, 12 1824 17 1887)

, ,
, , . 1845
,
. 1854 (Robert
Bunsen) , ,
.
(1859). 1860
.
12 1824 (
). (Friedrich Kirchhoff),
, Johanna Henriette Wittke.

, . 1842
(Albertus Universitt von Knigsberg),
1847.
1843 46
(Franz Neumann) (Carl Jacobi), 1833.
.
1842
. .
,
.
1845.
, .
,
:
1. . ,
,
.
,
.
2. .
() , .

, .
(Georg Ohm).
1847 Clara Richelot,

Friedrich Richelot, . 1848 1850
, 1850
(extraordinary professor).
. ,
1851-52, .
108
109
1854
(Heidelberg)
,

.

.
.

,

.
,
.
,

,
()
.
()

, .
,
. , 1860

, ,
. ,
, caesius . ,
.
. ,
, ,
. , rubidus
.
,
.
(Tl,
William Crookes, 1861.
,

), (In,
Ferdinand Reich Hieronymous
Theodor Richter, 1863.
indigo,
,

)
(Ga
,Paul
mile
Lecoq
de
Boisbaudran, 1875.
).
110
. Annalen der Physik

(1860). (D)
' (E).
(F) (B),
.
,
,
.
.
(C).
().
, ,
.
.
(G)

. ,
1859, ,
(e) (), e/,
.
,
Annalen der Physik (1860) ,
. ,
(e/)
.
, ,
.
,

, .
.
1814, (Josef von Fraunhofer)
,
, Fraunhofer ( ,

(William Hyde Wollaston) 1802). Fraunhofer
,

:
1. .
2. ,
.
3. ,
,
.
,

. , Fraunhofer
:
.

() . , ,
.
1869 , , .
,
, . 1872 Luise
Brmmel Goslar.
,
. 1871 ,
,
, . , ,
. 1875,
, . ,
Vorlesungen ber mathematische Physik - , (1876-1894).
.
. 1886
. 17 1887. 1888
, ,
.
The Historical Development of Quantum Theory, Jagdish Mehra, Helmut Rechenberg, Springer-Verlaq New
York Inc, 1982, volume 1, chapter 1,.24). ISBN 0-387-90642-8 ISBN 3-540-90642-8.
, , ,1997, Emilio Segre, .
, . , PERSONAGGI E SCOPERTE DELLA FISICA
CLASSICA 1983, ISBN 960-531-020-1
111
112

: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Kirchhoff.html
: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/kirchhoff.htm
Cesium 55, http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Cs Rubidium 37, http://elements.
vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Rb

(: Joef Stefan, 24 1835- 7
1893) ,
.
.

.

.
113
.
A,

(..
CMYK) -
.
(
)
:
, ,

.
,

(.
).

.
.
.
biaa Barwa biaa
[2]
[1]
GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 . (biaa / ).
[1] http:/ / pl. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Barwa
[1]
114
:
-
-
(R- = CnH2n+1-), (Ph- = C6H5-)
.
: R-O-R Ph-O-R Ph-O-Ph --
( ).
() (V), (VI), (VII)

(), (V), (V), (VII) (II), (III), (IV) ).
:

(RH) : RO- (CH3O-,
CH3CH2O- .). CnH2n+2O (n 2)
.
R-O-R Ph-O-Ph ()
R-O-R' Ph-O-R Ph-O-R ().
"", "" " "
. ,
(.. - CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3),

- (CH3)2CH-O-CH(CH3)2
-.- (CH3)3C-O-C(CH3)3.
:
RO- (.. -, -, .)
( ) R'-.
"".
:
"-"
C- [ ()]. '
[ ()] [ ()].

"-" "-" ( 3 ),
"-" ( 4 ), "-" ( 5 ), "-" ((
6 ) . [ (IV), (V)].
"-", "-", "-", "-" .
115
116

[ (VI), (VII), (VIII)]
(VI),
(VII),
(VIII)

. '
. - -n--.
, (SN2)
() .
140C H2SO4 Lewis BF3, AlCl3,
ZnCl2. NaHSO4. ,
.
, , 240C - 260C,
Al2O3 TiO2. :
2ROH R-O-R + H2O

:
2CH3CH2OH CH3CH2-O-CH2CH3 + H2O
- ,
,
. , :
117
ROH
. + -SO3H (
) .
:
3R-OH + 3R'-OH R-O-R + R'-O-R + R'-O-R' + 3H2
, :
CH3CH2OH + (CH3)3COH CH3CH2-O-C(CH3)3 ( 95 %)
Williamson
.
, [1] .
:
R'ONa + RX R-O-R' + NaX

Williamson 50-100 C 1-8 . ,
, , .
:
CH3(CH2)5CH2ONa + CH3CH2I CH3(CH2)5CH2-O-CH2CH3 + NaI ( 91 %)
CH3OCH2CH2ONa + CH3Cl CH3-O-CH2CH2-O-CH3 + NaCl ( 78 %)
CH3ONa + Br-(CH2)6-Br Br-(CH2)6-O-CH3 + NaBr ( 80 %)
+ NaOCH3
[2]
+ NaCl
+ RX
+ NaX
SN2
.
:
118
.--, CH3-O-(CH3)3,
. , (CH3)3ONa, -, CH3X, ,
CH3ONa, .-, (CH3)3X :
(CH3)3ONa + CH3X CH3-O-(CH3)3 + NaX
CH3ONa + (CH3)3X
.
(.. -),

[3] .
Ag2O.
- -
Williamson .

-., . :
( , THF) ,
(CF3COO)2Hg[4] , . (
) Markovnikov -, RO-,
,
, CF3COOHg-, .
- :
RCH=CH2 + R'OH + (CF3COO)2Hg RCH(R')-CH2(HgOCOCF3) + CF3COOH

:
, ,
(NaOH) -, NaBH4, . ()
NaBH4 :
4RCH(R')-CH2(HgOCOCF3) + 4NaBH4 + 4NaOH 4RCH(OR')-CH3 + 4Hg + 4CF3COOH

+ NaB(OH)4
:
CH3-(CH2)3-C(CH3)=CH2 + (CH3)2CH-OH CH3-(CH2)3-CH(CH3)-O-CH(CH3)2 ( 98 %)
(CH3)3C-CH=CH2 + (CH3)2CH-OH (CH3)3-CH(CH3)-O-CH(CH3)2
119

(
) .. 1,18 D.
,
: n- (Mr = 72) . 98C - (Mr = 102)
100C.
-
:
1- ( -) .. 157C. O
'
: (CH3CH2-O-CH2CH3)
1- (CH3CH2CH2CH2-OH), 9.1 mL/100 mL H2O
25 C.

(C)
CH3-O-CH3
-138.5
CH3CH2-O-CH2CH3 -116.3
(C)
1 L

(D)
-23.0
70g
1,30
34.4
69g
1.18
O(CH2)4
-108.4
66.0
1.74
11.8
101.3
0.45
O(C2H4)2O
1,4- .
,
. [5]
. , ,

Grignard.

.

(van der Waals)
.

--. , ,
. .
120

,
,
""
""
,
(Bayer)[6] .

,

.

(R-O-R')

. C-O-C
110C (..
111,5C).

C-O 1060 1150 cm-1 -
1200 - 1275 cm-1

- - (
-1
1020 - 1075 cm ).
.
.
O2 C, H, O, CO2
2. - :
CnH2n+2O + 3n/2 O2 nCO2 + (n+1)H2O

:
CH3OCH3 + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O

, -[7]
:
RCH2-O-R' + Cl2 RCH(Cl)-O-R' + HCl

-
.
:
(CH3)2CH-O-CH2CH3 + Cl2 (CH3)2C(Cl)-O-CH2CH3 + HCl

(H2SO4) :
R2O + H2SO4 R2O+H HSO4-
121
T R2O+H HSO4- HSO4-

.
- [8]
. Lewis, BF3,
:
ROR + BF3 R2O+BF3-

(h) .
, RCH(OOH)OR, ,
. ,
, .
FeSO4 .
-
: [9]

( = I, Br, Cl) , r
HCl. :
CH3-O-CH2CH3 + 2HI CH3-I + CH3CH2-I
Br ,
:
ROR' + 2HI RI + R'I + H2O

HBr 0C - 70C,
.
:
ROR' + HI ROH + R'I

:
CH3CH2CH2-O-CH3 + HI CH3CH2CH2-OH + CH3-I
:
122
SN1 SN2 :
, SN2. .
C
C ( ) :
(.. ),
SN1 :
-- -
:
+ HI
+ RI
- - Wittig
- -, 1,2-
- .
1,2- : -C(CH3)3 >
-CH(CH3)2 > -CH2CH3 > -CH3.
R'-CH2-O-R" + RLi + H2O RCH(OH)R" + RH + LiOH

:
123
, -CN, :

, ,
. :

. 3 :
NH3 + 3
N(CH2CH2OH)3
(1,2-, HOCH2CH2OH)
:
HOCH2CH2OH +

.

1,4--. 2,3--4- (DHP)

-- (RO-THP).

RO-.
:

:
+ ROH
124
.
.. ,
.. :
n HOCH2CH2CH2OH (OCH2CH2CH2)n + nH2O
,
:

. ,
2,6-- (..
2,6-), .
(),
.
:

, .

32- 8 .
(Na, K).

. - ,
, -
.
-- =

=
.
16--4
(Charles Pedersen)[10]
1967.
18--6
.

.
18--6 18 6
. (1.237 g/mL)
. ,
6 12 CH2 . ,
+
CH2-.
, ,
.
125
126

,

:

,

,
, :
--
--
--

, , . ,
,
' .
.
.
.
, (.. -),
. .
-tert-- .
.

. , , ,
.
, .
.
, .
. ,
.
[1] : ROH + Na RONa +

1/2H2
[2] : Ph-OH + NaOH Ph-ONa + H2O
[3] : CH3CH2Cl + NaI CH3CH2I + NaCl
[4] , (CH3COO)2Hg,
[5] . , .
[6] Bayer
[7] - - .
[8] (-) -

[9] : R3C. > R2CH. > RCH2. > CH3.
[10] O C. Pedersen (1904-1989) Nobel 1987
.
1. . " ", 1986.

2. ., . " ", 13, 1985.
3. . . " , --", 1 2,
1985.
4. . " ", 1993
:--, 1991.
6. Meislich H., Nechamkin H., Sharefkin J. " ", : ., 1983.
7. . " . ", 1995.
8. . " ", 1986.
9. . . " ", 1986.
10. . . " ", .
(http://www.anesthesia-nursing.com/ether.html)
IUPAC (http://www.acdlabs.com/scripts/search/swish.cgi?queryhttp://www.
anesthesia-nursing.com/ether.html=ether&submit=Search!&metaname=swishdefault)
- (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_ether)
Ether (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ether)
- (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methoxy)
(http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=melting+point+of+ethers)
(http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=boiling+point+of+ethers)
(http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=density+of+ethers)
127
128
Li
()
()
, ,
1 ,1, s

(A )
1,00794
1s
129

25 (53,5) pm
31,(5) pm
van der Waals
120 pm
2,20 ( Pauling)
0, 1
1:1312.0 kJmol1

-259,14(C) (14,02 K)
-252,87C (20,29 K)
-259,36C (13,8 K), 7,042 kPa
-240,19C (32,97 K), 1,293 MPa
0,08988 kg/m
0,117 kJ/mol
1310 m/s
(25C, 1
Atm)

To 1. H.
1,00794(7) amu, ,
75% [1] .
. ,
() .
(1H) ,
. (H-)
(+).
, ,
. ,
. ,
.
.

(Schrdinger), ,
,
.
( , H2)
16 , . 1766 - 1781,
(Henry Cavendish) (
) [[ | ][2] , .
, .
[3] , , ,
H2.

,
[4] . ,
.
,
. , , (
)
[5] ,
[6] .

. , , ,
,
.
1% . ,
() .
. , ,
, DNA, ,
. , (He),
. ,
, .

, H2, T. ,
[7] . , ,
, .
1671,
, [8] .
1746
, . , 1781,
. [9] [10] .
1783, ,
[11] ,
, .
1898
.
,
(1899).
1931 (
) 1934, , .
(D2O), 1932.

1806.
1819.
1823.
1783.
, 1852,
.
130

. 1900.
, 1910, , ,
1914 35.000 .

.
( ) R34 1919.
1920
, ,
. ' ,
Hindenburg 6 1937.
.
,
, ,
.

, ,
( ), 30 . ,

,
.
,
1937 , Dayton Power & Light
Co,
(2009).
1977 -
NTS-2. ISS,
Mars Odyssey, Mars Global Surveyor .
,
, .

,

-
.

' , 1s
,
.
.[12] ,
, , H2+,
,
( ), .
131
132

, 1920.
( )
,
: (H2)
, 20o C,
.
.
.[13]
.
.
, Schrdinger :
, :
xp, yp, zp: .

xe, ye, ze: .
mp: :
me: :

133
* 1, D ( ) T ( ), md mt
mp. , :
1. D:
xd, yd, zd: ( ) .

xe, ye, ze: .
md: :
me: :
m: :
.
. :
2. T:
xt, yt, zt: ( ) .

xe, ye, ze: .
mt: :
me: :
m: : a
.
. :
, , 1.836 ,

,
.

. ( e) :
q: :
0: :
.
.
, ,
:

, :

Schrdinger :
, :
, Schrdinger
:
,
. (r,,} :

Schrdinger ( )
(,
) ,
.

. ,

,
.
() (

),
Bohr

.
(
) , n = 1,2,...7[14] .
,
( ) . ,
= 0, 1, 2,..., n-1. , m = 0, 1, 2,..., .
,
[15] . ,
(spin) ,
ms = .
134
135

:
En,j: n
me: :
qe: :
h: H Planck:
.
.
0: :
: :
E1, = -13,6 eV. '

.

R(r) :
[16]
'
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
136
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
137
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5gz4: n=5,
=4:
5gz2x:
.
n=5,
=4:
.
5gz2y:
n=5,
=4:
.
5gz2xy:
n=5,
=4:
.
5gz2(x2-y2):
n=5,
=4:
.
5gzx3: n=5,
=4:
138
5gzy3: n=5,
=4:
5gxy(x2-y2): n=5,
5gx4+y4: n=5,
.
=4:
=4:
6s:
.
n=6,
=0:
.
6px:
n=6,
=1:
n=6,
=1:
n=6,
=1:
.
6py:
.
6pz:
6dz2: n=6,
=2:
6dzx: n=6,
=2:
6dyz: n=6,
=2:
6dx2-y2: n=6,
.
.
.
=2:
6dxy:
.
n=6,
=2:
.
6fx3: n=6,
=3:
6fy3: n=6,
=3:
6fz3: n=6,
=3:
.
.
.
6fx(z2-y2): n=6,
=3:
6fy(z2-x2): n=6,
=3:
6fz(x2-y2): n=6,
=3:
139
6fxyz: n=6,
=3:
6gz4: n=6,
=4:
.
.
6gz2x:
n=6,
=4:
n=6,
=4:
n=6,
=4:
.
6gz2y:
.
6gz2xy:
.
6gz2(x2-y2):
n=6,
=4:
.
6gzx3: n=6,
=4:
6gzy3: n=6,
=4:
6gxy(x2-y2): n=6,
6gx4+y4: n=6,
7s:
.
.
=4:
=4:
.
n=7,
=0:
n=7,
=1:
n=7,
=1:
n=7,
=1:
.
7px:
.
7py:
.
7pz:
.
7dz2: n=7,
=2:
140
7dzx: n=7,
=2:
7dyz: n=7,
=2:
7dx2-y2: n=7,
.
.
=2:
7dxy:
n=7,
=2:
.
7fx3: n=7,
=3:
7fy3: n=7,
=3:
7fz3: n=7,
=3:
.
.
.
7fx(z2-y2): n=7,
=3:
7fy(z2-x2): n=7,
=3:
7fz(x2-y2): n=7,
=3:
7fxyz: n=7,
=3:
Bohr . k . L: Laguerre.

(2+)
,

.

. ,
,
,

. Schrdinger
:
H2+
141
xp1,2, yp1,2, zp1,2: .

xe, ye, ze: .
mp: :
me: :
.
.
:
* 1, D () T (),
md mt mp. , :
1. DH+:
xp, yp, zp: .

xd, yd, zd: ( )
.
xe, ye, ze: .
mp: :
md: :
me: :
.
.
m: :
.
. :
2. TH+:
xp, yp, zp: .

xt, yt, zt: ( ) .
xe, ye, ze: .
mp: :
mt: :
me: :
.
.
m: :
.
142
. :
3. D2+:
xd1,2, yd1,2, zd1,2: (

) .
xe, ye, ze: .
md: :
me: :
.
.
m: :
.
. :
4. DT+:
xd, yd, zd: ( )

.
xt, yt, zt: ( ) .
xe, ye, ze: .
md: :
mt: :
me: :
.
.
m: :
.
. :
5. T2+:
xt1,2, yt1,2, zt1,2: ( )

.
xe, ye, ze: .
mt: :
me: :
.
.
m: :
.
. :
143

, , .
, 1s ( ,
) (1s-1s) * (1s-1s). ,
:
(
, 2) ,
. .
( )
(. )
(
, 2) ,
. .
( )
.

. (2)
( ),
[17] .

spin 1 (+).

spin
0 (-). (0C, 1 atm),
75% 25%
,
("normal form")[18] .
,

,
( 100% ).

( )
.
Bevatron.

,
,

[19]
.
. -/-
, ,
[20] .

.
, [21] .
-
,
,
.
[22] ,
, , , ,
[23] .

(H3+), ,
.
.
, .
,
[24] .

(H3) [25] .
.
:
1. , .
2. ( ) :
.
, . ,
.
3. :
.
, ( ) .
K, '
, , , .
.
4. :
5. :
6. , :
144
7. : NaOH
. (
):
8. , :
' ,
.. Cu.
9. :
10. :
11. A ( ):
12.
13. M 5000oC:
, , 4 : ,
, .
.

0,0899 kg/m3,
, , , ,
, . ,
(20,268 K) (14,025 K).
.
.
. 99,98%
(1H) . 0,02%
145
146
, ( 2D ) ,
. . ,
( 3) ,
10000 . 12,4 .
.
, ,
.
, .
()
. (
) Pauli.
, , ,
.
( )[26]
,
4% - 75% ' [27] .
-286 kJ/mole[28] :
4-74%
5-95%. ,
. 500C[29] .
'
,
.
' .
,
, , [30] .
, '
. , 2/3
,

[31] . :
(20C), , ,
[32] .

,
(CH4) .
. (CH3COOH), .
, ,
(H+).
LiH
.
, (hydrogen bond).
, : O, S, N, F Cl.
. -
- .
Van Der Waals
.
(1,5 ) (3000 K 5000
K) , .
27 . ,
, , 96% ( ) .

: ,
. ,
,
. , , 2030
- 2040, 2030 10%
.

(fuel cells),
. .
.
, ,
, .
:
o
, 120,7 kJ/gr 3 .
"" . .
, 78% ,
, .
147

, .
,
.
, ,

:
. ,

. 2001
Mini Cooper,
,
.
.
.
. ,
, , ,
, , .
, , . ,
, ,
(
/).
,
,
, , (HCOOH).
, , , .

.

.
.
J.N. Murell, S.F.A. Kettle, J.N. Tedder: , , t .

, , 1992.
The Orbitron. [33]

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[14] , n = 7
[15] '
[16] ,
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2
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[20] Shinitzky, M; Elitzur, Avshalom C. (2006). "Ortho-para spin isomers of the protons in the methylene group". Chirality 18 (9):
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( 2008-02-05 )
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de/ H3/ guber4. pdf). Department of Molecular and Optical Physics, University of Freiburg, Germany ( 2009-11-25 )
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University of Southern Maine ( 2009-04-06 )

[27] Carcassi, M.N.; Fineschi, F. (2005). "Deflagrations of H air and CH air lean mixtures in a vented multi-compartment
2
4
environment". Energy 30 (8): 14391451. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2004.02.012 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2004.02.012).
[28] Committee on Alternatives and Strategies for Future Hydrogen Production and Use, US National Research Council, US National
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[29] Patnaik, P (2007). A comprehensive guide to the hazardous properties of chemical substances (http:/ / books. google. com/
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[30] Dziadecki, J. (2005). Hindenburg Hydrogen Fire (http:/ / spot. colorado. edu/ ~dziadeck/ zf/ LZ129fire. htm) ( 2007-01-16
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[31] Kelly, M.. The Hindenburg Disaster (http:/ / americanhistory. about. com/ od/ hindenburg/ a/ hindenburg. htm). About.com:American
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[33] http:/ / winter. group. shef. ac. uk/ orbitron/ AOs/ 6p/ index. html
150
Hydrogen (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Hydrogen)

, GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). (
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Hydrogen)).

He
Ne
(He)
()
151
, ,
18 ,1, s

(Ar)
4,002602
1s2
CAS
7440-59-7

28 pm
van der Waals
140 pm
1: 2372,3 kJ/mol
2: 5250,5 kJ/mol

-272,2C (0,95 K)(25 bar)
-268,93C (4,22 K)
5,19 , 2,27 bar
0,0829 kJ/mol
972 m/s
(25C, 1
Atm)

2 4,002602 amu.
He. , , , , , ,
() .
.
. (2), ,
24%
. 12
(). . (
) 4He
(3) ( , ).
, ,
. .
0,5
. ,
, ,
0,00052% ' . ,
' , (
, 4He.
7% ' ,
, ,
.

1868 (Jules Janssen). Janssen
(Norman Lockyer),
( )
, . 1903,
. .
( , 1/4
) ,
MRI.

, .
, ,
[1] .
,
. , (2)
4He, -I -II, (
)
( ).

,
.
18 1868
587,49

nm
(Jules Janssen)
[2] [3] .
' ' .
20 , (Norman Lockyer)
. D3 (Fraunhofer),
D1 D2 [4] . , ,
( ) , , () . Lockyer
(Edward Frankland) ( )
, [5] [6] [7] .
(L. Palmieri) 1881
. 26 1895
(Sir William Ramsay) , (
, 10% ). ,
,
D3 [8]
[9] [10] [11]
. Lockyer William Crookes (
).
[12] [13] [14] .
(William Francis Hillebrand) ,
. Hillebrand
152

.

[15] . ,
D3.
1907 (Thomas Royds)
4He, ,
, . 1908
(Heike Kamerlingh Onnes)
1 [16] . ,
,
. Willem Hendrik Keesom 1 cm3 1926[17]
.
1938, (Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa) 4He
0 .
[18] . 1972, 3He,
0 , (Douglas D. Osheroff),
(David M. Lee) (Robert C. Richardson).
,
[19] .

1903 ,
. (Erasmus Haworth)

, (Hamilton Cady)
(David McFarland), ' 72% , 15% (
), 1% 12% .[20] [21] .
[[ ] , 1,84%,
' , .[22] [23] . '
, ,
, [24] .
,
.
.
(Richard Threlfall),
, .
,
. 5.700 m3 92% ,
1 m3 [25] .
, C-7 .,
,
1 1921[26] .
,
, ,
.
, .
153

' ,
.
, [27] .
(National Helium Reserve) 1925

, [25] .
,
, LZ 129
. ,
1950,
, ,
( ),
, . 1965
, [28] .
1960 (Helium Acts Amendments of 1960, Public Law
86777), (U.S. Bureau of Mines, )
(5) . '
,
, 684 km, ,
(Cliffside gas field),
. - , ,
[29] .
1995, 1.000.000.000 m3 ,
1.400.000.000 $ (), 1966
[20] [30] .
1996 (Helium Privatization Act of 1996, Public Law 104273)[31]
(Department of the Interior) 2005[32] .
1930 1945 98,3%
. 1945, ()
99,9%, .
1949, ,
99,95%[33] .
90% '
, , , ,
. 1990, ,
, 17.000.000 m3, .
, 2000,
15.000 [34] . 2004-2006, ,
, . ,
[35] . .
[36]
. 2002 2007, [37] 2008
50%.
154
155
, , -.

. .
,

, .
, 3He 4He,
.

.

van der Waals.
,

.

. (
4He) 2,2 ( )
.
- -.
,
106.
.
,
. ,
- .
,

. :
-
. ,
,
.
156
,

.
92,64%
( 1 kg/m3).

.

, (magnetic resonance imaging).
, , , CERN.
, ,
,
. , ,

. ,
,
, .
939.
-
.
,
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[4] Clifford A. Hampel (1968). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. pp. 256-268. ISBN
0-442-15598-0.
[5] Sir Norman Lockyer - discovery of the element that he named helium" Balloon Professional Magazine, 07 Aug 2009.
[6] "Helium". Oxford English Dictionary. 2008. http:/ / dictionary. oed. com/ cgi/ entry/ 50104457?. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
[7] Thomson, W. (1872). Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very decided bright line not far from D, but hitherto not
identified with any terrestrial flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to call Helium. Rep. Brit. Assoc. xcix.
[8] Clifford A. Hampel (1968). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. pp. 256-268. ISBN
0-442-15598-0.
[9] Ramsay, William (1895). "On a Gas Showing the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed Cause of D3 , One of the Lines in the Coronal Spectrum.
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[10] Ramsay, William (1895). "Helium, a Gaseous Constituent of Certain Minerals. Part I". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 58:
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[11] Ramsay, William (1895). "Helium, a Gaseous Constituent of Certain Minerals. Part II--". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 59:
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.203212. . "At the origin of the helium leak detection method was the Manhattan Project and the unprecedented leak-tightness
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2005-10-06. . 2008-07-20.
[30] Stwertka, Albert (1998). Guide to the Elements: Revised Edition. New York; Oxford University Press, p. 24. ISBN 0-19-512708-0
[31] Helium Privatization Act of 1996
[32] Executive Summary (http:/ / www. nap. edu/ openbook/ 0309070384/ html/ index. html). nap.edu ( 2008-07-20 )
[33] Mullins, P.V.; Goodling, R. M. (1951). Helium (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ EcoNatRes/ EcoNatRes-idx?type=div&
did=ECONATRES. MINYB1949. PVMULLINS& isize=text). Bureau of Mines / Minerals yearbook 1949. .599602. .
2008-07-20.
[34] Helium End User Statistic (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ ds/ 2005/ 140/ helium-use. pdf) (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey (
2008-07-20 )
[35] Smith, E.M.; Goodwin, T.W.; Schillinger, J. (2003). "Challenges to the Worldwide Supply of Helium in the Next Decade" (https:/ / www.
airproducts. com/ NR/ rdonlyres/ E44F8293-1CEE-4D80-86EA-F9815927BE7E/ 0/ ChallengestoHeliumSupply111003. pdf) (PDF). Advances
in Cryogenic Engineering. 49 A (710): 119138. doi: 10.1063/1.1774674 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 1774674). .
2008-07-20.
[36] Kaplan, Karen H. (June 2007). "Helium shortage hampers research and industry" (http:/ / ptonline. aip. org/ journals/ doc/ PHTOAD-ft/
vol_60/ iss_6/ 31_1. shtml). Physics Today (American Institute of Physics) 60 (6): .3132. doi: 10.1063/1.2754594 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1063/ 1. 2754594). . 2008-07-20.
[37] Basu, Sourish (October 2007). "Updates: Into Thin Air" (http:/ / www. sciamdigital. com/ index. cfm?fa=Products. ViewIssuePreview&
ARTICLEID_CHAR=E0D18FB2-3048-8A5E-104115527CB01ADB). Scientific American (Scientific American, Inc.) 297 (4): .18. .
2008-08-04.
157
158
Greenwood N.N. and Earnshaw A., Chemistry of the elements, 2nd ed., Reed Educational and Professional
Publishing Ltd, 1997.
. (http://www.food-info.net/gr/e/e939.htm)
Helium (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Helium)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Helium)).
159
Li
Na
(Li)
()
, ,
1 ,2, s

(A )
6.941
1s2 2s1
CAS
7439-93-2
160

152 pm
0.98
+1
1: 520.2 kJmol1
2: 7298.1 kJmol1
3: 11815.0 kJmol1

453.69 K
1615 K
0.534 gcm
3.00 kJmol
147.1 kJmol
Mohs
0.6

(Young's modulus)
4.9 GPa
(20C) 6000 m/s
3
1
1
(25C, 1
Atm)

(Li) 3 6,94 .
180,54 C 1347 C.
.
- -
( , ,
, ' , ).
, (2)
.
, , ,
. 25 8
, 32 , 3
. , .
,
.
, ' .
.
1 ,
2. ,
Li+. , .
(
) .
, ,

.
, .
, 3582 J/(kgK), ,
.

.
.
.
.
. Li+ ,
.
161
162
IUPAC
73,891 g/mol
CAS
554-13-2
SMILES
[CO3-].[Li2+]
RTECS
OJ5800000
PubChemCID
11125

723 C ( K)
1310 C ( K)
2,11 g/m3,
1,54 g/100 mL (0 C)
1,32 g/100 mL (20 C)
0,72 g/100 mL (100 C)
(25C, 1
Atm)

Li2CO3.
2,11 g/cm3 0C, 732C ( ).
(1,33 g 100 g 20C).
.
, 80C - 90C.
, ,
.
, .
, . .
[1]
[1] http:/ / www. worldlingo. com/ ma/ enwiki/ el/ Lithium_carbonate/ 1
163
164
IUPAC
CH3Li
21,98 amu
CH3Li
MeLi
CAS
917-54-4
SMILES
CLi

(25C, 1
Atm)

CH3Li.
, .
(ROR'), .
165
,
(H2O). (O2) (CO2)
. ,
. :
1. (CH3).
2. (CH4),
Li.
3. ( )
(Li+) (CH3-). - -
.
[1]
C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
3% C- H+
C--Li+
2(sp3)8-1s2
231 pm
100% C- Li+
-1,09
+0,03
Li
+1,00

NMR 6Li 13C:

,
Li+ CH3-. Li-Li 269 pm,
(Li2). C-Li 231 pm. (C-)
(3) (H), (1s - 2sp3),
(3) (Li+), , .[2] .
( )
, (LiMe)4.

,
Li+ CH3-.
( )
, (LiMe)6.
166
(Li) (CH3X),
(|Et2O|)[3] :
(MeBr),
(MeBr...LiMe). ' ,
. Halide free ( )
(MeCl), ,
.[4] .
Lewis ,
(C). '
. (BuLi),
(F), (20C),
' . . ,
, ,
(<20C).
, ,
.

(H2O), (Li) (CH4)[5] :

(CO2), (CH3COOH)[6] :

(RX),
(RMe)[7] :
167

,
. ..[8] :

(ROH), (ROLi) (CH4)[9] :

(HCHO), (EtOH)[10] :

(RCHO),
(RCH(OH)Me)[11] :

(RCOR'),
(RC(Me)(OH)R')[12] :

, -1 (CH3CH2CH2OH)[13] :

(RCN), (RCOMe)[14] :

(RCOOR'),
(RCOMe)[15] :
168
169

(.. NH2X), (..
CH3NH2). ..[16] :

[SivH2v+1X],
[SivH2v+1CH3]. ..[17] :

(.. PH2X),
(.. CH3PH2). ..[18] :

(PX3),
[(CH3)3P][19] :

(PX5), ,
o [(CH3)5P][20] :

[Hg(CH3)2][21] :
(Hg2),

(PbCl2), ,
[Pb(CH3)4][22] :

(ZrCl4),
[Li2[Zr(CH3)6][23] :

([:CH2]), (EtLi)[24] :
[1] Table of periodic properties of thw Ellements, Sagrent-Welch Scientidic Company

. . 1982, . 34.
Paoulig .
[2] Elschenbroich, C. Organometallics (2006) Wiley-VCH: Weinheim. ISBN 978-3-29390-6
[3] . . 1982, . 268, 11.5
[4] Lusch, M. J.; Phillips, M. V.; Sieloff, W. V.; Nomura, G. S.; House, H. O.: Preparation of Low-Halide Methyllithium, collvol 7, collvolpages
346, 1990, prep cv7p0346.
[5] . . 1982, . 199, 8.4.1, Li MgX, H R.
[6] . . 1982, . 283, 12.2.1, Li MgX, CH3 R.
[7] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4, Li MgX.
[8] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4, Li MgX.
[9] . . 1982, . 199, 8.4.1, Li MgX.
[10] . . 1982, . 152, 8.2.4.1,, Li MgX.
[11] . . 1982, . 152, 8.2.4.1,, Li MgX.
[12] . . 1982, . 152, 8.2.4.1, Li MgX.
[13] . . 1982, . 152, 8.4.5.5, Li MgX.
[14] . . 1982, . 226, 9.3.1, Li MgX.
[15] . . 1982, . 226, 9.3.1, Li MgX.
[16] . . 1982, . 248, 10.2.2, Li MgX.
[17] . . 1982, . 267, 11.4, Li MgI SiH3X SiCl4.
[18] . . 1982, . 267, 11.3.1, Li MgBr, CH3 PH2X
PCl3.
[19] . . 1982, . 267, 11.3.1, Li MgBr CH3 Cl.
[20] . . 1982, . 267, 11.3.1, Li MgBr, CH3 P5
PCl3.
[21] . . 1982, . 268, 11.5, Li MgCl, CH3 R.
[22] . . 1982, . 268, 11.5, Li MgCl, CH3 R.
[23] Morse, P. M.; Girolami, G. S. "Are d0 ML6 Complexes Always Octahedral? The X-ray Structure of Trigonal-Prismatic [Li(tmed)]2[ZrMe6]"
Journal of the American Chemical Society 1989, 111, 4114-6. doi:10.1021/ja00193a061
[24] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3.

1.
2.
3.
4.
SCHAUM'S OUTLINE SERIES, , . . , 1999

. . 1982
, , , 1991
. , & ,
1991
5. . , , , 1985
6. . , , , 1983
7. . , , , ,
, 1986
Methyllithium (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Methyllithium)
, GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/
by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Methyllithium)).
170
171

(LiF) , ,
.

. ,
,
.
.
.
Lithium fluoride [1] ( 2006-02-26 )
[1] http:/ / webbook. nist. gov/ cgi/ cbook. cgi?ID=C7789244& Units=SI

LiCI.
2,07g/cm3,
614C 1.382C.
.
78,5g 100g 20C
.

.
,

. , ,
,
( 40% )
,
, .
172
LiCI
173
IUPAC
LiH
7,95 amu
CAS
7580-67-8
SMILES
Li
RTECS
OJ6300000
PubChemCID
62714

692C
820 kg/m3
200C
MSDS
ICSC 0813
NFPA 704
(25C, 1
Atm)

(LiH) .
, .
, , .
29,73 J/moleK,

( 10 - 5 5 W/mK 400 K),
. 8 amu, .
, [1] :

( ),
:
,
. :
, :
1. .
2. - (LiAlH4).
3. - (LiBH4).
4. .
5. [2] .
6. [3] .
7. .
8. [4] ..
9. 1967 [5] [6]
10. To 6LiD [7] .
:
, , .
,
[1] Dr. Floyd Beckford. University of Lyon course online (powerpoint) slideshow (http:/ / www. lyon. edu/ webdata/ users/ fbeckford/ CHM
120/ Lecture Notes/ Chapter-14. ppt) ( 2008-07-27 )
[2] .
[3] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Castle_Bravo#Cause_of_high_yield
[4] Aufray M, Menuel S, Fort Y, Eschbach J, Rouxel D, Vincent B (2009). "New Synthesis of Nanosized Niobium Oxides and Lithium
Niobate Particles and Their Characterization by XPS Analysis". JOURNAL OF NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY 9 (8):
4780-4789. doi: 10.1166/jnn.2009.1087 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2009.1087).
[5] (http:/ / www. astronautix. com/ lvs/ lex. htm) (http:/ / ntrs. nasa. gov/ search. jsp?R=326848& id=1& as=false& or=true& qs=Ntt=lithergol&
Ntk=all& Ntx=mode+ matchall& Ns=ArchiveName%7c0& N=283+ 4294967224)
[6] LEX - From The Probert Encyclopaedia (http:/ / www. probertencyclopaedia. com/ I_LEX. HTM)
6
6
[7] LiD LiH, Li (D)
(D2O),
hydride Lithium hydride (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Lithium)
by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( hydride / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Lithium)).
174
175

Be
Mg
(Be)
()
, ,
2 ,2, s
176
1s2 2s2
CAS
7440-41-7

105 pm
1,57
1,2
1: 899,5 kJmol1
2: 1757,1 kJmol1
3: 14848,7 kJmol1

Mohs
5.5
Vickers
1670 MPa

(Young's modulus)
287 GPa
12.870 m/s
(25C, 1
Atm)

(Be) 4 9,01218 .
1278 C 2970 C. ,
.
(glucinium).
, . ,
.

.
33% . ,
.
, .
,
. .
, ,
(Be3Al2(SiO3)6),
.
, moldamax,
- .
,
.
,
. , (), ,
.
( Formula 1) .
tweeter ( )
mid-range ( ) ,
,
(Focal-JMlab). [1]
, .
( )
. , , .

.
:
,
.
"" ,
, .
.
, 10Be, ,

.
[1] http:/ / www. focal. tm. fr/ accueil_en. htm
177
178
Al
(B)
()
, ,
(13) ,2, p

(A )
10,811
1s22s22p1
CAS
7440-42-8
98 pm
82 pm (sp2)
2,04
179
1:800,6 kJ/mol (B(g) B+(g) + e-) 2:2.427,1 kJ/mol (B+(g) B2+(g) + e-) 3:3.659,7 kJ/mol (B2+(g)
B3+(g) + e-)

2,076C (2.349,16 K)
3.927C (4.200,16 K)
2.340 kg/m3
50.2 kJmol1
480 kJmol1
11.087 Jmol1K1 (20)

27,4 W/(m*K)(27C)
Mohs
~9.5
16.200 m/s (20C)
11, 20, 21, 22, 36, 37, 38
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

B 5.
IIIA (13) .
, . , ,
,
.
, (
9,13/12 Mohs).
, ,
( ).
(boron) burah[1]
.

P[2] .
(pyrex, ), , ,
,
.

,
[3] . ,
,
.

.
.
18 (~50%) 1808
(Sir Humphry Davy), - - (Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac)
(Louis Jaques Thnard), . ,
1892, (Henri Moissan)
95-98%, . , 1909,
(W. Weintraub) (>99%).

, -11 80,1% -10 19,9%.
13 .
-7 3.510-22 s.
B(OH)3 B(OH)4.

.
(-10)
10 .
20% 10 80% 11. 10.
, 11,
.
. ' 10
' . .
10 .[4] [5] [6] .
, 10
.
. ,
.
, .
10 :
180
(-11)
10, 11 '
' . 11
10
.
11 .
500 keV 3 8,7 MeV .

. 11
, .[7] .
NMR
, 10 11 . 10 3
11 3/2. ' NMR,
.

, ,
: ,
,
.

. ,

,
, , .

.
, NaCa[B5O6(OH)6]5H2O,
,
Na2[B4O5(OH)4]8H2O. ,

,
, ,
Ca[B3O4(OH)3]H2O.
, ,
, , , Na2[B4O5(OH)4]2H2O.
107 [8] [9] .
, 72% ,
[10] [11] [12] .
.
181

() ( )
.
[13] [14] [15] .
.
:
1. ( ) .
Li, Na, K, Be, Ca, Al, Fe.
. 95-98%.
2. (BCl3, BBr3) . ,
1922,
(>99,9%). 1000C
1000-1200C - - . 1200C
.
3. . ,
, . ,
Czochralski.

10B , ,
.
,
DME-BF3 ()
[16] .
, 10 11, 20% 80%

.
, (10=10,012939
11=11,009305).

.
, ()
.
.
.
182
183
.
,
, .

. (4) , , ,
T.
[17]

[17]
~105
28
[18]
2.35
2.52
[19] 42
45
50-58
[20] 185
224
227
1.6
2.1
(g/cm3)
(GPa)
12
Bulk modulus (GPa)
[21]
Bandgap (eV)

. .
3, , .. B(II)
B2F4.[22] .
, BCl3 Lewis. ,
, .

.
.
,

,
.
12,

.

,
. ,
-, 37%
( 74% ). - 12
.
184
-, 105 . ,
(1943) - 50
(412 + 2). (1974)
, 50C2 502.

,
. , ,
. , ,
, , (3),
, (s, px, py, pz).
()
Lewis. , (
- 2,04) .
(2,1) (2,5) -
C-H, .
, ,
. ,
, , , .
H, Ge, Te . ,
11 15 .

:
, 5 66.
, , - .
. , Zr,
Hf, Nb Ta 3000C TiB2 (.. = 2980C)
Ti.
, , BnHn+4
BnHn+8. , 26, :
6LiH + 8BF3 6LiBF4 + B2H6
4 6 .

.
.
185
, ,
BnXn+2. ,
BF3 BCl3 , BBr3 BI3 . 4
120 .
,
. , 23,
(Pyrex).
C-C.

. , ,

. ,
:
, 336,
:

, , (streptomyces)[23] [24] .
.
. , (>1 ppm),
. , , 0,8
ppm , 1,8 ppm .
2 ppm, . ,
,
200 ppm.
186
,
, .
. , , ,
[25] .
. 1989 .
[26] .
, 3 mg
.
44% D. ,
.
:
2,1 - 4,3 mg kg [27] .

- . ,
.
, .
: (Pyrex), , , , ,
, .
,
.

. 70%
.
()
' .

, .

1,8 B2O3 2005,
,
.

.
.
(
)

187
' .

. 5 $/g[28] .

. 100 kT 2003.
, , 260kT to 2003, 310 kT 2005 366 kT
2006.

. 2000 2005,
28% .

.
3,4% ,
21 MT 2010. , 5,7% [29] .
-
- .
0,4 mg/kg
1,5 1,9 mg
. (1,2 mg )
, , . , , ,
.
,
.
, .
.
.
, , , 1
mg/l .
0,6 mg/l.

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. (http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/boron.htm)
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. (http://www.chemicool.com/elements/boron.html)
. (http://environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/periodic/B.html)
. (http://www.geo.auth.gr/106/
index.htm)
188
189
Si
(C)
()
, ,
IV (14) ,2, p

(A )
12,0107
1s2 2s2 2p2
190

91,4 pm
77 pm (sp3)
67 pm (sp2)
60 pm (sp)
2,55 ( Pauling)
0, 4
1.086,5 kJ/mole (C C+ + e-)

2.352,6 kJ/mole (C+ C2+ + 2e-)
4.620,5 kJ/mole (C2+ C3+ + 3e-)

3.5276C (3.800,16 K)
4.027C (4.300,16 K)
3.520 kg/m3 (0C, 1 atm)
(25C, 1 Atm)

C (carbon) 6.
IVA (14) . , 4
, .
[1] [2] .
( ).

. 4, +2
(CO) .
,
(CO2). , ,
, .
,
10.000.000, [3] .
4 ( ) , ,
. 15 ( ) .
. (
), 18,5%, [4] . ,

,
,
( ), , ,
.
191
(3) ,
, 5.730 [5] .
12
13
14
12C , 98,89%
. 6 6 . , 12C ,
,

:
1. : K, ,
( 10/10),
.

.
2. : M ( 2/10)
,
.
, ,

.
3. ():
,
,
.

[6] .
4. :
.
5. ():
.
192
6. : .
.
7. : . .
8. : 1985, , ,
60 , .
.
9. : 2004
,
.
...............
, ().
( 3500C) 140-190
1 3.3 , ().
27 . , ,
96% ( ) .

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( 2007-03-13 )
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( 2008-10-09 )
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( 2008-10-09 )
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193

http://el.science.wikia.com/wiki/
()
()
194
, ,
VA (15) ,2, p

(Ar)
14,0067
1s2 2s2 2p3
CAS
7727-37-9

92 pm
75 pm (N-)
65 pm (N=)
58 pm (N)
3,04 ( Pauling)
0, 3, 5
1.402,3 kJ/mole (N N+ + e-)

2.856 kJ/mole (N+ N2+ + 2e-)
4.858,1 kJ/mole (N2+ N3+ + 3e-)

-209,86C (63,29 K)
-195,79C (77,36 K)
1,2506 kg/m3 (0C, 1 atm)
0.72 kJmol1
5.56 kJmol1
29.124 Jmol1K1 (25C) (N2)
(25C, 1 Atm)

, 7.
, , ,
.. - ()
. , .

, 78%

.
[1] .
(,
) ,
,

.
,
. ,

,
,
, , , .
, , (
) , , , , ,
.
.
18 ,
, .
(Daniel Rutherford), ,
1772. , , ,
(Joseph Priestley) (Henry Cavendish)
(Carl Wilhelm Scheele)
, .[2]
1775-6 (Antoine Lavoisier)
1789 (azote)
.
.
aqua fortis ( ), 1:3 aqua regia
( ) ( )
HAuCl4.
,
( ), ( ),
, TNT, .
195
196

, 14N 15N. (99,634%)
14N, CNO . 10 .
, 13N 10 , .
0,73%
14
N2.
14 15
N N
.
16N
. 16O (n,p). 7,1 sec,
16O (5-7 MeV).

(78,082% ' 75,3%
). . 5
.

[3] .
[4] .
, ,
.
4% 3% .
, ,
.
.
, , (3).
, .
.
(-195,8C -183,0C )
. (
(pressure swing adsorption)), (42)
(Ba(N3)2).
,
5,3 bar.
.

-168C 5 bar. ,
( 30 )
( )
.[5]
, , , , .
(2) ,
, . ,
, . ,
, 300C ,
[6] .
, .
, 14 (99,63%) 15
(0,37%). , 13
.[7]
.
, 100 nm.

27 . ,
, , 96% ( ) . ,
,
.

,
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.
,

,

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.

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(, .). ,
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, , .
197

, ,
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() . ()
, .
, ,
.

.
, .
,
, .
.
,
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.
(-195,8 C -183,0 C )
. (
(pressure swing adsorption)), (42)
(Ba(N3)2).
,
5,3 bar.
, .
,
,
-168 C 5 bar. ,
( 30 ),
( )
.[5]
,
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198
[8]

.
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43, .
: )
(laughing gas)[9] , 2, , )
, ,
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. , (23)
(25), .
, , (-3)
. ,
, Pb(N3)2, .
, , ,
, .
-
.
. , ,
, , . ,
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,
.

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[9] ,
199
200
Speight J. G., Chemical and Process Design Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 2002.

IUPAC (http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/2006/pdf/7811x2051.pdf)
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education.jlab.org/glossary/abund_uni.html)
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Britannica (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055947/nitrogen)
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Howstuffworks: Why don't they use normal air in race car tires (http://auto.howstuffworks.com/question594.
htm)
Nitrogen (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Nitrogen)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Nitrogen)).
201
()
()
, ,
16 (VI ) ,2, p

(A )
15,9994(3)
1s2 2s2 2p4
EINECS
231-956-9
CAS
7782-44-7
60 pm
662 pm
van der Waals
152 pm
3,44
202

-2
1:1.313,9 J/mol
2:3.388,3 KJ/mol
3:5.300,5 KJ/mol

-218,79C (-361.82F) (54,36 K)
-182,95C (-297,31F) (90,20 K)
-118,6C, 5,043 MPa
1,429 g/L (0C)
0,444 KJ/mol (O2)
6,82 KJ/mol (O2)
29,378 J/molK (O2)
26,5810 W/mK
330 m/s (, 27C)
-3
17
NFPA 704
(25C, 1
Atm)

( : oxygen) 8 15,9994(3).
"", 16 (VIA), 2 p
. "" [1] 2
(=), . ,
, -218,79C -182,95C.
1772 1774,
.
+ ,
.
:
( ) , (O2)
(3) .
,
, .
, .
,
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Priestley
, 1 1774,
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.
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, Priestley

.
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Avogadro di Quaregna e di Cerreto, 1776 1856) , '
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- (Louis-Paul Cailletet, 1832 - 1913)
[21] . .
29 1883
(Zygmunt Wrblewski, 1845 - 1888 )
(Karol Olszewski, 1846 1915)[22] 1891 (James Dewar, )
[2] .
1895 o (Carl von Linde, 1842 1934)) (William Hampson, 1854 - 1926).

[23] . , 1901,
O2.
[23] .
1923
.
56 m 97 m/h 16 1926
[23] .
2 ,
.
, . 1991, 13,4
... 2 [24] .
27 . ,
, , 96% ( ) .
() .

.
, .

, .
(2), (, 3)
. , ()
,
.[25]
208
[1] .. .
. 2, Cl2 . " "
" " .
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/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oxygen)).
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211
(F)
()
, ,
17 ,2, p

(A )
18.9984032
1s2 2s2 2p5
88 pm
72 pm
3,98 ( Pauling)
-1
212

1.681 kJ/mole (F F+ + e-)

3.374,2 kJ/mole (F F2+ + 2e-)
6.050,4 kJ/mole (F F3+ + 3e-)

-219,62C (53,54 K)
-188,12C (85,04 K)
-129,03C (144,13 ), 5,172 MPa
1,7 kg/m3 (0C, 1 atm)
6,62 kJ/mole
(25C, 1 Atm)

F 9.
, ,
, ' F2 .
, . .. ,
. ' F2
, ,
. ,
.
, (CaF2), 1530
Georgius Agricola .
.
: fluorine, fluere,
. 1670 o Schwanhard ,
[1] . O ,
(Humphry Davy), (Caroline Menard) -, (Joseph
Louis Gay-Lussac), (Antoine Lavoisier) - (Louis Jacques Thenard).
(HF)
(H2SO4) , :
,
.
, , ,
, . , 1886
(Henri Moissan), ( 74 )
[2] .
, .
, , 1906.
,
(UF6)
235U 238U. ,
,
213
.
(UF4)
(F2). [3] ,
,
,
.
(, (CF2CF2)v), .

, , 19F ,
. , .
, 18F, +
110 : ,
.

(HF),
(KF).
(. ).
(+) (-).

(KHF2),
:
(CaF2)

(H3PO4). (
CaF2), (H2SO4 :

1986, 100
, (Karl Christe) ( )
, ,
(K2MnF6) (SbF5) 150C[4] :
,
.

(F-), ,[5]
, ,
[6] [7] .
, , ,
. , ,
, [8] ,
[9] . 1981,
, [10] . ,
, (3) (n=64)
, (n=202) (n=354)[11] .

American Dental Hygienists' Association[12] . '
1902, [13] .

19 [14] . , 1973
, '
[15] .

(F2) [16]
. ( 4 Pauling)
. -1,
, 0.
. (
) ( ).
, , .
(HF).
, ,
. . ,
. ,
. ,
. .
,
[ , , .
. (F-) '
. , , ..
214

() .
, (Ca) (Si). '
, , .
.
Neil Bartlett 1962. .
. -
. ,
, , .[17] [18] .

.
100 - 300
. .
, 1 - 1,5 mg/It.
, .
, (,
, ..) .
(.. Dichapetacum Cymosum).
, , .
.
.
.

:
, .
: 1996 Sodium Fluoride,
, FLUREXIL Zyma ,
.
, , , ,
. 5 .
.[19] .

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/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Fluorine)).
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by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( deficiency / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Fluorine)).
217
He
Ne
Ar
(Ne)
()
10
, ,
18 ,2, p

(A )
20.1797(6) gmol1
218
1s2 2s2 2p6
CAS
7440-01-9

58 pm
154 pm
1st: 2080.7 kJmol1

2nd: 3952.3 kJmol1
3rd: 6122 kJmol1

24.56 K, -248.59C,
27.07 K, -246.08C,
24.5561 K (-249C),
44.4 K, 2.76 MPa
1.71 kJmol
435 m/s (0C)
(25C, 1
Atm)

10 20,17 .
-248,6 C -246,1 C. N
,
(.. ).
1898 .
: 20Ne (90,48%), 21Ne (0,27%), 22Ne (9,25%). 21Ne 22Ne

, 20Ne,
.
(42He) 24Mg
25Mg 21Ne 22Ne .
. -
( ).
.
: 24,55 27,05 (-248.45 oC
-245,95 oC).
(2). .
219
Na
(Na)
()
11
, ,
1 ,3, s

(A )
22,99
220
[ Ne] 3s1
CAS
7440-23-5

186 pm
0,93
+1
1: 495.8 kJmol1
2: 4562 kJmol1
3: 6910.3 kJmol1

370.87 K, 97.72C
1156 K, 883C
0.968 gcm
2.60 kJmol
Mohs
0.5
Brinell
0.69 MPa

(Young's modulus)
10 GPa
(20C) 3200 m/s
3
1
(25C, 1
Atm)

[ Na (: Natrium)] , ,
11
22,98977 . 97,72 C 883 C.
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[1] http:/ / www. epyna. gr/ modules. php?name=News& file=article& sid=912

[2] http:/ / www. livepedia. gr/ index. php?title=& action=history
[3] http:/ / www. gnu. org/ copyleft/ fdl. html
Mg
, ,

12
, , block
2 (), 3, s
[Ne] 3s2
282
EINECS numb.
CAS numb.
[2]
[1]
231-104-6
7439-95-4
222

(Ar)
24,3050(6)(amu)
650C (1.202F) (923 K)
1.091C (1.994F) (1.363 K)
1.738 kg/m3
(Pauling)
1,31
1: 737,7 J/mol
2: 1.450,7 J/mol
3: 7.732,7 KJ/mol
160 pm
1417 pm
Van der Waals
173 pm
43,9 nm (20C)
156 Wm1K1 (300 K)
Mohs
2,5
4.940 ms1
(25C, 1
Atm)

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+2. , (8)
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. To
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magnelium). (Al)
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.
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[8] . ,
, (Mg2+) . 1618
. ,
.
. .
(MgSO4).
Sir Humphry Davy
1808 (MgO) (HgO). O
Antoine Bussy 1831. Sir Davy
(magnium), .
: 24Mg, 25Mg, 26Mg. :

24
Mg 78,99%, 25Mg 10% 24Mg 11,01%. 28Mg
1950 1970
. (21 ).
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(). 26Mg 26Al,
717.000 .
60 , . , ,
, .

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). .
:
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223
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3. (Mg) MgCl2:

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[9] .

2005 , 60%
, 1995 4%.
,
Pidgeon, (MgO) (Si) :

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(N2) [
224

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(MgO) (C)].
,
,
.

.
, .
1.371 oC
300 mm[10] .
( ) ,
(Al) (FeO).
() .
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.
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.
, [Mg(OH)2].
.
..
225

(3)
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.

mag wheels. 1957
( )
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Mans Mille Miglia,
1955,
8
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,
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Le Mans 1971,

. 917/30 Can-Am
,
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.

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,
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:
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2. (Ti) Kroll.
3. .
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(U) .
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(
):

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,
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doi:10.1016/S1359-6462(03)00263-X.
228
229
Al
(Al)
()
13
, ,
13 ,3, p

(A )
26,9815386
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
125 pm
1,61 ( Pauling)
+3
577,5 kJ/mole (Al Al+ + e-)

(g)
(g)
1.816,7 kJ/mole (Al+ Al2+ + e-)
(g)
2+(g)
2.744,8 kJ/mole (Al
Al3+(g) + e-)
(g)
660,32C (1.593,48K)
2.519C (2.792,16 K)
230

2.700 kg/m3 (20C, 1 atm)
Mohs
2.75
Vickers
167 MPa
Brinell
245 MPa

(Young's modulus)
70 GPa
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

Al 13.
IIIA (13) .
(3)
, . 8%
. . ,
270 [1] .
.
() .

, , , (
). ,
, ( )
. , , , ,
.

( )
.
,
. 1761
(Guyton de Morveau)
(Al2O3).
, , 1808
, ,
1966.
,
, . 1825
(Hans Christian rsted) ,
[2] . 1827
(Woehler) [2] .
231
O ,
'
[3] . Pierre Berthier

[4] . To 1854 -
(Henri St-Claire Deville),
.
,
. '
' ,
[5] !

(
)
Piccadilly Circus ,
1893

.
1886 ,
Hall-Heroult. ,
(
: Na3AlF6) (:
Al2O3) .
.

.
1889 Bayer
, . ,

. 1900 8000
. , 1999 24 .
,
,
. .
, .
. , ,
.
2,5-6,3% .. .
, .
,
,
. ,

-.
,
.
232
,
.
, , ,
. To Mohs 9,
. ' .
.
.
,
( ).
, () K2SO4Al2(SO4)324H2O
.
,
:
(
). ,

. ,
( )

.

,
1100 C , .

10,5% .. Al2O3
960C,
.
.
,

.
( 150000 ).
.
, , ('
) . , ,
( ), ,
, .
.
.
4 , , . '
,
( ).
,
, , , .
.
233
To 27Al.
0 +3.
,
. .
, .
[Al(H)4]-.

[1] Bassam Z. Shakhashiri. Chemical of the Week: Aluminum (http:/ / scifun. chem. wisc. edu/ chemweek/ Aluminum/ ALUMINUM. html).
Science is Fun ( 2007-08-28 )
[2] Whler, Friedrich. "Ueber das Aluminium" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k150967/ f158. table). Annalen der Physik und Chemie. .
[3] Yinon Bentor. Periodic Table: Aluminum (http:/ / www. chemicalelements. com/ elements/ al. html). ChemicalElements.com (
2007-08-11 )
[4] Pierre Berthier (http:/ / www. todayinsci. com/ 7/ 7_03. htm#Berthier). Today in Science History ( 2007-08-11 )
[5] De l'aluminium, ses proprits, sa fabrication (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rCoKAAAAIAAJ)
(Paris, 1859). , ,
(Charles Martin Hall) (Paul Hroult), .

www.webelements.com (http://www.webelements.com)
Alu-Scout (http://www.alu-scout.com/perl/lp.pl?SESID=1340813jzxcv565688&file=index.htm&lang=en)
(http://www.world-aluminium.org)
., ., ,
, 1996, ISBN 960-7510-39-9
Aluminium (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Aluminium)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Aluminium)).
234
Si
(Si)
()
14
, ,
14 ,2, p

(A )
28,0855
[ Ne ] 3s2 3p2
235

132 pm
111 pm (sp3),96,6 pm (sp2),

86,5 pm (sp)
1,90 ( Pauling)
0, 4
786,5 kJ/mole (Si Si+ + e-)

1.577,1 kJ/mole (Si+ Si2+ + e-)
3.231,6 kJ/mole (Si2+ Si3+ + e-)

1.414C
3.265C
2.329 kg/m
(25C, 1 Atm)

Si,
14 28,0855 amu.
IVA (14) , ,
.

. (8)
,
25,7% ,
. ,
,
(SiO2) [1] .
.

.

. ,
- ,
. ,
, .
,
, , (
[R2SiO]n, R ).

,
.
[2] .
, .
.
236
, .
87% ,
, 28% 7 [3] .
( , , , , ),
, ,
.
Davy 1800, , ,
. (Thenard) - (Gay-Lussac) (1811),
(Berzelius)
[4] .

2000C:
SiO2 + C Si + CO2
SiO2 + 2C Si + 2CO

98%, ,
(carborundum), ( 9,5 Mohs).
, :
2 SiC + SiO2 3 Si + 2CO

: .
, .
.
. .
,
, ,
/
.
237
[1] Silicon: the essentials (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ silicon/ ). WebElements Ltd. ( 2009-09-30 )
[2] Nielsen, FH (1984). "Ultratrace Elements in Nutrition". Annual Review of Nutrition 4: 2141. doi: 10.1146/annurev.nu.04.070184.000321
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1146/ annurev. nu. 04. 070184. 000321). PMID 6087860 (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 6087860).
[3] Jefferson Lab (http:/ / education. jlab. org/ itselemental/ ele014. html)
[4] Los Alamos (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 14. html)
Silicon (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Silicon)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Silicon)).
238
(P)
()
15
, ,
15 ,3, p

(A )
30.973762(2) amu
[ Ne ] 3s2 3p3
128 pm
2,19 ( Pauling)
239

0, 3, +5
1011,8 kJ/mole (P P+ + e-)

1.907 kJ/mole (P+ P2+ + e-)
2.914,1 kJ/mole (P2+ P3+ + e-)

44,2C ()
610C ()
280,5C ()
1.823 kg/m3 ()
2.200 2.340 kg/m3 ()
2.360 kg/m3 ()
2.690 ()
(25C, 1
Atm)

P, 15
30,97376. . (VA 15) (4)
. .
.
'
. ,
( ) , ( ) DNA, RNA, ATP
ADP. .

. ,
[1] . ( ) (
), ( ),
( , ).
.
,
+3, , ,
+5. , ,
+1, -3.
1669
,
. (+) .

"" 1677.
1676,
noctiluca.
240

.
1770
1777 .

.
.

.
( ). : (
), ( ) ..
. ,
, , , , , , ..
(
).
.
.
( )
. 12%
.
.
. 80%
,

.
1829

.
Ca3(PO4)2 + 3SiO2 = 3CaSiO3 + P2O5
P2O5 +5C = 2P + 5CO

( ) 1500 .

. 5Wh kgr
. .
-
,
, .
.
, () .
.

. .
. : .
1. : : 1,83 : 44,1 , : 287 C (
). .
5 C . (
300.000 ),
9:1, .
" " ( ).
2. : -77 C
12.000 atm .

: 2,1 ,
500-600 C. 240 C ().
230-250 C
. .
3,7 .

: 1,87 ,
10% 10 ,
240 C. ,
.
. 2.

.
1. : 530 C
400 C
.
: 2,32.
. .
2. :
200 C 12.000 atm. : 2,7
587,5 C.
400 C. .
241
(),
, ,
.
( ).
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(PX3 PX5, X ).
(PR3, R ).
(PR5, R ).
(PxOy).
( H3PO2,
(R), ).
6. ( H3PO3,
(R),
).
7. [ H3PO4,
(2) (R),
].
8. [ H4P2O7,
(3) (R), ].
9. [ H5P3O10,
(4) (R), ].
10. [ (HPO3)n , n = 3 4,
n-1 (R),
].
11. , , .
12. (PxSy).
,
[1] Parkes and Mellor, p. 717.
Phosphorus (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Phosphorus)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Phosphorus)).
242
243
(S)
()
16
, ,
16 ,3, p

(A )
32,065(5)amu
[ Ne ] 3s2 3p4
244

127 pm
1053 pm
van der Waals
180 pm
2,58 ( Pauling)
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
1 999,6 kJ/mol,
2 2.252 kJ/mol,
3 3.357 kJ/mol

115,21C
444,6C
1,727 kJ/mol
45 kJ/mol
22,75 J/(mole*K)
(25C, 1
Atm)

S ( sulphur),
16 32,065(5)amu. .
. ,
.
, .
, , , , ,
. ,
.
. .
245
25 , : 32S (95,02%), 33S (0,75%), 34S (4,21%),

36
S (0,02%). 35S . 35S
40Ar (-40) .
87 .

.
, .

(H2S)
.
,

(H2SO3). ,
S8
CS2
(C6H6) (C6H5CH3).
-2, +2, +4 +6.
.
S8
,
Sulfur (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Sulfur)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Sulfur)).
246

,

.

,

, ,

.
247
Cl
Br
(Cl)
()
17
, ,
17 ,3, p

(A )
35.453(2) gmol1
[ Ne ] 3s2 3p5
CAS
7782-50-5
248

3.16
7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, -1
1st: 1251.2 kJmol1

2nd: 2298 kJmol1
3rd: 3822 kJmol1

171.6 K, -101.5C,
239.11 K, -34.04C,
416.9 K
206 m/s
(25C, 1
Atm)

. 17 (VII)
, . 17 35,453 , -100,98 C
-34,6 C. Cl.
, .
.

, .
.
.
.
. ,

. .
.
(NaClO). PVC,
,
. , (CaCl2) (NaCl)
. ,
(HCl) .
, ,
, . ,
. ,
.

,
.
, DDT .
, .
.
1774.
:
4Cl + MnO2 MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
O .
, , , .
, 1846 .
,
.
.
.
.
, .
: ,
. .
,
. ' , .
: 35Cl 37Cl, 75,78 % 24,22 %.

36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42 43 .
36Cl, 301000 .
,
, . ,

. ,
.
, :
Cl2 + H2O ClO- + Cl- + 2H+
pH .
. ,
.
3ClO- 2Cl- + Cl3-
249
250
,
. :
Cl3- + 3H2O Cl4- + 2H3O+ + 2e-
, . ,
. 500 ppm
. 1 ppm.
.
.
. ,
, DDT,
.

(choking agents)
(Chloropicrin (PS), (Chlorine, Cl), (Phosgene , CG), (Diphosgene, DP).
, ' .
. .
, . , , ..
: - , , , ,
, , , .
, 48 . :
[1] .
(Cl2)
1. : 7,5gr/m3
.
2. : ,
, , . ,
, , , , , .
, 2 24
. 3050% , (- ).
( 50.000/ml).
, 48. 24
.
3. : .
4. : .
A. :
1. ,
2. .
B. ():
1. , (Aerolin)
2. 0,25 -1 gr i.v., 3. Spray Dexamethasone isonicotinate ,
251
4. - ,10 gr per os,
5. 1 gr er os,
6. 15 .
/ 8 , .
48.
. : ,
[2] .
.
.
H
.
.
,
.
1 1000m3.
,
. ,
,
.
,
, , spa
,
. .
1774 Carl Scheele. Cl.
= .
. .
. (HOCl) (HCl). Cl2
+ 2 HOCl + HCl.
. .

.

.
. Oto
Huntsinger : 91 , 15
, .
, , spa
: . ,

, .
(NaOCl). .
-- (trichloro-s-triazinetrione)

(cyanuric acid). , -- (Dichloro-s- triazinetrione).
. .
.
DNA
. 40
.
. , ,
.
40% . 30 14
. 14 ,

.
.
(TriHaloMethanes ) .
, ,
. , , ,
, . .
, ,
. (Chloroforme) .

(bromodichloromthane), - (dibromochloromthane), (bromoforme),
(acides haloactiques) (acides
dichloroactique trichloroactique), (haloactonitriles,
(halohydroxyfuranones) (haloctones) (haloaldhydes) .
177 , ,
. ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
.
. 5 - 7 .

50 .
. ;
Louvain, ,
, ,
. 33%
pH, 81%
14% 67% , 23% 10%
.
, .

30% - 35% .

.

. , spa
252

. , ,
.

. .
. ,
, , .
,
. .[3]
[1] : " ", , 2003, ISBN 960-382-505-0

[2] : " ", , 2003, ISBN 960-382-505-0
[3] , : " ", " ,
2009
Ebbing, D.D., Gammon, S.D., 6 , . , . ,

2002, ISBN 960-7990-66-8
., " ", , 1999, ISBN 960-378-305-2
: " ", , 2003, ISBN
960-382-505-0
253
254
Ar
(Ar)
()
18
, ,
18 ,3, p

(A )
39.948(1)
255
CAS
7440371

1: 1520.6 kJmol1
2: 2665.8 kJmol1
3: 3931 kJmol1

83.80 K, 189.35C
87.30 K, 185.85C
83.8058 K (-189C), 69 kPa
150.87 K, 4.898 MPa
(25C, 1
Atm)

18 39,948 .
-189,3 C -186 C. Ar.
, , .
. 1894 ,
. .
40Ar (99,6%), 36Ar (0,34%) 38Ar (0,06%).

40
, 1,25 109 , 40Ar
40Ca (88,8%) .
.
39Ar 40Ar.
39
. To 37Ar 40Ca
. 35 .
0,934% 1,29%
.
1,6% -40 5 ppm -36. 1973
70% ,
. 2005 -40 ,
.
256
(2) 2,5
(2). , ,
.
.
,
s p.

. 1962

.
. 2000

.
,
(HArF). 40
(-233 oC).
257
(K)
()
19
, ,
1 ,4, s

(A )
39.0983(1)
[ Ar ] 4s1
258
CAS
7440-09-7

227 pm
0,82
+1
1: 418.8 kJmol1
2: 3052 kJmol1
3: 4420 kJmol1

336,53 K, 63,38C
1032 K, 759C
0,89 gcm
Mohs
0,4
Brinell
0,363 MPa

(Young's modulus)
3,53 GPa
(25C, 1
Atm)

() 19 (AB) 39,0983 amu.

() ,
, ,
.
63,65C 774C. K. 1
(IA, ), .
2 8 8 1.
, . ,
( ), .
, 19 ,
. .
( 0,04 %, ),
. ()
, , ( )
, . ()

() .
( ) '
.
[1] .
, , ()
(' potash[2] ,
, ,
259
).
(
). ' , 93%
.
() . ,
,
. (
) .
, r[3] .

() ,
( ' ).
1,5%
(7)
. ' ,
[4] .
,
, [KMgCl36(H2O)], (KCl)
[K2Ca2Mg(SO4)42(H2O)].[5]
( )
. ' , kalium ( )
, . alkali,
, - .
alkali, ,
,
, . ,
,
, indigo ( )
[6] .
, potassium ( ) potash
( )[7] , , ,
: ( ash)
( pot). potash,
. ,
, ,
, . ,
, ,
a .
,
, ,
19 .
260
1807 ,
(KOH), ,
, . ,
[8] . ,
, (NaOH),
, ,
[9] .

(KOH),
[4] :
: K+(l) + e- K(l)
: 2-(l) - 2e- H2O2 H2O(g) + 1/2O2(g)

: 850C
,
:
THF.
, ,
. 850C,
()
. [1] :
, , ,
() ,
. , (2CO3), ,
, , , [10] .
. 900

, 1960.
( )
. ,

[11] [12] .
22$/kg 2010,
.
. , (
) .
,
(K2O2).
.
261
[13] .
:
24 . , (3) :
1.
2.
39
K (93,3%), .
(0,0117%), , ( ) (+ )
40Ar ( 11,2%) (- )
40Ca ( 88,8%), 1,25109 .
. K-Ar
(2) : )
. ) .

, ,
, .
3. 41 (6,7%), .
40
,
. , ,
, .
40 '
, ,
. , 40
, 14C.
70 kg, 4.400 40 [14] .
() 31 Bq/g.
262

(2) .
.
. , , ,
.
,

[4] .
[[|]],
,
() ,
. '
,
[15] .
,
.

.

'

.
263

,
()
(K2O)
(), . '

' ( )

.
,
(THF).
.
. , , '
.

, , .
,
, :
,
, ( NaK),
, . '
.
, , ,
, :

(K2O2)[16] :
(K2O}, :
, :
, ,
(KO2):
264

(X2), = F, Cl, Br I,
:

, , :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
(K2S).
(K2S2).
(K2S3).
(K2S4).
(K2S5).
(K2S6).
.. :

, :

, :

, :

, (
) . ,
' , , . ..
, [17] .

, (ROH),
.[18] :

, .

, (RCOOH),
.:

, .

, (
(#1) ) (RC CH), [19] :
Wrtz
, (RX) , , Wrtz[20] :
, (RX),
( )[21] :

(ROOCCH2COOR), (2)
, [22] :

(CH3COCH2COOR), (2)
, [23] :

, RCOR',
[24] :
265

(8) (9) (0,2%) [25] .
, 60 kg 120 g . (
) , 2/3
.
,
. ,
, , Na+/K+ATP,
- , (
)[26] .
ATP ADP , (3)
(2) . ,
, . ,
,
, .
KirBac3.1, (
) (5) ( KcsA, KirBac1.1,
KirBac3.1, KvAP MthK) [27] . (6)
.
, (3) (5)
, ,
. :
(
, ).
, , , ,
. ,

.
, . ,
.
,
, .
, ,
.
266
267
,
[1] Web Elements: Potassium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ potassium/ )
[2] U.S Geological Survey, potash statistics and information (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ potash/ )
[3] A.G.W. Cameron (June 1957). "Stellar Evolution, Nuclear Astrophysics, and Nucleogenesis". CRL-41. "http:/ / www. fas. org/ sgp/
eprint/ CRL-41. pdf"
[4] Mark Winter. Potassium: Key Information (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ K/ key. html). Webelements
[5] Mineral data (http:/ / www. mindat. org/ min-906. html)
[6] http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2010/ WORLD/ africa/ 11/ 26/ nigeria. dye. tradition/ index. html
[7] Davy (1808), p. 32.
[8] Enghag, P. (2004). "11. Sodium and Potassium". Encyclopedia of the elements. Wiley-VCH Weinheim. ISBN 3527306668.
[9] Davy, Humphry (1808). "On some new phenomena of chemical changes produced by electricity, particularly the decomposition of
the fixed alkalies, and the exhibition of the new substances which constitute their bases; and on the general nature of alkaline bodies"
(http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=gpwEAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA57& q). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 98:
144. doi: 10.1098/rstl.1808.0001 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1808.0001). .
[10] . http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=EHx51n3T858C.
[11] Ober, Joyce A.. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2008:Potash (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ potash/
mcs-2008-potas. pdf). United States Geological Survey ( 2008-11-20 )
[12] Ober, Joyce A.. Mineral Yearbook 2006:Potash (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ potash/ myb1-2006-potas. pdf).
United States Geological Survey ( 2008-11-20 )
[13] Potassium Metal 98.50% Purity (http:/ / www. galliumsource. com/ index. html). Galliumsource.com ( 2010-10-16 )
[14] background radiation potassium-40 radiation (http:/ / www. fas. harvard. edu/ ~scdiroff/ lds/ QuantumRelativity/
RadioactiveHumanBody/ RadioactiveHumanBody. html)
[15] Anne Marie Helmenstine. Qualitative Analysis Flame Tests (http:/ / chemistry. about. com/ library/ weekly/ aa110401a. htm).
About.com
[16] Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
[17] "Titanium" (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761569280/ Titanium. html). Microsoft Encarta. 2005. .
2006-12-29., K Mg
. . 1982, .199, 8.2.4.
. . 1982, . 159, 6.9.10.
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, K a: .
. . 1982, . 268, 11.5
. . 1982, . 283, 12.2.4, K Na
. . 1982, . 283, 12.2.5, K Na
. . 1982, . 222, 9.7.4, K Na Mg
, , 8
, .
[26] Campbell, Neil (1987). Biology. Menlo Park, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co.. .795. ISBN 0-8053-1840-2.
[27] Mikko Hellgren, Lars Sandberg, Olle Edholm (2006). "A comparison between two prokaryotic potassium channels (K Bac1.1 and
ir
KcsA) in a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation study". Biophys. Chem. 120 (1): 19. doi: 10.1016/j.bpc.2005.10.002 (http://dx.doi.
org/ 10. 1016/ j. bpc. 2005. 10. 002). PMID 16253415 (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 16253415).
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
Potassium (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Potassium)

/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Potassium)).
268
Ca
(Ca)
()
20
, ,
2 ,4, s

(A )
40.078(4)
[ Ar ] 4s2
197 pm
1,00
+2
1: 589.8 kJmol1
2: 1145.4 kJmol1
3: 4912.4 kJmol1

269

1115 K, 842C
1757 K, 1484C
1.55 gcm3
8.54 kJmol1
Mohs
1.75
Brinell
167 MPa

(Young's modulus)
20 GPa
(20C) 3810 m/s
(25C, 1
Atm)

20 40,078 .
839 C 1484,4 C. Ca.
, " ".

,
.
.
1,5% , . 1160 . 99%

, , 1% ,
. , 60% , Ca++,
40% .
,
,

.

: 360-540 mg, : 1200 mg, : 1000 - 1200 mg, /: 1400-1600 mg, :
1600 - 2000 mg
: 1160 mg 100 g
: 1142 mg 100 g
: 1099 mg 100 g
: 954 mg 100 g
: 803 mg 100 g
: 750 mg 100 g

, , (, , , , , ),
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,

pH

270

, ( ), ,
, ..

()

()
http://www.dromostherapeia.gr/index.php/diatrofi/77-genika/2590-asvestio
271
272
. :
CaF2

3,2 gr/cm
. , , , , , , , , , ,
.
, ,
, ,
{111}
{111}
(. fluorite) CaF2.
, , (fluor = )
().
, . ,
.
. , , ,
, , , ,
. ,
(Eu) . () ,
, ,
, . ,
273
.
,
, ,
, .
, , .

. .
, , , , , , ,
. .
, , ( (Ca,Y)F2,
((Ca,Ce,Y)F2) , , ,
"bluejohn", .

[1]
Mindat.org [2]
Minerals.net [3]
Galleries.com [4]
Handbook of Mineralogy [5]
"bluejohn" Treak
Cliff Derbyshire {. )
James Dwight Dana, Manual of Mineralogy and Lithology,

Containing the Elements of the Science of Minerals and Rocks
READ BOOKS, 2008 ISBN 1-4437-4224-4

Frederick H. Pough, Roger Tory Peterson, Jeffrey (PHT) Scovil, A Field Guide to Rocks and Minerals, Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt, 1988 ISBN 0-395-91096-X
Walter Schumann, R. Bradshaw, K. A. G. Mills, Handbook of Rocks, Minerals and Gemstones, Houghton Mifflin
Harcourt, 1993 ISBN 0-395-51137-2
[1] http:/ / www. geo. auth. gr/ 106/ 3_halides/ fluorite. htm
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
http:/ / www. mindat. org/ min-1576. html

http:/ / www. minerals. net/ mineral/ halides/ fluorite/ fluorite. htm
http:/ / www. galleries. com/ minerals/ halides/ fluorite/ fluorite. htm
http:/ / www. handbookofmineralogy. org/ pdfs/ fluorite. pdf

CaBr2. ,
3,35 gr/cm3. 742C. (594 gr 100 gr H2O
0C). CaBr2. 6H2O 38,2C.
.
.
[1]
[1] http:/ / www. worldlingo. com/ ma/ enwiki/ el/ Calcium_bromide/ 1
274
275
CaSO4.2H2O

2,3 gr/cm
, , ,
, , ,
" "
, (. gypsum) ,
CaSO4.2H2O ( ).
. , ,
, .
, .

(CaSO42H2O) , ,
, , . / .
, , , , , , .

.
, , .. 2
276
. 2,5 g/cm3.
,
, , , , .,
(CaSO4 + 2H2),
(CaSO4 + H2).
:
2CaSO4 + 4 H2O + 2CaSO4 . H2O + 3H2O
. :
,

- ,
-
, .
9.000 ,
. 5.000 ,

,
. ,
,
.
()
.
1, 3,
(.. 28-10-1919) .
. , [1]
... [2]
Galleries.com [3]
[1] http:/ / www. iama. gr/ ethno/ oropos/ skaltsa. htm

[2] http:/ / www. geo. auth. gr/ 106/ az_gr. htm
[3] http:/ / www. galleries. com/ minerals/ sulfates/ gypsum/ gypsum. htm
277
Sc
21
IIB (3)
4
d
44,955912(6) amu
[Ar] 3d1 4s2
2, 8, 9, 2
0, +3
1,36 ( Pauling)
162 pm
144 pm
633,1 kJ/mole (Sc Sc+ + e-)

1.355 kJ/mole (Sc Sc2+ + 2e-)
2.388,6 kJ/mole (Sc Sc3+ + 3e-)
Sc3+
91 pm

1.541C (1.814,16 K)
2.836C (3.109,16 K)
2.985 kg/m3 (0C, 1 atm)
278
Sc 21. ,
. 1879
(Lars Fredrik Nilson) , ()
, ,
.
,
.
, 1937, 1970
.
. .
(Dmitri Mendeleev) , ,
40-48 amu 1869. (Lars Fredrik Nilson)
() .
2 g (Sc2O3) [1] [2] .
, Scandia . (Nilson)
, Per Teodor Cleve .[3] .
1937 ()
(KCl), (LiCl) (ScCl3),
700-800C.[4] . 99% 1960.
1971, ,
[5] .

1-3 :
1
Be
H
Li
Na Mg Al
K
Ca
Sc
Rb Sr
Cs Ba
La
Fr
Ac
Ra
, , ()
(Al) (), (Ca)
(Mg) (Sr). ()
, (Be) .
, IIIA (13),
. III
(3), , ,
.[6] .
( 3), +3, M3+
279
.
.

, 45Sc, 7/2. 13
, 46Sc 83,8 ,
47Sc 3,35 48Sc 43,7 . 10
4 . , 12 ,
44m2Sc 58,6 [7] . 40 - 54 amu[7] .

Z(p) N(n) (([amu]])
spin
( mole) ( mole)
36
21
15
36,01492(54)#
37
21
16
37,00305(32)#
38
21
17
37,99470(32)#
<300 ns
(2-)#
39
21
18
38,984790(26)
<300 ns
(7/2-)#
40
21
19
39,977967(3)
182,3(7) ms
4-
41
21
20
40,96925113(24)
596,3(17) ms
7/2-
42
21
21
41,96551643(29)
681,3(7) ms
0+
61,7(4) s
(7,5,6)+
3,891(12) h
7/2-
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
42m
Sc
616,28(6) keV
21
43
Sc
22
42,9611507(20)
7/2-#
43m1
151,4(2) keV
438(7) s
3/2+
43m2
3.123,2(3) keV
470(4) ns
(19/2)-
3,97(4) h
2+
Sc
Sc
21
44
Sc
23
43,9594028(19)
44m1
67,8680(14) keV
154,2(8) ns
1-
44m2
270,95(20) keV
58,61(10) h
6+
44m3
146,224(22) keV
50,4(7) s
0-
7/2-
318(7) ms
3/2+
83,79(4) d
4+
Sc
Sc
Sc
21
45
Sc
45m
Sc
Sc
44,9559119(9)
12,40(5) keV
21
46
24
25
45,9551719(9)
46m1
52,011(1) keV
9,4(8) s
6+
46m2
142,528(7) keV
18,75(4) s
1-
3,3492(6) d
7/2-
Sc
Sc
47
Sc
21
26
46,9524075(22)
1,0000
280
47m
Sc
766,83(9) keV
272(8) ns
(3/2)+
48
21
27
47,952231(6)
43,67(9) h
6+
49
21
28
48,950024(4)
57,2(2) min
7/2-
50
21
29
49,952188(17)
102,5(5) s
5+
350(40) ms
2+,3+
Sc
Sc
Sc
50m
Sc
256,895(10) keV
51
21
30
50,953603(22)
12.4(1) s
(7/2)-
52
21
31
51,95668(21)
8,2(2) s
3(+)
53
21
32
52,95961(32)#
>3 s
(7/2-)#
54
21
33
53,96326(40)
260(30) ms
3+#
7(5) s
(5+)
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
54m
Sc
110(3) keV
55
21
34
54,96824(79)
0,115(15) s
7/2-#
56
21
35
55,97287(75)#
35(5) ms
(1+)
57
21
36
56,97779(75)#
13(4) ms
7/2-#
58
21
37
57,98371(86)#
12(5) ms
(3+)#
59
21
38
58,98922(97)#
10# ms
7/2-#
60
21
39
59,99571(97)#
3# ms
3+#
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
# ,
, , .
.
, .
,
IUPAC, .
.
18 25 ppm,
.. (Co) (20-30 ppm). ,

.[8] . [9]
[10] , ,

. ..
45% (Sc2O3)[9] .
,
. 50 (35 ), 23
.[11] .

2 ,
. 400 kg,
. 2003 (3) :
1. .
2. .
3. .
[12]
. 10 kg
.[13] [12] . (Sc2O3) (ScF3) (Sc)
(Ca):

(Y,Sc)2(Si2O7) (ScPO42H2O) ,
.[13] . (Ni)
(Co) (), (Fe), (Sn)
, (U) .
2003, , ,
, [12] . ,
.

[1] Lars Fredrik Nilson (1879). "Sur l'ytterbine, terre nouvelle de M. Marignac" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k30457/ f639. table).
Comptes Rendus 88: 642647. .
[2] F. L. Nilson (1879). "Ueber Scandium, ein neues Erdmetall". Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 12 (1): 554557. doi:
10.1002/cber.187901201157 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ cber. 187901201157).
[3] Per Teodor Cleve (1879). "Sur le scandium" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3046j/ f432. table). Comptes Rendus 89: 419422. .
[4] Fischer, Werner (1937). "ber das metallische Scandium". Zeitschrift fr anorganische und allgemeine Chemie 231 (1-2): 5462. doi:
10.1002/zaac.19372310107 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ zaac. 19372310107).
[5] Zakharov, V. V. (2003). "Effect of Scandium on the Structure and Properties of Aluminum Alloys". Metal Science and Heat Treatment 45
(7-8): 246253. doi: 10.1023/A:1027368032062 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1023/ A:1027368032062).
[6] Lavelle, L. (2008). "Lanthanum (La) and Actinium (Ac) Should Remain in the d-block". J. Chem. Ed. 85: 1482.
[7] Audi, Georges (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data Center) 729:
3128. doi: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. nuclphysa. 2003. 11. 001).
[8] Bernhard, F. (2001). "Scandium mineralization associated with hydrothermal lazurite-quartz veins in the Lower Austroalpie Grobgneis
complex, East Alps, Austria". Mineral Deposits in the Beginning of the 21st Century. ISBN 9026518463.
[9] Kristiansen, Roy (2003). "Scandium - Mineraler I Norge" (http:/ / www. nags. net/ nags/ magasin/ 2003/ Sc-minerals. pdf) ( Norwegian).
Stein: 1423. .
[10] von Knorring, O. (1987). "Mineralized pegmatites in Africa". Geological Journal 22: 253270.
[11] Lide, David R. (2004). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. .428. ISBN 9780849304859.
[12] Deschamps, Y.. Scandium (http:/ / www. mineralinfo. org/ Substance/ Scandium/ Sc. pdf). mineralinfo.com ( 2008-10-21 )
[13] Mineral Commodity Summaries 2008: Scandium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ scandium/ mcs-2008-scand. pdf).
United States Geological Survey ( 2008-10-20 )
281
282
Sargent-Welch Scientific Company

Scandium (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Scandium)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Scandium)).
of scandium Isotopes of scandium (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Isotopes)

by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( of scandium / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Isotopes)).
283

Ti
99,995 %.
283 g, 14 cm, 2,55 cm

,
(Ti)
()
22
, ,
4 ,4, d

(A )
47,867(1)
[Ar] 3d2 4s2
EINECS
231-142-3
CAS
7440-32-6
[1]
147 pm
1608 pm
1,54
+4, +3
284

1: 658,8 KJ/mol
2: 1309,8 J/mol
3: 2652,5 J/mol

(-Ti)
1668C (3034F) (1941 K)
3287C (5949F) (3560 K)
4,506 g/cm3
14,15 KJ/mol
425 KJ/mol
25,06 J/molK
(20C) 420 nm
2,5 MS/m
(27C) 21,9 W/(mK)
Mohs
6,0
Vickers
970 MPa
Brinell
716 MPa

(Young's modulus)
116 GPa

(Shear modulus)
44 GPa

(Bulk modulus)
110 GPa
Poison
0,32
2920 m/s ( )
[2]
6260 m/s ( )
(25C, 1
Atm)

( : titanium) , ,
. 22 47,867.
"Ti" 4 , 4 d-block.
1668C 3287C.
9 0,6 % w/w [3] .
, , [4] .
Ti : , , , , ,
, , [5] .

, , , , , .[6] .
(TiO2) (Fe++TiO3)

. [7] . , (scrap)
TiO2 (75% 85%) ,
[3] .
, (IV), TiO2,
, , CaTiO3, , CaTiSiO5 ..[6] .
, , , .
, , .
, , ,
... [3] .
1791 .
1794 .
To .
.
. . ,
[8] . [9] .
- -
882C[2] .
, +4 +3.
.
.
, ,
[10] .
, ,
, , , ,
, , [8] .
, , , ..
,
. ,
, , , , ,
, .
5% Ti.
95% TiO2.
, TiO2
, , , , , .[3] .
, 46Ti 50Ti 48Ti
, 73,8 %[11] .
1791
(William Gregor, 1761 1817)
[12] . ,
[13] ,
(Manaccan) [14] ,
.
,
285
286
Crell's Annalen, [13] :

Magnetite 469/16 %, Silica 31/2 %, Reddish Brown Calx 45 %, Loss 415/16 %
(magnetite), , Fe3O4,
, (reddish brown calx),
,
, [13] .

(John Hawkins, 1761 1841),
, .
[12] . [15] (
),
[13] .
. ,
.
1817.
, -
(Franz-Joseph Mller von Reichenstein, 1740 - 1825) 1782,
, [15] .
1795
(Martin Heinrich Klaproth, 1743 1817),
1789 ,
( TiO2) Boinik

. ,

[12] .
[13] :
Whenever no name can be found for a new fossil
which indicates its peculiar and characteristic
properties (in which situation I find myself at present),
I think it best to choose such a denomination as means
nothing of itself, and thus can give no rise to any
erroneous ideas. In consequence of this, as I did in the
case of uranium, I shall borrow the name for this
metallic substance from mythology, and in particular
from the Titans, the first sons of the earth. I therefore
call this new metallic genus TITANIUM.
Martin Heinrich Klaproth

(
( ),
. ( ),
,
, . , , .)
.
, Ti

2 [12] . ,
, 19
: (Louis Nicolas Vauquelin),
(Heinrich Rose),
(William Hyde Wollaston), (Jns Jacob Berzelius),
(Friedrich Whler), (Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville)[13] .
1887 (Lars Fredrik Nilson) (Otto Pettersson)
, 95 %
(TiCl4) ,
(Ferdinand Frederick Henri Moissan)[16] , 98 %,
2 % [17] .
99,9 % 1910 (Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute) (Matthew Albert Hunter, 1878-1961),
General Electric Company.
, TiCl4 700-800C,
Hunder[17] .
, ,
(Anton Eduard van Arkel) (Jan Hendrik de Boer) 1925
van Arkelde Boer [18] .
Kroll.
1932 (Justin
William Kroll, 1889 - 1973), ...,
TiCl4 . 1938, 23 Kg
[19] . 1940
Kroll[20] . , 1948, DuPont
Kroll ,
, Ti[21]
[17] .
, .
1950, ,
. , ...
. 1960

[21] .
287
288
()

[21] .
9 [15]

.
0,6 % w/w[3] [10] 0,66
% w/w Ti[22] 0,44 % w/w[4] , 0,56 % w/w [8]
0,86 % w/w[23] .

. 801 ..,
784 Ti[24] .

0,6 - 1 g/L. 0,3 6 %
.
Ti [10] .
1 ppm,
() 80 ppm[12] .
0,054 mg/L, 1,2 4,7 ppm, 0,9 - 2,2 ppm. 70 Kg 20 mg
[25] .
, - .
Apollo 17 12 % Ti
Apollo [26] [27] .
5 : 46Ti, 47Ti, 48Ti, 49Ti and 50Ti. 48Ti

, 73,8 %.
, , - +-.
: 44Ti 63 , 45Ti
184,8 , 51Ti 5,76 52Ti 1,7 .
33
.
39,99 amu ( 40Ti) 57,966 amu (
58
Ti).
[1] IUPAC Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances. ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF THE ELEMENTS 2007 (http:/ / www. chem.
qmul. ac. uk/ iupac/ AtWt/ index. html)
[2] Martienssen W., Warlimont H., . (2005). "Classes of materials" (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=TnHJX79b3RwC&
printsec=frontcover& dq=Springer+ handbook+ of+ condensed+ matter+ and+ materials+ data& lr=& as_brr=3&
ei=HPwFTLL8HpWizQTe6bG5DA& cd=1#v=onepage& q& f=false). Springer handbook of condensed matter and materials data. Springer.
ISBN 978-3-540-44376-6. .
[3] "Titanium Statistical Compendium" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ titanium/ stat/ ). U.S. Geological Survey,
Minerals Information. 2007. . 31/8/2010.
[4] Titanium (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 597135/ titanium) Encyclopdia Britannica, 2006. 31/8/2010
[5] WolframAlpha : lements crust abundance (http:/ / www. wolframalpha. com/ input/ ?i=elements+ abundance+ in+ earth+ crust)
[6] Webmineral: Mineral Species containing Titanium (Ti) (http:/ / www. webmineral. com/ chem/ Chem-Ti. shtml)
[7] .
[8] Chemicool : Titanium (http:/ / www. chemicool. com/ elements/ titanium. html)
[9] Webelements : Titanium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ titanium/ chemistry. html)
[10] Gunnar Nordberg et al (2007). Handbook on the toxicology of metals (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=nKulgztuzL8C& pg=PR42&
dq=titanium+ toxicity& hl=el& ei=pZV-TIXdLcGRswbpk_2VCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=10&
ved=0CGUQ6AEwCTgK#v=onepage& q& f=false) (3 ). Amsterdam ; Boston : Academic Press. ISBN 9780123694133. .
[11] Environmental Chemistry. Ti - Titanium (http:/ / environmentalchemistry. com/ yogi/ periodic/ Ti-pg2. html#Nuclides)
[12] John Emsley (2001). "Titanium" (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Nature's+ Building+
Blocks:+ An+ A-Z+ Guide+ to+ the+ Elements& hl=el& ei=RiKBTJC7JIGSswabrJSoBw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1&
ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=). Nature's building blocks : an A-Z guide to the elements. Oxford ; New York : Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0198503407. .
[13] Mary Elvira Weeks (2003). Discovery of the elements : collected reprints of a series of articles published in the Journal of Chemical
Education (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=SJIk9BPdNWcC& pg=PA145& dq=titanium+ discovery& hl=el&
ei=Yhx9TIO9B8-s4Ab6vqnVBg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=8& ved=0CFYQ6AEwBw#v=onepage& q=) (3 ).
[Kila, MT] : Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0766138720. .
[14] , FeTiO3
[15] Robert E. Krebs (2006). The history and use of our earth's chemical elements : a reference guide (http:/ / books. google. gr/
books?id=yb9xTj72vNAC& printsec=frontcover& dq=The+ History+ and+ Use+ of+ Our+ Earth's+ Chemical+ Elements:+ A+ Reference+
Guide& hl=el& ei=mvyBTPONCJi8jAeVjrWbCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q=) (2 ). Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313334382. .
[16] Ferdinand Moissan Nobel 1906
[17] Titanium Facts (http:/ / www. titaniumera. com/ index/ pagepopup/ doc/ titanium_facts)
[18] van Arkel, A. E. (1925). "Preparation of pure titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and thorium metal". Zeitschrift fr anorganische und allgemeine
Chemie 148: 345 50.
[19] The National Inventors Hall of Fame (http:/ / www. invent. org/ hall_of_fame/ 89. html)
[20] Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2 ). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.
[21] Greg Roza (2008). Understanding the elements of the periodic table : Titanium (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=rsAGRf7j7fQC&
printsec=frontcover& dq=titanium& hl=el& ei=N96HTNiJCY6RswbatdXWCg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5&
ved=0CEMQ6AEwBA#v=onepage& q& f=false) (1 ). New York : Rosen Central. ISBN 1404214127. .
[22] WolframAlpha : Titanium (http:/ / www. wolframalpha. com/ input/ ?i=titanium)
[23] Eric R. Force (1991). Geology of titanium-mineral deposits (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=FF0x5gEwRosC& pg=PA49&
dq=titanium+ abundance& hl=el& ei=JBF9TPmvDcvj4gaG7Y2aBg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q=). Boulder, Colo. : Geological Society of America. ISBN 0813722594. .
[24] Barksdale, Jelks (1968). "Titanium". in Clifford A. Hampel (editor). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold
Book Corporation. pp. 732738. LCCN 68-29938.
[25] Environmental Chemistry. Titanium (http:/ / environmentalchemistry. com/ yogi/ periodic/ Ti. html)
[26] C. R. Hammond THE ELEMENTS ( .PDF) (http:/ / www-d0. fnal. gov/ hardware/ cal/ lvps_info/ engineering/ elements. pdf)
[27] Catherine E. Housecroft and Alan G. Sharpe (2005). Inorganic chemistry (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=_1gFM51qpAMC&
printsec=frontcover& dq=inorganic+ chemistry& hl=el& ei=XB-JTN6fC86OjAeguqCPCA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result&
resnum=1& ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=) (2 ). Harlow [etc.] : Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0130399132. .
289
290
1. Crabtree R.H (2005). The Organometallic Chemistry of the Transition Metals. Yale University, New Haven,
Connecticut. ISBN 0471662569.
2. Dabrowiak J.C. (2009). Metals in Medicine. Wiley - VCH. ISBN 978-0-470-68197-8.
3. Ebbing D.D, Gammon S.D. (2008). General Chemistry (9 ). Cengage Learning. ISBN 0618857486.
4. Emsley J (2003). Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements. Oxford University Press.. ISBN
0198503407.
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0813722594.
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8. Housecroft C.E., Sharpe A. G. (2005). Inorganic chemistry (3 ). Pearson Education Limited. ISBN
9780131755536.
9. Mackay K.M., Mackay R.A., Henderson W. (2002). Introduction to modern inorganic chemistry (1 ).
CRC Press. ISBN 0748764208.
10. M .. (1994). . , . ISBN 9603432725.
11. M K, K. (1984). . .
12. Martienssen W., Warlimont H., . (2005). Springer handbook of condensed matter and materials data.
Classes of materials. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-44376-6.
13. M ... . .
14. Pauling L. (2003). General Chemistry (3 ). Dover Publications Inc.. ISBN 9780486656229.
15. Reed R.C. (2006). The Superalloys : Fundamentals and Applications (1 ). Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0521859042.
16. Schumann W. (2008). Minerals of the World. ISBN 140275339X.
17. Weeks M.E. (1933). Discovery of the elements. Journal of Chemical Education. ISBN 0766138720.
18. Wiberg E., Nils Wiberg N., Holleman A.F. (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. ISBN 0123526515.
291
Theodore Gray : Elements Display (http://www.theodoregray.com/periodictabledisplay/Elements/022/index.

s9.html)
Mineral Species containing Titanium (http://www.webmineral.com/chem/Chem-Ti.shtml)
Library of Inorganic Structures : Ti (http://www.3dchem.com/element.asp?selected=Ti)
Pictures of Titanium, its minerals and applications (http://periodictable.com/Elements/022/pictures.pr.html)
A Cleaner, Cheaper Route to Titanium (http://techreview.com/read_article.aspx?id=16963&ch=nanotech)
International Titanium Association (http://titanium.org)
Metallurgy of Titanium and its Alloys, Cambridge University (http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2003/
titanium.movies/titanium.html)
Truth in Sparks: Titanium or Plain Ol' Steel? (http://www.popsci.com/popsci/how20/
85f145ef7d2f6110vgnvcm1000004eecbccdrcrd.html) Popular Science Magazine
Metal of the gods (http://seekingalpha.com/article/194965-titanium-metal-of-the-gods?source=email)
23
5
4
50,9414 g/mol
[Ar]4s23d3

132,1 pm
1910C
3407C
6 gr/cm3
292
23 50,9414.

1801 (Andrs Manuel del Ro),
, .
, ,
, ' "". ,
, , , "" (
""). ,
(Humboldt), o - (Collet-Descotils), ,
, ,
.
.
(Nils Gabriel Sefstrm).
"",
(Vanadis). 1867
(Henry Enfield Roscoe)[1] .
65 .
(K2(UO2)2(VO4)2 . 1-3H2O), (Pb5(VO4)3Cl), o (K(V,Al,Mg)2AlSi3O10(OH)2 o
(VS4)[2] . , , ,
.
(),
. .

:

900 C, (NaVO3).
,
(V2O5).
( McKechnie - Seybair):
V2O5 + 5Ca 5CaO + 2V
( )
,
, . ,
, ,
. , (660 C)
[3] . ' ,
, ,
.
293
, ,
.
:
.
"body building"
.
[1] Los Alamos, ... (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 23. html)
[2] Web Minerals (http:/ / webmineral. com/ AtoZ/ IndexR. shtml)
[3] Web Elements (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ V/ key. html)
Cr
24
VB (6)
4
d
51,9961(6) amu
[Ar] 3d5 4s1
2, 8, 13, 1
0, +3, +6
1,66 ( Pauling)
140 pm
127 pm
294

652,9 kJ/mole
(Cr Cr+ + e-)
1.590,6 kJ/mole
(Cr Cr2+ + 2e-)
2.987 kJ/mole
(Cr Cr3+ + 3e-)
Cr3+
69 pm

1.907C
2.671C
7.190 kg/m3
(20C, 1 atm)
Cr 24.
. ,
.
. ,
(FeCr2O4).
21 100ppm.

. 1 3000 mg/kg,
5 800 g/L 26 g/L 5,2 mg/L. Cr+3
Cr+6 pH ,
Cr+3 ,
39 g 30 g Cr+6.
3 : 52Cr, 53Cr 54Cr

(83,789%).
50Cr ( : 1,8 1017 )
51Cr ( : 27,7 ). 24
.
295

, , , . '
.
. Louis-Nicholas Vauquelin 1797.
, , :
, ,
( ). 38C .

(Cr(III) Cr3+)

. (Cr(VI) Cr6+)
, . Cr(VI) ,
.

.
.
50-200 g 35 g (
) 25 g ( ).
: , , , , , ,
.
: CoCr NiCr. ,
, , ,
.
ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Chromium

Toxicity [1] ()
Los Alamos National Laboratory - Chromium [2] ()
WebElements.com Chromium [3] ()
IARC Monograph "Chromium and Chromium compounds" [4]
()
International Chromium Development Association [5] ()
() (CrCl3)
It's Elemental The Element Chromium [6] ()

National Pollutant Inventory - Chromium (III) compounds fact
sheet [7] ()
The Merck Manual Mineral Deficiency and Toxicity [8] ()
296
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Chromium Page [9] ()
(VI) CrO
(PbCrO4)
CrO3
297
CrBr3
Chromium
[2]
[10]
GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 . (/
).
[10]
[1] http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/ csem/ chromium

[2] http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 24. html
[3] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Cr/ index. html
[4] http:/ / www-cie. iarc. fr/ htdocs/ monographs/ vol49/ chromium. html
[5] http:/ / www. chromium-asoc. com/
[6] http:/ / education. jlab. org/ itselemental/ ele024. html
[7] http:/ / www. npi. gov. au/ database/ substance-info/ profiles/ 24. html
[8] http:/ / www. merck. com/ mmpe/ sec01/ ch005/ ch005b. html
[9] http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ topics/ chromium/
[10] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Chromium

25 54,9380 . 1245
C 1962 C.
Mn. (
) .
,
, ,
.

298
1000 ppm (0,1%) , 12

. 7-9000ppm 440ppm.
10ppm 0,01 g/m3.
, , .
: 55Mn. 19
53Mn 3,7 , 54Mn
312,3 52Mn 5,591 .
3 .
+2, +3, +4, +6 +7,

0 +7. Mn2+ Mg2+
. +7
(VII) (Mn2O7) MnO4-.

[1]
Manganese
[2]
[2]
GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 . (/ ).
[2]
[1] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ media/ element-pics/ Mn. jpg
[2] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Manganese
299
Fe
(Fe)
()
26
, ,
8 ,4, d

(A )
55.845 gmol1
[ Ar ] 3d6 4s2
CAS
7439-89-6
300

126 pm
1.83
1st: 762.5 kJmol1

2nd: 1561.9 kJmol1
3rd: 2957 kJmol1

1811 K, 1538C
3134 K, 2862C
7.874 gcm3
13.81 kJmol1
Mohs
Vickers
608 MPa
Brinell
490 MPa

(Young's modulus)
211 GPa
5120 ms
(25C, 1
Atm)

26 55,847.
1535C 2750C. Fe.
(), (Si)
(Al) 1. , ,
, ( acciaio) .
, .

,
.
,

( Fe2O3)
.

( , )
.
,
62Ni.
, , 56Fe. .
301
62Ni,
.
, -
.
( Fe2+, ())
.

, , .
,
.
,
, . 5%
,
- 35% .
, , (Al).

, ().
20 -. ,

.
.
: 5.845% 54Fe (: >3,11022 ),

91,754% 56Fe, 2,119% 57Fe 0,282% 58Fe. 60Fe
(1,5 ).
-
1: R.S. Carmichael (ed.), CRC Practical Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks and Minerals, CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, (1989).

( ) [1]
Iron
[2]
[2]
FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 . (/ ).
[2]
, GNU
[1] http:/ / www. epyna. gr/ modules. php?name=News& file=article& sid=779

[2] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Iron
27 58,9332 .
1495 C 2870 C. Co.
.
,
.
, , .

.

12. 60Co,

,

( ). : hcp
fcc. hcp fcc 450 oC,
, .
59Co. 22
60Co 271,79 , 56Co 77,27
58Co 70,86 .
18 .
50 u (50Co) 73 u (73Co).

, 59Co,
59 u . 59Co
26 () 28
().

, (CoAsS) (Co3AsO4 . 8(H2O).
.

.
--
. ,
302
303
.

. , , , Alnico,
( -)
.
LiCoO2 (Li-ion).
NiCd (-) NiMH ( )
.

28 58,71,
8,9 , 1453 C
2732 C. : Ni.
5 : 58
(66,4%), 60 (26,7%), 61 (1,6%), 62 (3,7%) 64 (1,6%).

.
To Ni 385
.
. ,

. .
,
" ".
. 17 ,
.
Ni
Fe
.

NiS,
NiAs,
NiSb,
(Ni,Fe)AsS,
NiSbS,
(Ni,Co,Fe)As2 ..
, ,
() 3% .
1-3% 1953

.
,
() . ,
( ) .
.
, , ,
, , , ,
. , ,
( ), .

, ,
.
. ' , , . T
.
:
(Ni+Cr)
(Ni+Fe+Cr). ,
.
(Ni+Fe)
Nichrome (Ni+Fe+Cr) "". .
(Ni+Fe+Mo). .
(Ni+Fe), "".
(Ni+Cu). E .
(Ni+Fe), "" "".
.
. .
Ni (Ni+Fe+Cr), "" "Nichrome".
Alnico (Al+Ni+Co)
(Ni+Cu), ""
" " (Ni+Cu).
. ,
, .
"" .
304

.
Ni .
. , .
:
,
,
,
,
,
,

.

[1]- , , 10 2009.
[1] http:/ / www. express. gr/ news/ world/ 155210oz_20090410155210. php3
305
306

Cu
Ag

. :
(Cu)
()
29
, ,
11 ,4, d

(A )
63,546 g/mol

(25C, 1
Atm)

29 63,546 .
1084,6C 2567C. Cu.
.
307

, . 9.000 ..,

.
H 6.500 .. 4
.
3.000 .. .
2 1 .
copper Cuprum,
[1] , .
,
, "Desseminated Copper Ore"
.
(Cu2S), , o , ,
( ).
, ,
:
2Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2
2Cu2O + Cu2S 6Cu + SO2
. ' ,
99,9%, [2] .

( ) .
( 2.5-3 Mohs (. 1084,6 C, 2562
C), , .
, ,
. ,
. , . .
( Galvani).

(+1 +2). '
.
, , ,
. , .
, (HNO3).
63Cu 65Cu.

, . ,
C .
( ),
[3] .

. H Wilson,
, ,

.
,
(), , , ,
. , ,
.
(.. )

- - (YBa2Cu3O7) YBCO
.

.
-C CH. .
, .

. O
(Cu+1)
(Cu+2).
- ()
. , , ,
( ).
308
O , , .,
. ,
, .
,
.
, ,
( ).
. (
)
. ph 6.5,
, ,
.
ph (ph 7.2
7.8). ,
, , , ,
.
.
,
,
.
().
, ,
, , ( , ),
, ( ).
[1] , (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 29. html)

[2] Web elements (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ copper/ )
[3] Delaware, (http:/ / www. ocean. udel. edu/ horseshoecrab/ funFacts. html)

(http://www.copperinfo.com/)
(http://www.eurocopper.org/)
309

30 65,38 .
419,58 C
907 C.
Zn.
,
zink ( zinc,
zinco).
-,
,
,

. .

100 150C. 210C,
. . ,
(~420C) (~900C).
.
, ,
. ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , .
, ZrZn2 35
().
310
311
(ZnS)
75 ppm ,
24 .
5-770 ppm 64 ppm.
30 ppb
0.1-4 g/m3.

.
.
, ,

,
60-62%.
, (
ZnCO3) ( ).
.
. 64Zn (
48.63%). (4.31016 ) ,
. , 70Zn (0.6%), 1.31016 ,
. 66Zn (28%), 67Zn (4%) 68Zn (19%).
64
.
.
64
(-), .
. 3000
, . ,
12 ,
, , .
, , ,
.

, , ,
,
. ,
, , ,
.
,
,
,
.
.

.

, (
,
o
), , ,
, , ,
.

. ,
, , , , , . , ,

.

Acrodermatitis enteropathica.

, .

. 11 mg .

,
. , ,
. ,
, , .
(Free Ion Activity Model, FIAM),
,
. 6 93% daphnia
Muyssen et al., (Aquat Toxicol. 2006).
312

cent (98% )

(Bothwell and Mair, PEDIATRICS 2003).

.
.

.
,
2000 ..,
. ' ,
.

. ,
,
. 2006 , 56%
(773 ) ,
47% .
, ( 0.76 ),
. (
).

-.
,
3% 45% , .
.
,
(hardware) , , .

(SO2)
.
. 1.1 (1 = 1.000.000 )
130 (1 = 1.000 )
La Calamine Plombires 1806 1882.
, , ,
Geul .
313
314
,
10 . 10 1850,
3.4 '80 2.7
'90, 2005
. 20 1
.
Zinc
[2]
[1]
FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 . (/ ).
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Zinc
[1]
, GNU
315
Ga
5N (99,999%)

,
(Ga)
()
31
, ,
13 (III ) ,4, p

(A )
69,723(1)
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p1
EINECS
231-163-8
CAS
7440-55-3
135 pm
1223 pm
van der Waals
187 pm
1,81
316

+3
1:578,8 KJ/mol
2:1979,3 KJ/mol
3:2963 J/mol

[1]
(-Ga)
29,7646C (85,5763F) (302,9146 K)
2204C (3999F) (2477 K)
29,7666C (85,5799F) (302,9166 K)
5,904 g/cm
5,59 KJ/mol
254 KJ/mol
25,86 J/molK
(20C) 270 nm
[2]
[3] [4]
3[2] [5]
[6]
(20C) 11,95 S/m

40,6 W/(mK)
Mohs
1,5-2,5
Brinell
60 MPa

(Young's modulus)
9,81 GPa

(Shear modulus)
6,67 GPa
Poison
0,47
2740 m/s (, 12 MHz)

: 750 m/s
[7]
: 3030 m/s
[7]
[7]
20, 21, 22, 34
26, 36, 37, 39, 45
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

(gallium) , , , ,
. 31
69,723(1)[8] . "Ga" 13 (IIIA,
) , 4 p-block. 29,7646C
2204C.
1875 -
Gallia, .
, ' ,
.
15 ppm 19 ppm.
, , , ,
' .

.
.
, , , , ..[9] .
,
GaAs[10] .
, , , ...[11]
.
, Ga2O3
. ,
. ,
. .
, . ,
, ,
, .
[3] [4] ,
[12] (29,767C)
1990 (ITS-90) NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology)[13] .

.
, galinstan 68,5 Ga % -19C.
1940
,
, ,
. 95 %
,
.
.
,
. .

. , .

() .
317
318
69Ga 71Ga.

1870 (Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, 1834-1907).
, , - (eka-aluminium) Ea[14] .
- (Paul Emile Francois Lecoq de Boisbaudran, 18381912)
,
1875 - .
18 1838

. , ,
,

, .

.
(1879)
(1886), (1886)[15] .
O Paul mile Lecoq de Boisbaudran

.

[14] .
1870, ,
, ,
1825 1863.
,
.
1868
52 (ZnS)[16] 1874
[14] .
30 1875. [17]
:
Avant-hier, vendredi 27 aot 1875, entre 3 et 4 heures du soir, j'ai trouv des indices de l'existence
probable d'un nouveau corps simple, dans le produits de l'examen chimique d'une blende provenant de
la mine de Pierrefitte, valle d'Argels (Pyrnes).
, 27 1875, 3 4 ,
,
Pierrefitte, Argels ().
, (Adolph Wurtz, 1817-1884)
,
:
319
Les expriences que j'ai excutes depuis le 29 aot me confirment dans la pense que le corps observ
doit tre considr comme un nouvel lment, auquel je propose de donner le nom Gallium.
29
,
.
, Lecoq de Boisbaudran
: gallium gallus ( le coq)[18] . ,
1877,
[16] ,
- (1870-1871)[19] .
[20] [14]
- (Ea) (Ga)
Ea
()

Ga
()
Ga
68 amu
69,7 amu
69,723 amu
Ea2O3
Ga2O3
Ga2O3
5,9 g/cm3
5,91 g/cm3
5,904 g/cm3
30,1C
29,7646C
1983C
2204C
EaX3
GaX3
GaX3
1875,
.
,
417,0 nm 403,1 nm[16] .
,
. , 1875
1 g . 6 , 3,4 mg
. 435 Kg
0,65 g [16] [21] [22] . , ,
,
. 22 1875,
-.
, [14] .
[1] . 34
.
15 ppm[1] , 16,9 ppm[23] [24] ,
18-19 ppm[15] [25] [2] . ,
(Zn), (Ge) (Al)[1] .
- . .
1.000 - 10.000 ppm Ga[1] ' 5.000 - 7.000 ppm[26]
Tsumeb ( ) 1,85 % (18.500 ppm).
.
. . Ga '
10 ppm 160 ppm[27] . 30 ppm
100 ppm, 50 ppm 70 ppm, 50 ppm 65 ppm, 70
ppm 90 ppm, 24 ppm 40 ppm[28] ... 50 ppm[11] .
1,6 .
[23] . ,
-
.
- . 1 1000 ppm[29] . Zn 6.500
[23] . 1 - 20 ppm
( ~ 7 ppm) , ,
100 ppm[30] . , 10 500 ppm Ga 10.000 ppm Ga[29] .
. 0,3 ppb (0,030 0,007 g
Ga/g[24] ). ,
0,03 ppb[15] , pH = 8,1 [Ga(OH)4][1] . ,
22,4 ppm [24] .
, 5 ng/L[31] .
--. , ,
10 - 500 ppm[29] .
17 ppm 18,5 ppm,
2 ppm 200 ppm 21,1 ppm[25]
. ,
. [24] . ,
0,15 ppm
,
, [24] ,
[32] .
. , 7,8 ppm [33] ,
9,71 ppm CI- ( ), > 5 ppm -
( ) 2,6 ppm ,
[34] .
320
321

- ,

[31] . ,
,
.

[1] . ,
, ,

[31] .
> 99 %
Ga3+ 62 pm Fe3+ 64,5 pm,

, Fe3+
Fe2+[31] .
,
. ,

[31] .
,
Al:Ga 5000 10000. Ga
, Al,
, Ga .
Ga [25] .
, ,
Ga(OH)3.
,
. Al
pH (> 9,5), [31] .

, Al2O3. , Al,
, 50-60 mg/L,
, , .
.
55-62 mg/L Ga,
[32] .

20 ,
. 1958 [35]
, (CuGaS2), Strunz,
Geier Seeliger.
Tsumeb ,

1907 1996, Kipushi
( )[36] .
,
, , , ,
, , [37] .
, ,

4,2 g/cm3 . 35,32 %
1958
Ga, [38]
2 A, B =
. Cu, Ga, Ag, In, Fe = S, Se. ,
[36] .
Tsumeb
(GaO(OH), 59,93 % Ga), (Ga(OH)3, 57,74 % Ga), ((Al,Ga)2(Ge,C)O4(OH)2, 15,10 %
Ga), (PbGa3[(AsO4),(SO4)]2(OH)6, 14,55 % Ga),
1 % , , , ,
-(La)[38]

,
Bayer
,
, [28] ,

(, , ) [39] .

[40] .
(30 - 60 % w/w)
, Al2O3 SiO2, Fe2O3, TiO2,
CaO2 .. , .
99 %
. (-Al2O3),
Al,
(Bayer process). , ,
, NaOH,
,
l,
322
323
0,25 g/L[41] Al2O3

, Al(OH)3[42] CO2.
( Hall Hroult)
.
Ga Na[Ga(OH)4(2)2]
[28] :
Ga2O3 + 2NaOH + 5H2O 2Na[Ga(OH)4(H2O)2]
Al(OH)3,
'
. , Ga
:
4Ga3+ + 3[Fe(CN)6]4- Ga4[Fe(CN)6]3
:
Ga4[Fe(CN)6]3 + 21/2 O2 4Ga2O3 + 3Fe2O3 + 18(CN)2
:
Ga2O3 + 6KHSO4 Ga2(SO4)3 +3K2SO4 + 3H2O
Fe2O3 + 6KHSO4 Fe2(SO4)3 +3K2SO4 + 3H2O
NaOH, Ga3+ Fe3+
Fe(OH)3, :
Ga2(SO4)3 +8aOH + 4H2O 2Na[Ga(OH)4(H2O)2] + 3Na2SO4
Fe2(SO4)3 + 6NaOH 2Fe(OH)3 + 3Na2SO4
.

, [28] .
, ,
. ,
.
Al()3 CO2
Ca(OH)2 CO2. ,
Bayer [28] .
,
Fe, V, Cr.
Sn, Pb, Sn-Pb.
0,01 - 0,3 mm.
,
[28] .

.
99,9 % - 99,99 %.
, ,
(> 99,9999 %) . 99,999999 %
[15] .
324

. " "
0,07 % . NaOH
, Ga(OH)3 Al(OH)3,
. HCl
GaCl3 Al. GaCl3
NaOH. ,
[1] .
-
.

.

, .

, [11] .
(reserves base)

, 430 [29] .
2010 106 (
184 ), 34 % 79 2009.
, 141 / 2010 206
/ 2011[10] , , .
, , .
161 ( 177 )
, ... ( 141 )
, , , ..[11] .

[44]
:
4N[45] ,

.
6N 7N

.
8N ( )

(molecular beam epitaxy).

[43]
(11/2006 - 06/2011)
325

, .

. ,

. ,
[46] .
, 4 28 2011 900 /Kg
950 /Kg[43]

, (1,5 - 2,5 Mohs) .
n = 1,70 mPas[47] . 5,9 g/cm3 25C,
6,1 g/cm3 [48] . 1,083 -272,067C[33] .
.
[21] . , m = -21,610-6 cm3/mol[6] .
(71000 -1cm-1), ,
.
-Ga

[49] .
7 . 99,99999 %,

, 29,7646C[3] ,
. (2075C),
(660,32C ), (156,6C) (304C).
(-38,83C) (28,44C)
.

, ,
.
.
.
29,7C [44] .
(2204C)
, 2174C[44] .
.
To , , , , [21] , (
. -))
[15] . 3,1 %
.
, Ga2 .
[50] . "" [48] .
326
.
,
Ga
. (International Air Transport
Association, ) [29] .

, (-Ga)
. -
, -, -, -
, Ga-II, Ga-III
Ga-IV [49] .
-Ga 1932
(Fritz Laves, 1906 - 1978)[51] . ,
(< 29,7741C[52] ) , 1+2+2+2
Ga-Ga 2,45 [49] .
-Ga 6,22 g/cm3 -16,3C.
-Ga -35,6C , 6,20 g/cm3.
,
. -Ga 22 Ga.
-19,45C[53] .
Ga-II, Ga-III Ga-IV -
Ga[49] .
Ga- 27.600 atm Ga-III 25.700
atm 48,7C[29] . Ga-IV
1.480.000 atm [54] .
-Ga
-Ga
-Ga
Ga-
Ga-
Ga-IV
-Ga
327

13 ( ) p,
p-. p
, , [55] .
- , , ()
[55] .
(poor metals), IUPAC. 14
-p
, , , , , , , , ,
113, 114, 115 116. ,
' .
[55] .
( 0 = -0,529 V)
(0 = -1,676 V) '
(0 = -0,763 V) [48] .

Ga+ , Ga2+ Ga2X62- (X = Cl, Br, I)
. GaGa
. GaX4-[56]
Ga3+ .
Ga3+ Al3+ In3+
Fe3+ ( spin), .
Ga3+ Fe3+
Al3+ In3+
(pm)
()
62
64,5
53,5
80
(pm)
()
47
49
39
62
(eV)
(Pearson)
17
12,08 45,77 13
1,81
1,83
1,61
1,78
353,5 390,4 511

- (KJ/mol)
320
Ga3+ ,
[Ga(H2O)6]3+, " " Pearson[57] .
Lewis, -. Ga3+
- . ,
, - ( )[58] . [Ga(H2O)6]3+ ,
-, pH
Ga(OH)3 Ksp = 710-36[59] :
[Ga(H2O)6]3+ + 2
[Ga(H2O)5(OH)]2+ + H3+ (pK1 = 2,6)
[Ga(H2O)5(OH)]2+ + 2
[Ga(H2O)4(OH)2]+ + H3+ (pK2 = 3,3)
0,01 pH 2,
[Ga(H2O)4(OH)2]+ Ga(OH)3[57] :
328
[Ga(H2O)4(OH)2]+
Ga(OH)3(s) + H3O+ + 2H2O
:
[Ga(H2O)4(OH)2]+ + H2O
[Ga(H2O)3(OH)3]+ + H3O+ (pK3 = 4,4)
Ga(OH)3(aq) :
Ga(OH)3(aq) + 2
Ga(OH)4- + H+ (pK4 = 6,3)
pH = 7,4 25C ( GaO(OH))

10-6 mol/L, 98,4 % Ga(OH)4- 1,6 %
Ga(OH)3. Ga(OH)3 GaO(OH) ,
pH. (10-7,2 ) pH
= 5,2. pH = 2, , Ga(OH)sub>3 GaO(OH) 10-2
pH = 10 10-3,3 [60] .
-,
(), GaPO4, pH Ksp = 10-21[57] .
2, 3
13
2, 8, 3
31
2, 8, 18, 3
49
2, 8, 18, 18, 3
81
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 3
113 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 3

(

)

d (d-block contraction) :

, 1,81 1,61

Ga

. 578,8 + 1979,3 + 2963 = 5521,1 KJ/mol, (5139 KJ/mol).

+1 +2 +3.
Ga3+ (62 pm) , Al3+
(53,5 pm)
329
() d
.
()
[48] .

( KJ/mol) Ga+ Ga10+
Ga,
"" [61] :

(KJ/mol)
Ga - Ga+
578,8
Ga+ - Ga2+
1979,3
Ga2+ - Ga3+
2963
Ga3+ - Ga4+
6200
Ga4+ - Ga5+
8700
Ga5+ - Ga6+
11400
Ga6+ - Ga7+
14400
Ga7+ - Ga8+
17700
Ga8+ - Ga9+
22300
Ga9+ - Ga10+
26100
|+
0 (V)
Ga3+ + 2e- Ga+
-0,4
Ga3+ + 3e- Ga(s) -0,56

|+
' 200C[29] :
2Ga + 3H2O
Ga2O3 + 3H2
.
1000C
[48] :
4Ga + 3O2
2Ga2O3
Ga3+ + 3e- Ga(s), 0 = -0,56 V,

' (
)[62]
330
2Ga + 3H2SO4 ()
2Ga + 6HCl
Ga2(SO4)3 + 3H2
2GaCl3 + 3H2
Ga + 3AgNO3
Ga(NO3)3 + 3Ag
,
GaX3 (X =Cl, Br, I). [26] :
2Ga + 3X2
2GaX3
4Ga + 3S2
2Ga2S3
(Ga(OH)4-)[56] :
2Ga + 2NaOH + 6H2O
2NaGa(OH)4 + 3H2

[62] :
3Ga + 3HNO3 + 9HCl
3GaCl3 + 3NO + 6H2O
3Na2O2 + 2Ga
2Na3GaO3 3
KClO3 + 2Ga
Ga2O3 + KCl
, .

[62] :
2Ga + 6H2SO4
Ga2(SO4)3 + 3SO2 + 6H2O
Ga (950C) (< 20 KPa)

()
0C[48] :
2Ga + 2HCl
2GaCl + H2
, P, As, Sb :
Ga + A
GaA (A = P, As, Sb)
S, Se, Te :
Ga + A'
Ga2A'3 (A' = S, Se, Te)
500C - 1000C ,
, [29] .
.

(flame emission spectroscopy, FES),
, , :
403,30 nm 417,21 nm. (3-mm ),
(N2O)- (C2H2)
. (atomic absorption spectroscopy, AAS),
[63] 75 g/L[64] . AAS
N2O-(C2H2). 287,42 nm
294,4 nm 417,21 nm[59] .
,
S,
8-
[65]
--- (CAFHA)
.
( ),

( 8--)
-- (EDTA)[29] .
: 69Ga 60,108 % 71Ga

39,892 %. 67Ga 68Ga.
67Ga ( t1/2 = 3,3 ) 68Ga ( t1/2 = 68 )
. 67Ga
- .
, " ".
, Ga3+ .
68Ga , -68
,
. , ,
,
67Ga .

4s2 4p1
+3 3 .
+1 4p1
d. Ga-Ga
+2[1] .
-
Ga2O3.
Ga2O3
. -Ga2O3
, -Ga2O3
.
,

2 CO
600C. -Ga2O3

-Ga2O3
400C-500C.
-Ga2O3
Ga(NO3)3 250C 500C,

-Ga2O3[1] . Ga2O3 ,
, , , ..
Ga2O. ()
. 500C 700C Ga2O3
Ga, 100C.
H2SO4 H2S[1] .
331
332
GaO. ()
.
Ga(OH)3 GaO(OH). () ,
Ksp = 710-36, .
Ga3+.
Ga(OH)( -),
Ga(OH)3[57] :
GaO(OH) + H2O
Ga3+ + 3OH- (pK = 39,1)
[57] :
GaO(OH) + H2O + OH-
Ga(OH)4- (pK = 0,33)
GaO(OH) Ga(OH)3 100C[23] Ga

200C[1]
GaOH. () 2 22.
[23] .
, [GaH3]n. ,
(BnHn+4,
BnHn+6) ' ([AlH3]n)
(1,81)
(1,61) ' (2,04)[56] .
[GaH3]n 1989
Ga2H2 GaH2.
Ga2H6
[GaH3]n
n > 2
Ga2H6 (, digallane) [1] .
1990
, 26.
-20,15C Ga 2. GaCl3
Me3SiH LiAlH4 -33,15C[58] . -95C
Ga2Cl6 , , ..
(< -20C)[1] .
, Ga3H9 [1] .
, GaH. Ga-H (gallylene) 1,67
+ 239 KJ/mol. Ga

2 [48] .
333
, P, As, Sb
13 ,
III-V
[23] .
GaN. ()
n-,

K
[7] . 6,15 g/cm3
GaN, ~ 3 mm
Ga 15 [66] . GaAs
99 %
... LED[9] . GaN
Na/Ga GaN Ga Ga2O3.
(), Ga(N3)3,
GaF3NH3 250C[29] .
GaP. () ,
> 21 - 30 GPa -Sn (
)[7] . 4,138 g/cm3, 5
[67] n-. .
.
LED 1960. LED (,
, ) "" [23] .
GaAs. ()
,
> 17 GPa [7] .
4-5 Mohs, 5,317 g/cm3[66]
(
, LED, )
[9] . III-V
,
[58] .
GaAs, 2 mm.
()
GaSb. ()
, > 8 - 10 GPa
-Sn ( )[7] . 5,61 g/cm3, 4,5[66]
p- "" (V) -
-, Me4Sn Bu4Sn , [58] .
334
S, Se, Te
Ga(III). (), Ga2S3,
,
-, - -Ga2S3.
1/3 Zn2+
. (),
G2Se3 Ga2Te3 , -Ga2S3[48] .
p- III-IV
[68] .
Ga(I). (), Ga2S,
(), GaS
(), Ga2Se
Ga Ga2S3 Ga2Se3 . .
Ga Ga(III) [48] .
Ga(II). GaS, GaSe, GaTe
Ga(I). GaS
970C GaSe
. GaTe III-VI [68] .
Ga Ga(III)[48] .
GaX3. Lewis
GaX3L (L= ligand . )[56]
. To GaF3

.
,
[68] . Ga3 ( = Cl, Br, I)
Ga .

Ga2X6.
.
Ga3. GaCl3,
GaBr3 4, 5, 6[58] .
GaCl3
[68] .
GaF3
GaX. GaF .

GaCl GaCl3 1097C
Ga3 = Cl, Br, I
. 0C
Ga(0) Ga(III). GaBr [58] .
GaCl Gar
.
GaX2. GaF2 . Ga3
"Ga2" Ga+[Ga4]
. +1 +3[58] .
[56]
335
. ,
+1, +2 ,+3. Ga3Cl7 , Cr2O72-,
GaIGaIII2Cl7[69] . Ga2Br3 Ga2I3 GaI2 GaII2Br6 and
GaI2 GaII2I6 Ga-Ga +2.
1 6 4 6[48] .
GaCl3 GaBr3 4, 5 6 : [GaCl6]3-,
[GaBr6]3, [GaCl5]2, [GaCl4] [GaBr4] LGaX3 L
= Lewis X = Cl, Br[58] .
EDTA, Ga(EDTA) 1:1
.
Pb2+[70]

, ,

[71]
90 % Ga ( In 76 % Ga)
30C[29] .
MxGay M =
x, y =
. AgGa, Au7Ga2, Ir3Ga5, SrGa4, Ti2Ga, Li3Ga2, KGa4,
Na5Ga8 .. .
. DyGa2,
LaGa2, ErGa3 .. . UGa2, PuGa6 ..[29]
galinstan

1980
, .

, , [66] . : GaxIn1-xAsySb1-y, GaxIn1-xAs, GaxIn1-xP, GaxIn1-xSb,
GaxIn1-xAsyP1-y, AlxGa1-xAs ..
x, y . Ga0,47In0,53AsyP1-y
Ga0,47In0,53AsyP1-y (4,81 + 0,552y + 0,138y2) g/cm3 y =
0,24 y = 0,6. 1 Ga0,47In0,53As0,24P0,76 d = 4,95
g/cm3 2 Ga0,47In0,53As0,6P0,4 d = 5,19 g/cm3[66] .
Galinstan.
( gallium), ( indium) ( stannum
) 19C[72] .
,
NaK ( - )
. galinstan 68,5 % Ga, 21,5 % In 10 %
Sn.
Zintl. (Zintl phases)
, , - .
(Fritz Laves, 1906 1978) 1941
336
(Eduard Zintl, 1898 1941)

1930. Zintl
1 () 2 ( ) p
. NaTl, CaSi2, NaGe, Ba4SiAs4, Ba3AlSb3 ..
, , ,
. Zintl : )
- , ) . K3Ga3As4 )
(clusters) [52] .

.

Mn3GaC, Nd3GaC Mo2GaC[29] .
1000 .
(, , ),
. Ga(OCH3), Ga(OC6H5)3 ..
1980 ,
Ga ,
GaAs.
-, (CH3)3Ga ( -16C,
56C) - (CH3CH2)3Ga Ga-C 196 pm.
.
. Grignard [58] :

(CH3)3Ga
GaBr3 + 3RMgBr
R3Ga + 3MgBr2
GaCl3 + 3RLi
R3Ga + 3LiCl
2Ga + 3R2Hg
2R3Ga + 3Hg
(D) GaR3D.
(CH3)2GaOH Ga(CH3)3,
. ,
(CH3)3Ga(H2O)2+ Ga(CH3)2+[48] .
-

.
(GaAs)
' , . GaAs
"
" (International Agency for Research on Cancer, IARC)
[73] .

[26] .
.
(4 5 )
[26]
. , GaAs ,

.
,
. , 67Ga

.
[73] .
. ,
.
[74] .
. ,
, ,
"" , .. , N, As, P
GaN, GaAs . , laser
(LED), , ..
.
.
95 % ,
. 2010,
... 64%
(ICs). , ,
(LED), , 35 % 1%
, [11] .

.
""

,
[47] .
p-
(), GaAs
GaN
. 90 %

GaAs[15] .
LED
,

[75] , , (LED),
laser, , smartphones 3
337

4 [10]
GaAs
[9] . LED
-, GaInN. LED

[15]
. 2009,
GaN-
,

.
GaAs GaN
tablet PC[9] .
GaN

GaAs ,
[11] . 405 nm
GaN Blu-ray.
,
----, Cu(In,Ga)(Se,S)2,
... ,
[76] .
, GaAs [77]
.

71Ga
.
71Ga 71Ge, , : 71Ga + e 71Ge
+ e-.
Grand Sasso, , GALLEX
1991 1997 12,2
[78] . 1998
2002. 83
GaCl3-HCl[79] , 30 Ga, Grand Sasso,
71Ga 71Ge
[15] .
, SAGE (SovietAmerican
Gallium Experiment, Russian-American Gallium Experiment)
(Baksan)
1989 2010
. 50 71Ga[79] 10
71Ge -. 71Ge
- 71Ga[80] .
338

, 68Ga 67Ga,

Hodgkin, [81] . ,
,
. , ,
2--2- 18F.
Ga3+ 80
[82] . Ga3+

Fe3+, ' [60] .
, (), Ga(NO3)39H2O, [73] ,
Walker 256
L1210 .
.
(GaCl3)
() (Ga2(SO4)3)[83] . Ga(NO3)3 /
, , Paget.
, , ,
[84] .

( )[82] , ,
,
[60] . [85]
[86] .
--
.
-
[87] .

- (Gadolinium Gallium Garnet, GGG) Gd3Ga5O12
Galliant Diamonique II
, ,
[88] .
- 17,5 [47] .
, , , galinstan,
. -20C.
Ga-Sn
, . 65
.
13 15
. .
GaxIn1-xAsySb1-y, GaxIn1-xP ..
339

GaAs GaN, ,
. , ,
GaN : ,

GaAs. , GaN
,
. ' , GaN
[75] .
,

,
[75] .
,
, [75] .

.
(, , )
.
[89] .
, Mn2+,
.
,
.
2 % ,
. ""
[90] .
-
, GaAs
[10] ,
.
, .
GaAs 15 % 85 % [46] .
, ,
Ga As, [75] .
[11] , , ..., ,
. [46] .
340
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345

s9.html)
Mineral Species containing Gallium (Ga) (http://www.webmineral.com/chem/Chem-Ga.shtml)
Library of Inorganic Structures : Ga (http://www.3dchem.com/element.asp?selected=Ga)
Pictures of Gallium, its minerals and applications (http://periodictable.com/Elements/031/pictures.pr.html)
High-resolution photographs of molten gallium, gallium crystals and gallium ingots under Creative Commons
licence (http://france-gallium.com/photos-gallium.php)
Pure Gallium crystals ~99,9999% picture in the element collection from Heinrich Pniok (http://www.
pse-mendelejew.de/bilder/ga.jpg)
(http://www.videoman.gr/?p=1643)
Aluminum Corporation of China (CHINALCO) (http://www.chalco.com.cn/zl/web/chinalco_en_show.
jsp?ColumnID=122)
Recapture Metals Limited, Germany (http://www.recapturemetals.com/)
Dowa Holdings, Japan (http://www.dowa.co.jp/index_e.html)
346
Ge
(Ge)
()
32
, ,
14 ,4, p

(A )
72,63(1)
[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2
EINECS
231-164-3
CAS
7440-56-4
122 pm
122 pm
van der Waals
211 pm
347
2,01
+4, +2
1:762,2 J/mol
2:1537 J/mol
3:3302 J/mol
[1]
4:4411 J/mol

938,25C (1720,85F)
(1211,40 K)
2833C (5131F) (3106 K)
5,323 g/cm
36,9 J/mol
334 J/mol
23,222 J/(molK)
0,6 m
[2]
[3] [4]
1,67 S/m

60,2 W/(mK)
Mohs
6,0

(Young's modulus)
(27C) 103 GPa

(Shear modulus)
(27C) 41 GPa

(Bulk modulus)
(27C) 75 GPa
Poison
(27C) 0,26
2420 m/s ( )
[6]
4580 m/s ( )
[5]
[5]
[5]
[5]
20, 22, 36, 37, 38
37, 39
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

348
(germanium) , , ,
()[7] . 32 72,63(1)[8] .
"Ge" 14 (IVA, ) ,
4 p. 938,25C 2833C.
1886 , 66
Germania, .
.
1,0 ppm 1,7 ppm. ,

. , , ..
,
, . 1/3
.
..., , , , , , ,
, .
, 400C,
. , ,
.
.
.
+4 GeO2, GeCl4 ..
,
. GeH4,
GeCl4 GeO2.
, , .
50
. ,
GeO2, ,
, (PET)
. Ge ,
.
: 70Ge, 72Ge, 73Ge, 74Ge
, 1,781021 , .
76
Ge. ' ,
76
Ge
1864, (John Alexander Reina Newlands, 1837 - 1898)

[9] .
30 1864[10] ,
(P) - (As) - (Sb) (S) - (Se) - (Te)
. ( )
, (Si, . . 28) (Sn, .
. 118) () (118+28)/2 = 73.
, 1871,

,

[11] .
, -, Es,
72.
1885,
, 460
[12] .
(Albin Julius Weisbach, 1833 1901)
, "".
(Hieronymus Theodor Richter, 1824 1898)
1863 , [13] [14] .
,
,
[13] . O (Clemens
Alexander Winkler, 1838 1904), ,
. 73 75 % ,
17 18 % , , 6 - 7 %
. ,
, Ag8GeS6, ,
, "". 6 1886[14]
.
,
"" 1846
()
,
. 1877
, " "[15]

-[16] . ,
( Germania )
[13] [17] .
O
,
Clemens Alexander Winkler
-

.
. 26
1886 Berichte der deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft

. ,
- . ,
(Victor von Richter, 1841 1891)
'
(Julius Lothar Meyer, 1830 - 1895)[18] .
1887
72,32, GeCl4,
(Paul mile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, 1838 1912), ,
72,3 [19] .
349
350
(, 1871) (, 1886) ()
72
72,32
72,63
(g/cm3)
5,5
5,47
5,323
(cm3)
13
13,22
13,57
(J/g.K) 0,306
0,318
0,310
+4, +2
EsO2
GeO2
GeO2
. . (g/cm3)
4,7
4,703
4,228
EsCl4
GeCl4
GeCl4
. . (g/cm3)
1,9
1,887
1,8443
.. .(C)
60-100
86
83,1
C2H5-
Es(C2H5)4
Ge(C2H5)4
Ge(C2H5)4
. (g/cm3)
0,96
0,99
0,991
..(C)
160
163
162,5
40
. 1930
, [20] .
1923 (Francis William Aston, 1877 1945, Nobel
1922) 70Ge, 72Ge, 74Ge.
1930 Eagle-Picher

Zn , .
Otavi Minen 1930

[21] .
O B' .
1942 - (Karl Lark-Horovitz, 1892 - 1958),
Purdue,
[20] [22] .
Ge .
'
Ge[12] .
1945
. transistor

(John Bardeen, 1908 1991, Nobel
1956, 1972), (Walter Houser Brattain, 1902
1987, Nobel 1956) (William Bradford Shockley Jr.,
1910 1989) 23 1947, "
"
Transistor
40 .
. transistor
12 1958 T (Jack St. Clair
Kilby, 1923 2005, Nobel 2000) Texas Instruments
(IC) transistor
(Robert Norton Noyce, 1927 1990)
(Jean Amde Hoerni, 1924 - 1997) Fairchild Semiconductors
[20] .

' . [9] :
1965
- .
1972 -.
1975 LED.
1978 .
, " "
- (SiGe)
[20] .
. , 55
.
: 1,4 ppm[23] 1,5 ppm[24] 1,6 ppm[25] 1,7 ppm[26] , 1,8 ppm[1]
.
' ,
1,5 ppm. , ,
Ge 0,9 ppm 1,5 ppm.
greisen, .
1000 ppm[27] .
, 3000
ppm, , Ge
[28] .
ppm : 63 ppm,
180 ppm , Ge
, 700 ppm[29] .
.
1 2 ppm. 0,2 ppm
351

2 ppm. ,
Ge, < 0,1 ppm[27] . ,
, 3,3 ppm Ge[29] .
. H , ,
[27] . T 5
ppm Ge ' 0,5 ppm 50 ppm[27] .
, , 6600 ppm[29] .
500 ppm Ge 50 - 500 ppm[27]
( CO, H2, CO2
H2O) Ge
190 ppm 320 ppm[30] .
16000 ppm Hartley .
Xilinhaote, , 1600
[31]
.
, - ,
.
, ( 3000 ppm) ( 5300
ppm). Fe
[28] .
, 300 ppt, 50 ppt
60 ppt[9] .
21 ppm[32]

30 [33]
[9] , .
Tsumeb
Kipushi . , ,
510 % Ge Tsumeb 6,37,7 %
Kipushi[34] . 2006 , Cu5Ge0,5S4[33] .
( Ge 6-7 %),
(8,7 % Ge), (7,8 % Ge) (1,8 % Ge)[35]
(Ag8GeS6) 1886
' . ""
" " Fe, Sb, Sn.
, Cu26Fe4Ge4S32, 1922
Ga, Zn, Mo, As, V[36] .
, (Cu,Zn)11(Ge,As)2Fe4S16), 1948 Armand Renier,
[36] .
Ag8SnS6 1893

. . Ag8(Sn,Ge)(S,Te)6[36] .
352
353
-
.
,
(
, fly ashes) . Ge

. Ge

[34] .

. ,
GeCl4, , , ,
[37] .
, 6 (99,9999 %)
. 100 ppb ,
0,5 ppb. ,
0,0003 ppb[9] .
Ge ,
()
. ,
"" - - Czochralski[38] [39] .
. , ,
,
<
1 %[21] .
- ,
:
GeS2 + 3O2 GeO2 + 2SO2
,
(GeO44-) Zn .
, Zn ,
Zn. Waelz Zn
. GeO2 Cl2 HCl
354
GeCl4, (83C) [40] :

GeO2 + 4HCl GeCl4 + 2H2O
GeO2 + 2Cl2 GeCl4 + O2
GeCl4
[40] :
GeCl4 + 2H2O GeO2 + 4HCl
GeO2
. ,
[9] .
,
[41] :
GeO2 + C Ge + CO2
Ge ,
2 760C :
GeO2 + 2H2 Ge + 2H2O
.
Ge , ,
10 .
Ge '
Zn : H2SO4 NaOH
Ge ,
GE
GeCl4 , , .[34] .

GeCl4 400C 90
N4Cl. HCl GeO2
80 %[30] . GeO2 Ge .
-
2009 2010,
2008 100 120
, [39] .
2010 ( 80
), ( 5 ), ... ( 4,6 ), .
, , , , , 30
[42] .
,
, ,
. .

[21] .
99,99 % (4) 2011
1630 /Kg[43] .

' 1979, ...
400 /Kg. 1981 1994,
... ,
Ge ... 1060 /Kg.
1995 - 2000 1535 /Kg
. 2001
- 2009 865 /Kg[44]
- . , 25 % 35 %
[9] .
60 % .

. ,
, [39] .

() [45] .

, ,
(6,0 Mohs),
. 5,3234 g/cm3
5,500 g/cm3

m = -11,610-6 cm3/mol[2] .
, -, -, - -.
-Ge,
,
( sp3)

(fcc) .

[46] = 0,56579060 nm 25C[6] . -Ge,
, -Ge, ,
12 GPa (118431 atm). - -Ge[6] .
. , .
n
[3] As, Sb .. p Ga, B
..

, (band gap) ' , g = 0,663
eV 27C Si g = 1,12 eV ( GaAs g = 1,43 eV).
Si , ,
. : , , [47]
355

.
1.800
23.000 nm. IR, 4,0026 11.000 nm,
. . GeO2
[9] .

, (semiconductors)

(insulators)
.
,
.

,
.
10-6 104 -1m-1

[48] .
,
0,02 -1cm-1[47] .
,
,
,
, .
.
,
. , g (energy band gap) ,
eV, . H
, , (valence band)
(conduction band)[46] . T
,
.
356
357
T (C) g (eV)
73
0,700
25
0,664
27
0,663
50
0,654
100
0,634
300
0,550
, ,

Eg, 5 eV[49] . A
, Eg 2eV[46] .
.
. Eg
Eg = 0,742 - 4,810-4T2/(T+235) [5] .
: (Si, Ge),
(. GaAs, InP, AlAs .), (. AlxGa1-xAs, GaxIn1-xP .), (.
GaxIn1-xAsyP1-y .) (. ZnSe, GaN, InN .)[46] . ,
, (intrinsic semiconductors) Ge
(extrinsic semiconductors).
p n
(doping). n-
p-, p-n. T transistors n-p-n p-n-p.
. ,
( 4s2 4p2)
.
(, .)
,
' .
' (hole) p[49] .
.

.
.
: .
,
. ,
.
(intrinsic carrier concentration), ni,
27C [6] 2,331013 ( )/cm3 1,021010
( )/cm3.
358
n.
. [48] (
4s2 4p3), (5s2 5p3) ..,

,
. ,

n-. (+)

[49] .
n- (negative)
(). .
,
.
p.
. [48] ( 4s2 4p1)
(2s22p1),

[49] . ,
. ' .
p-. (-)

(positive) . ,
p-.
.
2, 4
14
2, 8, 4
32
2, 8, 18, 4
50
2, 8, 18, 18, 4
82
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4
114
|+ 14
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 4
359
14
( IV)
p,

p-.
p

,
,
.
(poor metals),

IUPAC. 14
Ge
-p

, , , , , , ,
, , 113, 114, 115 116.
, '
<ref name="[50] .
, 1927
(Nevil Vincent Sidgwick, 1873 - 1952), ,
.
Ge, 2 4s 2
4p
4s . Ge +4
Ge(II) Ge(IV)[51] .

C Si Sn Pb[52]
. ( KJ/mol) Ge+ Ge10+[53]
Ge[54] ,
"" :

360
(KJ/mol)
Ge - Ge+
762,1
Ge+ - Ge2+
1537
Ge2+ - Ge3+
3302
Ge3+ - Ge4+
4410
Ge4+ - Ge5+
9020
Ge5+ - Ge6+
11900
Ge6+ - Ge7+
15000
Ge7+ - Ge8+
18200
Ge8+ - Ge9+
21800
Ge9+ - Ge10+
27000
|+
0 (V)
Ge4+ + 2e- Ge2+
0,00
Ge2+ + 2e- Ge(s)
0,247
GeO + 2H+ + 2e- Ge + H2O
-0,255
Ge + 4H+ + 4e- GeH4
-0,29
H2GeO3 + 4H+ + 4e- Ge(s) + 3H2O 0,012

|+
2 2. 400C
2
600C[53] . :
Ge + O2 GeO2(s)
, ,
GeO[55] :
2Ge + O2 2GeO(s)
361
[53]
(KJ/mol)
GeH
288
GeC
237
GeO
363
GeF
464
GeCl
340
GeGe
163
[56] :
Ge + H2O GeO2 + H2
. ,
(HCl) (HF) (NaO)
50 %[57]
. (22) 3 %
[57] (NaOCl)[58] . ( 225C 16
) Ge HF GeF2[59] :
Ge + 2HF GeF2 + H2
HCl 480-500C
, HGeCl3, 30 % GeCl4 70 %[60]
Ge (HNO3) GeO2
[52] :
3Ge + 4HNO3 3GeO2 + 4NO + H2
H2SO4 :
Ge + H2SO4 GeO2 + SO2 + H2
. HNO3+HF. ,
2 [21] .
H2S GeS2 :
Ge + 2H2S GeS2 + 2H2
. GeCl4 350-430C GeF4

150C GeCl2 GeF2 [59] :
Ge + GeCl4 2GeCl2
Ge + GeF4 2GeF2
S Ge , , GeS2 GeS[55] :
Ge + 2S GeS2
Ge + S GeS
, , ,
[57] . Ge[60] :
Ge + 4Me3SiH Me6Si2 + H2 + (Me3Si)2GeH2
362

(flame emission spectroscopy, FES)
(atomic absorption spectroscopy, AAS),
265,12 nm. (N2O)-
(C2H2) , GeO.
Ge 10 %
[54] . (atomic absorption spectroscopy, AAS),
[61] 300 g/L[62]
32 [63] : 70Ge, 72Ge, 73Ge,

74
Ge 76Ge. ' 76Ge ,
- 1,5821021 [23] . 74Ge
36,72 %. 73Ge 7,76 %[63] .
72Ge 77Se,
[64] . ,
[64] .
27 58 89.
' 68Ge 270,95 ,
68
Ga. 60Ge 30 ms.
--, 61Ge 64Ge +
60Ni 64Ni [23] .

.. Ge

4
Ca2Ge
CaGe
[Ge4]4-
+1
GeH4
+2
GeS
+3
Ge2Cl4
+4
GeO2
,
4s2 4p2, (..) +4
4 4 . .. +2
" " Ge 2
4p. .. +3 . Ge2Cl6,
.. +1, +2 +3 [65] . GeH4
. Ca2Ge, -4 CaGe Ge .. -2[47]
Zintl [Ge9]4 [Ge9]2 .. [Ge4]4 .. = -1[1] .
4 ,
363
[50] .

[66]
Ge=Ge R2Ge=GeR2
Ar'Ge=GeAr' Ar' = C6H3-2,6-Trip2 Trip = C6H2-2,4,6-iPr3 iPr = = (CH3)2CH-[67] .
GenH2n+2 n = 1 - 9.
(CnH2n+2)
(SinH2n+2) : GeH4, , Ge2H6,
Ge3H8 .[47]
GeH4 30 %
GeCl4 - (LiAlH4)
[68] .
(HBr)
(Mg2Ge) -40C. '
, ,
. GeH4
285C.
Brnsted-Lowry
3.

MGeH3, = Na, K, Rb, Cs

GeH4 - 268C
2[47] .
n = 6, 7, 8
GeH4 50 KPa. n = 2, 3, 4, 5
[47] .
Si-Ge H3Si-GeH3, H3Si-GeH2-SiH3 GeH3-SiH2-GeH3
- GeH4-nXn . GeH3Cl, GeH2Cl2, GeHCl3[47] .
- -
(GeO2)
(GeCl4) GeS2. [66]
. (GeO2 + 4HCl GeCl4 + 2H2O) (GeO2 + 4NaOH Na4GeO4 +
2H2O[51] . [21] :
, HCl, HF NaOH.
.
GeCl4. 4,228 g/cm3,
1116C 4,53 g/L (25C) 13 g/L
(100C).
( Ksp = 1,010-57[54] )
300-900C
0,5 % w/w ( NaCl). 6,239
g/cm3 1086C.
.
3,637 g/cm3 HCl, HF, NaH.
364
(GeO)
Ge GeO2 2 Ge(OH)2
[69] GeCl2 NH3[1] . GeO
, GeOnH2O, Ge(OH)2 Ge2+[68] .
GeO [66] 697C
GeO2 Ge[1] . . (GeO + 2HCl
GeCl2 + H2O) (GeO + 2NaOH Na2GeO2 + H2O)[51]
(IV), Ge(OH)4, GeO2
. , H4GeO4,
pK1 = 9,03 pK2 = 12,33[47] .
(), Ge(OH)2, ,
Ge(II) : Ge(OH)2 + 2HClO4 Ge(ClO4)2 + 2H2O : Ge(OH)2 +
OH Ge(OH)3. 650C GeO. ,
H2GeO2[47] .

Ge HX[1] .
, GeF4, .
, BaGeF6[66] . GeF4
F2 Ge.
. [21] .
, GeCl4,
, , ..
[21] .
Cl2 Ge.

Ge(OH)4[66] .
,
GeBr4 ( 3,1 g/cm3, 186C,
26C) -
, GeI4 ( 4,4 g/cm3, 377C,
144C)[32] ,
Br2 I2 Ge GeO2 HBr
HI .
Ge.
(F, Cl, Br, I)

, GeX2 X = F, Cl, Br, I,

[1] .
GeX4 Ge. .. +2 Ge
+4, GeX4 Ge.
GeX4, GeO2[66] .
( 3,64 g/cm3, 130C, 110C[32] )
, [GeF2]n
GeF4, Ge GeF ,
. HF .
Ge(OH)2.
[21] .

- ( 5,4 g/cm3,
550C)[32] .
, H2GeF6, GeO2 HF
GeF4. KF BaF2 K2GeF6 BaGeF6
500C GeF4 BaF2[21] .
MGeCl3 + ,
. RbGeCl3, CsGeCl3, [NH4][GeCl3], [Ph4P][GeCl3] .. ,
, . CsGeCl3
CsEX3 = Ge, Sn, Pb = Cl, Br, I[1] .
=Ge S=Ge
O=GeF2, S=GeF2, S=GeCl2[47] .

(Zintl)
,
13, 14, 15 16. Zintl[70]
. , ,
.
. , Zintl
MmGen = 1 2
. Ge4(. Mg2Ge, Ca2Ge ..), Ge26- (. BaMg2Ge .), Ge94- (. NaGe, KGe, RbGe, BaGe2 ..)
..[47] Zintl ,
(NH3).
2,2,2-cryptand (crypt-222)[71] Na+ +
[Na(crypt-222)]4[Ge9][1] .

(IV), Ge3N4, 900C[32]
Ge 700-850C.
[21] .
(), Ge3N2, [GeNH]n
250-300C[47] . 600C 2 Ge 3 (Ge3N2 + 3H2 3Ge + 2NH3)[60]
(IV), GeS2, 3 g/cm3 597C[1] .
. HCl 6 H2SO4
6M. H2S[21] .
(I), GeS, 4,1 g/cm3 615C[32] .
GeS2 2 Ge - [47] .
(IV), GeSe2, 707C
4,56 g/cm3, (), GeSe, 667C, 5,56 g/cm3[32]
H2Se GeCl2[47] .
(II), GeTe, 725C 6,16
g/cm3[32] . Ge Te[47] .
365
366

Ge
+4 , , ,
, ..[72] . '
.
Ge .. +2
.
(V). , ,
(CH3CH2)4Ge, 1887 GeCl4
, (CH3CH2)2Zn[72] .

3-[(2--)-]
(2-),
, Ge-132, SK 818, , ,
.. 1966 V. F. Mironov,
E. M. Berliner T. K. Gar ((HOOCCH2CH2Ge)2O3))n
. [72] .
ligands , P .
[GeF4(NMe3)2][58] .
(). ( ), R2Ge,

(GeR2)n.
, . (} Ge[CH(SiMe3)2]2
180C ()
[CH(SiMe3)2]2Ge=Ge[CH(SiMe3)2]2[73] .
, Ge(C5H5)2, , (),
1986.
[73] .
Ge-Ge.
, , Ge
[73] .
cluster
. cluster GenRm (n m) R
. n =
m = 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, Ge=Ge, Ge,
() Ge ,
Ge6{CH(SiMe3)2}6 Me = = CH3-,
. n > 10[67] .

1960 ,
Ge [9] .
, Argentium Sterling, , 92,5 %
7,5 % . 1,2 % [74] ,
, ,
.
Si1-xGex Si Ge.
-
1970, 1980 "Miracle
Cure : Organic Germanium"[12] ,
(. AIDS). Ge
. ,
31 , ,
.
, .
. 1989

.[75] .

,

.
,
GeCl4[76] . ,
,
.
TLV[77] 10 mg/m3[78] .
,
(SiO2)

.

Ge 5 mg/m3 [79] .
Ge
( 45C), GeH4.
Ge, GeCl4.
-
[79] .
... Ge4 [80] : NIOSH REL[81] : TWA[82] 0,6 mg/m3.
, GeCl4, ,
13 mg/m3
. . GeCl4
367
368
[79] .
GeO2, HCl,
Ge2Cl6.
, GeO2,
[79] .
[76] .

(AsH3) , ,
[79] .
,

.
.

Ge
[42]
2010

30 %
25 %
PET
25 %
15 %

5%
2010 , ,
, 30 % , 25 %
, 25 %
, 15 % 5 %
, [83] .

. ,

[42]

(IV), GeO2,
, ,
.
,
,
, .
,
, ,
(1)
.
Si ""

GeO2
8 - 14 m,
, ,
, [41] .
(4,0) - .
(diamond-like carbon, DLC),
1,7 2,4 632,8 nm,
[84] .

Ge '
.
LED.
(ZnSe)
. ,
[42]
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1930
[71] crypt-222 4,7,13,16,21,24--1,10-[8.8.8]
N(CH2CH2OCH2CH2OCH2CH2)3N.

cryptates. "-/-
" : cryp-222 (http:/ / www. chem. uoa. gr/ vocabulary/ Vocabularyview. asp?key=cryptands)
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[77] TLV (Threshold Limit Value)
( 8 , 40 /). TLV
[78] The Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory Oxford University. MSDS Germanium (http:/ / msds. chem. ox. ac. uk/ GE/
germanium)
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15/8/2011.
[81] National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
. NIOSH ,
. REL (Recommented Exposure Limit) .
[82] Time Weighted Average (TWA). 8
/ 40 /.
[83] (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ germanium/ myb1-2010-germa. pdf)
30 % , 20 % , 20 %
PET, 15 % 15 %
[84] A. Grill (1999). "Electrical and optical properties of diamond-like carbon" (http:/ / carbon. utsi. edu/ downloads/
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Sadao Adachi (2004). Handbook on physical properties of semiconductors. Birkhuser. ISBN 1402078188.
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0080449530.
Cor L. Claeys, Eddy Simoen (2009). Extended defects in germanium: fundamental and technological aspects.
Springer. ISBN 3540856110.

s9.html)
Mineral Species containing Germanium (http://www.webmineral.com/chem/Chem-Ge.shtml)
Library of Inorganic Structures : Ge (http://www.3dchem.com/element.asp?selected=Ge)
Pictures of Germanium, its minerals and applications (http://periodictable.com/Elements/032/pictures.pr.
html)
Pure Germanium crystals ~99,9999% picture in the element collection from Heinrich Pniok (http://www.
pse-mendelejew.de/bilder/ge.jpg)
The Clemens Winkler Medal (http://www.gdch.de/strukturen/fg/ach/preise/cwinkler.htm) ( )
373
( )
( )
, As,
33
74,9216 . 817 C
613C,
VA, .
, ,
. , ,
. ,
, , ,
.
.

, 4
.. ""

" ". , ,
1 .. ,
.

.
13 ,
. , As .
1733 .
, , 1817
.
5
4 1 .
().
( 150) , , ,
. :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

()
()

7. o ( ).
374
( )
, ,
, , .
-
670 C,
.
, ,
As4O6 " ". ,
, "".

.
, 500
. .
1% , 3%
,
, ,
(). ,
, , ,
, , .

.
() ,
. 613C. As4
800C As2,
1700C.
, .
,
. ,

375
376
( IUPAC: Se)
16
p-block 34
78,96 . 221 C (494 K)
684,9 C (958 K). ,
4,8 g/cm3 16,42 cm3. : (Se3),
(Se8), (Se6) (a-Se).
377
Cl
Br
(Br)
()
35
, ,
17 ,4, p

(A )
79.904
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5
CAS
7726-95-6
378

120
2.96
7, 5, 4, 3, 1, -1

10.571 kJmol1 (Br2)
29.96 kJmol1 (Br2)
75.69 Jmol1K1 (Br2) (25C)
206 m/s
(25C, 1
Atm)

35 79,904.
Br. -7,2C 58,78C. '
, 20C.
.
A. A. Bullard 1826.
"", . , 79Br (50,54%)
81Br(49.46%). , .
80Br. . . (J. V. Kurshatov)
80Br. ,
, .
:
. .

. ,
. , .
3,1 gr/cm3 20 oC. ,
(3,58 gr 100 gr 100 C).
5,84C Br28H2O.
, .
, . 800C
. .
4S24P5.
-1 , KBr, +1 ,
NaBrO(), +3 , NaBrO2, +5 , NaBrO3 +7 NaBrO4.
379

.
7x10-4% 1x10-4% .
, , , . 0,11
2,00 mq%. , ,
(82Br).
.
, ,
.

36 83,80 . 18
4
. -157,2 C
-153,4 C.
1898 . ,
( 0,0001% ).
, ,
.
, .

,
.
.
380
381
Rb
Cs
(Rb)
()
37
, ,
1 ,5, s

(A )
85,647 g/mol
[Kr] 5s1
CAS
7440-17-7
248 pm
2209 pm
van der Waals
303 pm
0.82 ( Pauling)
382

1: 403 kJmol 2: 2632.1 kJmol

3: 3859.4 kJmol

312,46 K, 39,31 C, 102,76 F
961 K, 688 C, 1270 F
(25 C) 31,060 Jmol-1K-1
(20 C) 128 nm
(300 K) 58.2 Wm-1K-1
Mohs
0.3
Brinell
0.216 MPa
( ) (20 C) 1300 m/s
[1]
(25C, 1
Atm)

, Rb, 37
85,467 . 38,89 C 688 C.
.
-
1861
.
"rubidus" ,
.
, ( ), , 330
(ppm), . 5%
, .
383
I Rb
( : 85). -87,
, 4,88x1010 ( 49 . ),
. Rb-87
-87 (Sr-87) .
Rb
83
0,000%
86,2
84
0,000%
32,9
85
72,168%
86
0,000%
18,65
87
27,835%
4,88 x 1010
Rb
Rb
Rb
Rb
Rb
[1] magnet Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds (http:/ / www-d0. fnal. gov/ hardware/ cal/ lvps_info/
engineering/ elementmagn. pdf), in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
38 87,62 .
769 C 1384 C.
384
385
Sc
La
(Y)
()
39
, ,
3 ,5, d

(A )
88.90585
[Kr] 4d85s1
CAS
7440-65-5
180 pm
1907 pm
1.22
3, 2, 1
386

1: 600 kJ/mol
2: 1180 J/mol
3: 1980 KJ/mol

1979C (2779F) (1726 K)
3336C (3609F) (6037 K)
(20C)4.472 g/cm3
Poison
0.243
(25C, 1
Atm)

Y 39.

.
. , 89Y,
.
1787,
, .
1789, .
1828 .
387

40 91,224 .
18522
C,
4377 C
6,52 gr/cm3.
,

(ZrSiO4), .
1789,

. 1824
(Jns Jacob Berzelius)
.
1914. [1]
(ZrSiO4)
(ZrO2). , ,
"" .
Kroll,
. ,
(Hf), .

,
. ( )
(Ti)[2] .
388

,
. (
) .
,

[3] . , , ,

,
.
()

.
. , ,
.
.
()
- , -
. ,
. , , ,
. ,
, (
).
[2] Lenntech (http:/ / www. lenntech. com/ Periodic-chart-elements/ Zr-en. htm)
[3] Jefferson Lab, (http:/ / education. jlab. org/ itselemental/ ele040. html)
389
Nb
1 cm3

,
(Nb)
()
41
, ,
5 ,5, d

(A )
92,90638
[Kr] 4d4 5s1
EINECS
231-113-5
CAS
7440-03-1
146 pm
1646 pm
1,6
+5
390

1: 652,1 kJ/mol
2: 1380 J/mol
3: 2416 KJ/mol

2477C (4491F) (2750 K)
4744C (8571F) (5017 K)
(20C) 8,57 g/cm3
30 KJ/mol
689,9 KJ/mol
24,60 J/molK
(0C) 152 nm
[1]
6,58 MS/m
[2]
(27C) 59 W/(mK)
Mohs
6,0
Vickers
1320 MPa
Brinell
736 MPa

(Young's modulus)
105 GPa

(Shear modulus)
38 GPa

(Bulk modulus)
170 GPa
Poison
0,40
2100 m/s ( )
[2]
4900 m/s ( )
(25C, 1 Atm)

( : niobium) , , ,
. 41 92,90638(2).
"Nb" 5, 5 d-block
. 2477C 4744C[3] .

.
: 20 / 20 ppm ( )[4] .
7 6
[3] .
. .
, +5.

. ,
, ,
'.
1801
19 . ,
, ,
. .
1864. 1949.

,
. , ,
, , .
20 .
, ,
.
.
, ,
. ,
, ,
, , .
,
.
.
93Nb[5] .
1801 (Charles Hatchett, 1765-1847)

51 19 [6] .
1734 ,
(John Winthrop the Younger, 1681-1747)
. (
), ' ,
. , 600 ,
. [7]
1753.
. :
[8] .
,
[8] .

[6] .
391
Giorgio Sommer

(323 ..-146 ..)
392
O
30 - 40
(Henry Cavendish, 1731-1810) (Sir Humphry Davy,
1778-1829).
[8] .
.
, 2029
[6] , ,
.
,
[9] . , ,
. Hatchett 2/3
[8] .

[10] . 26 1801
: "An Analysis of a Mineral Substance from
North America containing a Metal hitherto Unknown" (

)[9] .
,
(Anders Gustaf Ekeberg, 1767-1813)

().
, ,
[8] .
1809, (William Hyde Wollaston, 1766-1828)

, 5,918 g/cm3 (
) 7,935 g/cm3 (
), - -,
, . ,
, .[11] . 1846
(Heinrich Rose, 1795-1864)
,
[12] [13] [14] .

:
1847, (R. Hermann),
[15] .
-
30 [16] .
1860 , (Wolfgang Xavier Franz Baron von Kobell)

.
, , . "" [17]
-[18] .
393
1864
[18] (Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand, 1826-1897) [19] (Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac, 1817-1894) (Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire
Deville, 1818-1881) (Louis Joseph Troost, 1825-1911).
, .
1864
, , [8] .
,

"" (neptunium). -.
1904 Clarence W. Balke
, 1906 (Werner von Bolton, 1868-1912) Siemens &
Halske
. 1903[9] .
1925,
, 1933,
[20] . 1940
.
1930. , , ( 25 /)
, '50
'60. ,
Nb Ta [20] .
1960 (John Eugene Kunzler)
Bell
100 . ,
[21] .

1801 1864,
. "" :
...
""
1801
Hatchett
Nb
1802
Ekeberg
1846
Rose
1846
Rose
Ta-Nb
1847
Hermann
Ta-Nb
1860
Kobel
Ta-Nb
1877
Hermann
Ta-Nb
( Cb[9] ) Hatchett,
.
1953[22] ,
394
[23]
, 15
1949[24] , 41, .

(IUPAC).
, ' 41
. ,
(USGS), ""
[25] .
33 '
20 ppm (20000 ppb)[26] [8] . 17 ppm.

, , , ,
, [27] .
, , [4] .
-
. , -
. Nb ,
- [28] .

[29]

/ Nb (ppm)
4-11
28
140
240
( 30 %
"" [30]
). Fe-Ni
[31]
'
[32] .
,
4,4 , [30] .
Nb
( )
[28] .
Nb 0,02 - 6,3 ppm 2 80 ppm[33] .

Nb
0,45 ppm Nb. Nb 1
ppm. 910-7 ppm[26] .
Mytilus edulis Nb 1 ppb ,
(Ascidiacea) Molgul manhattensis Styela plicata
, , , 250 ppm Nb. ,
[33] .
200 [34] .
: ,
, , , , , ..
, [28] .
: (niobite) -
- coltan
(Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6 , ,
.
Nb
Ta.
Nb 45 75 %
( 26 77 %[35] ) Nb2O5[36] ,
3 40 %
Nb2O5[35] . ,
. .
3
8 g/cm ,
5,2 g/cm3. , .
[37] .
:
.
20
. ,
(Ca,
Na)2Nb2O6(OH,F) .
-- ,
,
+2
+4
+3
(A)2(B)2(O,OH,F)7, A = Na, Ca, Fe , U , Sb , Pb, Th, Ce, Y B =
Ta, Nb, Ti, Sn, Fe+3, W[38] 30 65 % Nb2O5[36] .
, , ..[39] .
[40] (Ba,Sr)(Nb,Ti)2(O,OH)7

(Ca,Na)2(Nb,Ta)2O6(O,OH,F)[41] .
5,3 g/cm3. : , ,
, , [42] .
395
396

[43]

, ,
' .
[44] . Nb
. (carbonatites) .
50 % w/w (, ) < 10% . 330
.
(Na ) - (natrocarbonatites)[45] :
: ,
60 Km 850 Km
,
(super-giant) Morro dos Seis
Lagos,

Nb, Zr, [46] ..[47] . ,
100 . 12,6 Km2[48]
1975,
[49]
. 2,897 2,81 %
Nb2O5 81 . Nb2O5.
, , -
Minas Gerais
Barreiro Arax Minas
.
Gerais,
, Seis Lagos[47] .
450 . 2,5 % Nb2O5[50] . (giant)
4,5 Km 16 Km2, 91 .

()
1,8 [47] .
, 70 . , Tapira
, 126 . 1,2 % Nb2O5[51] .
- Catalo I Catalo II,
83 . , Tapira Barreiro. '
, Nb2O5 18 . 1,34 %
[43] . , ,
. Catalo I 6 Km 20,6 Km2,
900 m ' . 46 . ,
Nb 0,34 %[48] . Catalo II , 10,6
Km2 5 Km 2,7 Km. 2 .
2,18 % Nb.[52] .
Serra Negra Minas Gerais Jacupiranga Sao Paulo
[48] .
: Oka 25,4
. 0,44 % Nb2O5 (0,23 % Nb),
221 . .
13,7 Km2[48] .
St. Honor 32 .
0,56 % Nb2O5 181.300 [53] .
Oka, 643 .
750 m, 45 m 180 m 750 m.
90 m 440 m[53] .
,
Aley Upper Fir ,
(Argor), (Nemegosenda Lake) (Prairie Lake)
.. Nb 0,6 %[48] .
:
, 40 % ,
, [54] .
, ,
, , , , , ,
, .[48] .
Panta Hill
125 . 0,3 % Nb2O5. ' , 3,8
. 0,79 %.
1957 1960 10 - 25 % Nb2O5,
[51] .
: Bayan
Obo (Baotou) 1927
..... 1 .
Nb 0,13 %[50] 1,6 .
(Brockman) ,
, 4,29 . 0,31 % Nb 0,44 %
Nb2O5[48] .
397
398

Nb, , [55] ,
5
Km 0,4 Km . 300 . ,
Nb, , [44] .
, , Echassiers
50 . 0,022 % Nb[44] .
greisen[56] Nb,
Thorr [44] .
-
, ,
Nb [57] :
,
. ,
Nb Ta.
Ta Nb ,
.
, , , , , , , ..
4--2- (),
2- [58] .
Ta
Nb [35] . ,
Nb
H2[NbOF5].
[59] .
, 3, :
H2[NbOF5] + 53 + 42 Nb(OH)5 + 5NH4F
[60] :
2Nb(OH)5 Nb2O5 + 5H2O
Nb ,
, [20] :
3Nb2O5 + 10Al 6Nb + 5Al2O3
[20] :
2Nb2O5 + 10C 4Nb + 10CO
2Nb2O5 + 5Si 4Nb + 5SiO2
Nb
[57] . '
, Ti-Ta-Nb- ,

. Ti-Nb-Ta
, . Ti-Ta-Nb
,
Ti . , Ta-Nb
NbCl5 TaCl5.
399

.
, -, (Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6,
:
[61] , 1957
[35] , (KHSO4)
(Fe(OH)2) (Mn(OH)2) (K3NbO4)
(3a4). ' (CO2)
Nb2O5 Ta2O5. (KF)
(HF) K2[NbOF5] :
Nb2O5 + 10HF 2H2[NbOF5] + 3H2O
H2[NbOF5] + 2KF K2[NbOF5] + 2HF
K2TaF7 :
Ta2O5 + 14HF 2H2[TaF7] + 5H2O
H2[TaF7] + 2KF K2TaF7 + 2HF
K2TaF7
Ta , 10 [35] , K2NbOF5
Nb.
[35] , , (NaOH)
:
FeNb2O6 + 2NaOH 2NaNbO3 + FeO + H2O
FeTa2O6 + 2NaOH 2NaTaO3 + FeO + H2O
(HCl)
Nb Ta:
NaNbO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + Nb2O5 + H2O
NaTaO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + Ta2O5 + H2O
- HCl
:
FeNb2O6 + 2HCl FeCl2 + 5HNbO3 2HNbO3 Nb2O5 + H2O
FeTa2O6 + 2HCl FeCl2 + 5HTaO3 2HTaO3 Ta2O5 + H2O
(KF)
(HF) K2[NbOF5] K2TaF7
.
400
Nb
( )[25]
2009
2010
58.000 58.000 2.900.000
4.330
4.400
46.000
530
600
() 62.900 63.000 2.900.000

, ,
, Nb2O5.
, Nb , , , , ,
, .
99,999 % [62] .
To 2008, 97%
. Nb
, .
2008-09,
96,4 %
.
(open-pit) ,
, , (underground). 85 %
[47] Arax, () Minas Gerais
.
Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Minerao[63] , ( ,
CBMM)[43] . 450 . ,
1,5 , Nb2O5 1,5 %.
1,5 . CBMM (FeNb) (
90.000 /), FeNb ( 3.000 /) 1982[20]
Nb ( 210 /)[25] .
Minerao Catalo de Gois Ltda
(MCGL), Gois
Catalo.
[43] .
401
Niobec
.
.
Qubec Saint-Honor,
Niobec IAMGOLD.
1967
1976.
, 7 - 8 %
[53] . 2009
1.773 . ,
1.755 . , 4.106
[25] .
, Capital Mining Ltd.

, 2008 55 .
, , NbO2 80 /,
Orion Metals Limited 100 ppm Nb2O5[25] .
, , ( 200 2009)
, , ,:
[64]
[65]
[66] [67] 3, : 38
75 [3] . , , 2,5
. , Nb, 7,830 g/cm3.
.

1 Atm 4.740C.
(refractory metals)[68] .
, ,
2.000C
.
402
H
Li
He
Be
Na Mg
Al
Si
Cl Ar
As
Se Br Kr
Ca Sc
Rb Sr
Ti
Cs Ba La
Fr Ra Ac **
*
Cr Mn Fe
Co
Ni
Cu Zn Ga Ge
Zr Nb Mo Tc
Ru Rh
Pd Ag Cd In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hf Ta
Pb
Bi
Po At Rn
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au Hg Tl
Rf Db Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg Cn
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
** Th Pa
Ne
Xe
Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
--

11 Mohs, 6, 48 , 8 Vickers, 1320 MPa,
38 19 Brinell 57 [3] . (Young)
105 GPa . 2000C
40 GPa[2] .
, .
15 40 % 51 mm[69] .
, ,
.
90% ,
[69] .

: , 54 W/(mK) 30 72
[3] 100C 600C 65 W/(mK)[2] .
, , 8
. Nb Debye D = 2,85C (276 K)[70] [4] .

: , 6,58106 S/m, 33
70 [3] . 0C 150 nm 600C
400 nm[2] . ,
, 9 .

, ,
.
m = + 20810-6 cm3mol-1[1] .
.
[71] . H 20C 500 16.500
-269C[2] . 1930 1954,
( , Tc)
403
: 9,25 (-263,9C)[72] ( 2 Tc = 7,8 K).

"15" 3,
= Nb, Ti, Zr, V, Ta, Cr, Mo = Al, Ga, In, Tl, Si, Ge .. Nb
Tc ,
Nb3Ge. 1930 1986
" ", 1986 "
"
. Tc = 40
K[72] .
(penetration depth)[73] : 470
(= 47010-8 cm) 0 [74] , , ,
.
,
. ( Meissner)
. , [75]
. c1(0) = 173 mT
, Hc2(0) = 405 mT .[76] .

-
' .
d .

()
23
2, 8, 11, 2
41
2, 8, 18, 12, 1
73
2, 8, 18, 32, 11, 2
105
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2
|+ 5 (VB)

Nb

.

.

d-block ( d
diffuse
)[77] .
Nb,
Nb
Ru, Rh, Pd,
W, Pt ' , .
, d
10e 5e . Nb
4d5 4d4 5s1.
: ) - )
-[78] .
' ,
. +5
, '
[77] .
, ' '
,
. , ' , ,
[79] ' . To Nb
Ta : 146 pm.
,
Nb Ta, Nb5+ a5+ 134,2 ppm 134,3 ppm
[80] , [77] .

( KJ/mol) Nb+ Nb7+
Nb,
"" [81] :
404
405
(KJ/mol)
Nb - Nb+
664
Nb+ - Nb2+
1382
Nb2+ - Nb3+
2416
Nb3+ - Nb4+
3695
Nb4+ - Nb5+
4877
Nb5+ - Nb6+
9899
Nb6+ - Nb7+
12100
|+
0 (V)
Nb5+ + 2e- Nb3+
+0,373
Nb3+ + 3e- Nb
-1,1
Nb2O5 + 10+ + 10e- Nb + 52O
-0,65
NbO3+ + 2+ + 2e- Nb3+ + 2O
-0,343
NbO(SO4)-2 + 2+ + 2e- Nb3+ + 20 + 2SO42- -0.1

NbO(SO4)-2 + 2+ + 5e- Nb + 2O + 2SO42-
-0,63
|+
Nb5+ + 2e- Nb3+

( 0 = +0,373 V) Nb3+ + 3e- Nb ( 0 = -1,1 V),
: Nb5+ + 5e- Nb (- 0,727 V)
[35] ,
(. ).
406

Nb
[82] . ,
, .
,
,
[83]
. 200C
[84] ,
NbOx, NbOy, NbyO .. [82] ,
500C.
600-650C,
,

,
. 15 ,

[85] .
650C NbO NbO2
Nb/O2
. ,
[82] . 980C 430 /[84]
. 1200C,
,
. Nb2O5 ,
Nb 2,
[82] . 1600C ,
2 Nb. ' ,
[2] .
, 2 390-400C[35] [84] ,
Nb2O5[86] :
4Nb + 5O2 2Nb2O5
,
: 2 250C,
. ,
' 2 .
Nb, , 300C
1600C[2] .
: Nb 2 300C, 1 atm,
1200C ' [35] , (), NbN[59] :
Nb + N NbN
, 2,
1600C[2] .
407
,

(mm/y) ,
[2] . [35] ,
0,025 mm/y 55C[84] .
: (,
HCl, , HBr, , HI, , HNO3, , H2SO4, , H3PO4)
100C[84] . (HF)
:
2Nb + 12HF 2HNbF6 + 5H2
HNO3 , H2O2, [58] .
, Nb 95 %.
(H2SO3), 100C.
, 0,25 mm/y[84] .
70 % 250C, 0,025
mm/y[84] .
: , ,
0,025 mm/y. , ,
(5 %)[84]
. Nb [HxNb6O19](8-x)- x =
0,1,2,3[87] .
: 3 % 20C 100C,
[2] .
, [84] .

Nb
100C Br[84] ,
(V)[88] :
2Nb + 52 2Nb5 = F, Cl, Br, I.
Nb (3) 300C, ,
, [2] .
200C,
(CO) 800C, (CO2) 400C[2] .
(SO2) 100C[84] .
: >
400C, > 600C, > 850C, > 950
> 1000C[2] . (IV),
NbS2[59] :
Nb + 2S NbS2
408

,
.

, , ,
, , , ,
..[89] .
[90] :
xM + yH2O MxOy + yH2
, Nb, :
2Nb + 5H2O Nb2O5 + 5H2
, ,
( ).

. T
. , 6-7 nm
[90] . ,
, [91] .
, 93Nb.[5] . 2003
32 81 113.
92
Nb 34,7 . . 113Nb,
30 ms. 93Nb +-
-- . 91Nb
92Nb +- --[5] .
25 84 104.
96Nb, 101Nb, 103Nb . 93mNb
16,13 84mNb 103 ns.
- 92m1Nb,
[5] .
409
Nb[86]

NbCl5
NbBr5
Nb2O5
NbCl4
NbO2
NbI3
NbO
NbI4
( )

,
. ,
[77] .
,
(V).
. Nb
.
.
Nb -3 .. [Nb(CO)5]3-, -1 .. [Nb(CO)6]-, +1 ..
[(C5H5)Nb(CO)4], +2 .. NbO, +3 .. NbBr3, +4 .. NbCl4, +5 .. Nb2O5.
+5. Nb+2 Nb+3 [86] .
NbO, NbO2, b23 Nb2O5

Nb3n+1O8n-2 (n=5-8).
(V) : Nb2O5
[78]
.
..
-
- 800-850C[82]
850C
-[92] .
Nb2O5
HF

HNbF6[58] .
Nb2O5 . ,
Nb2O5nH2O, [80]
HF[58] . ,
, NbCxNy x+y1[93] . To Nb25
x [2] .
: NbO2 (
NbO1,94-NbO2,09) .
Nb2O3 1780C[80] . Nb2O5
, NbO, Nb0,75O0,75,
[86] . NbO
410
Nb Nb2O5 Nb 2 [94]
-, [80] .
:
NbX5 (F, Cl, Br, I)

.
,
[86] .

(V) : NbCl5 ,
Lewis Friedel-Crafts.

Nb,Fe,Al,Cd,H2
Nb [80] . ../..
203,4C/247,4C.
(V) : NbBr5 NbI5
. NbBr5 ../..
254C/365C.
NbCl5

(V) : NbF5
[95] . (NbF5)4
[94] . ../.. 79C/234C.
[NbF6]-, [NbF7]2-, [NbOF5]3-
[80] .
: Nb NbX4 NbCl4
[80] , NbBr4 NbI4 .
: Nb +3,
, ' .. NbF3,
NbCl3, NbBr3, NbI3. d1 .
Nb6F15, Nb3X8 (X=Cl,Br,I), Nb6X14 (X=Cl,Br), Nb6I11 .. NbX2
NbX, .. NbCl2(PMe3)4
NbCl(CO)3(PMe3)3 Me==CH3-[86] . ,
Nb-Nb .
, B, C, N, As, S, Se, Te, Ge

: 300-400C NbH,
NbH2[86] . ,
() NbHx (0 < x 1) .. NbH0,9
14
- [80] . ,
.
, "
"[88] .
: -NbB2
, 6,79 g/cm3, 2900C

1200C Nb5Si3[93] . : -NbB
, 7,57 g/cm3, 2270-2917C
[2] Nb3B2, Nb2B4
[80] .
: [96] Nb, 9,18 [80]
Nb2C ( , -Nb2C 2500C -Nb2C)
NbC. NbC0,70 NbC0,99.
7,79 g/cm3 7,85 g/cm3 . Nb2C 3080C,
NbC 3600C .
NbN.
, (Ta,W,Co,Ti)([80] , NbC
[10]
11 [97] .
: , NbN ,
7,3 g/cm3 ( 8,47 g/cm3[2] ) 2575C.

[96] . 15,2 . NbN
NbC NbO.
C .
Nb(C,N,O)[96] .
Nb4N5 Nb5N6[92] .
: Nb4As3
Nb6As[98] . , Nb3As
, Ti3P[93] . [NbAs4]
[99] M9Nb2As6 (=Cs,), K38Nb7As24, Cs4Na3NbAs4 ..
Zintl[100] .
: S, Se Te.
NbX2 Nb3X4 X=S,Se,Te, NbX3 X=S,Se NbTe4.
[101] . NbS2 ,
5,29 g/cm3 2160C[2] , 6,2 [97]
[10] .
: NbSe3 NbSe6
Nb[102] .
[103] .
: () Nb NbMTe2 (M=Fe,Co,Ni)
NbMTe5 (M=Ni,Pd), ,
[101] .
: Nb3Ge2
Nb10Ge7[98] .

Nb(V) : 6-, 7-, 8-,
[Nb(NMe2)5] (Me=CH3-) [NbOCl4]-[88]
. ( Lewis) , bF5,
Cs[NbF6], K2[NbF7], Na3[NbF8][88] . Na Al
, cluster Nb6Cl14, Nb6I14, Nb6F15
[Nb6X12]n+ n=2,3,4 NbNb[78] .
411
412
Nb5+ [Nb(H2O)(O)F4]-,
[Nb(SCH2CH2S)3]-, [Nb(H2O)2(O)(ox)2]-
[Nb(n2-O2)4]3-[88] .
Nb(IV) : Nb4+ 6, 7 8
Lewis N-, P-, As- ,O- S-
. K3[NbF7], [Nb(ox)4]4-[88] [Nb(CN)8]4-.
Nb(I) : K5[Nb(CN)8] 22
K4[Nb(CN)8]2H2O .
M5[Nb(CN)8] =Na,K
[93] .
: , (C5H5)4Nb2,
Nb-Nb Nb C5H5-.
Nb(IV) Nb-Nb [98] .
(Cp)2M
Cp=C5H5- +2.
, (C5H5)2Fe.
.. (C5H5)2NbH3,
(C5H5)2NbH2BH2, (C5H5)2NbHC2H2, (C5H5)2NbC3H4 .. [104] .
: [Nb(CO)5]3,
[Nb(CO)6] ( )
[Nb(PF3)6][105] .
:
- M3[Nb(-O-O-)4] M=K,Rb,Cs,NH4+ [92] .
Nb(NCS)4(bipy)2 bipy=2,2'-=(C5H4N)2
( , bidentate, . ),
bipy . ligand
M(A-A)2B4[93] .
[Ph4As][Nb(cot)3] Ph = = C6H5- cot = = C8H8
cot
Nb[93]
- HSLA

( )[25]
2007
2008
2009
34.612 25.403 25.410
4.337
4.385
3.960
80
80
79
() 39.000 29.900 29.400
- (FeNb)
C, P, N, P, Pb ..

(ferroniobium, FeNb) 65 % .
FeNb 2.400C (
413
[60] ). FeNb
8,1 g/cm3. 1580C 1630C
. FeNb,
, [63] ( % .., % w/w) : Nb 66,5 %, Fe 30 %, P 0.08 %, S
0.06 %, C 0.08 % Pb 0.04 % Si+Al+Ti 3 %. FeNb
, 1-50 mm.
"high-strength low-alloy
steels" (. HSLA)
/
. HSLA .
( 0,05 % 0,25 %). 2
% , , , , , , ,
, " "
(microalloyed steels)[4] .
-
, [106] .
[107] ,
A588, A633, A656, A699 .. 0,1 % [4] , 0,03-0,06 %[43] .
-

Nb.
( ) [27] .
Nb ,
95Zr-95Nb
[27] .

, , .
Nb
. 95Nb 5 %
1 %[26] .
(V) (20 mg Nb/Kg)
[108] . , LD50 (7 )[109]
86 92 mg/Kg 13 mg/Kg .
, LD50 (V) 940 mg/Kg [27]
725 mg/Kg [108] .
Nb
. NbCl5 ,
.
( ) 4 [27] .
NbN 40 mg/m3 ,
, .
Nb2O5 [27] .
Nb : 510-6 mg/mL,
0,07 ppm, 0,14 ppm 70 Kg 1,5 mg[110]
,
' [111] .

,
,
.
.

[27] .
Nb ,
, . ,
[27] .

. 62.900
2009, 90 %
" "
. Nb

[25] .
, , Nb

1 mm
.
, ,
[64] . Nb, 1,
Nb 2
-[64] .
,
, , .
, Nb3Sn, Nb3Ge, Nb3Al ..,
, .
Nb-Ti
[58] .
, ,
.
.
Nb , ,
Curie .
, ,
[58] .
414
- HSLA
FeNb
(30%), HSLA (22%), (14%) (13%).
70 % FeNb[112] .
FeNb ,
[113] ,
. , [27] .

. HSLA
:

resund resund

[114]
HSLA
. '

, ,
, ...[4] .
, , ,
[112] .
, , , [115] .
, , , , ...

To

.
, ,

.
[116] :
, .. Nb-1Zr, ..
C-103, C-129Y , .. Cb-752,
WC-3009, FS-85[117] . ,

Apollo 15

Nb-Ti.
[118] .
Nb-1Zr Nb
Nb .
980C 1200C[116] .
875925C[118] .
C-103 ( Nb-Hf-Ti) Nb-1Zr
' .
415

1480C[116] . C-103
Titan C-III
Apollo NASA[119] .
C-129Y
(
Nb-Hf-W-Y[120]
)

.

[116] .
C-103 ...
Cb-752 Nb-W-Zr[118] , WC-3009
Nb-Hf-W FS-85
Nb-Ta-W-Zr[120] .

.
Inconel 718 34 %
(superalloys)
CF6 General
[114]
, -
Electric

540C.
650C[120] .. , , ,
,
.. Inconel 718[121] Ni. Inconel 718
Nb+Ta 4,75 -5,50 %[122] ..
, , ,
.
[122] .

, ,
.
.
[123] . NaOH
[124] .
416

- (Nb3Ge), - (Nb3Sn)
-
[125] [126] .

,
(NMR)
[127] . ,
(LHC) CERN 600
,

, 600
Nb
Nb3Sn 250 NbTi[128] .

TESLA . ,
NbN
THz (1 THz = 1012 Hz).
Heinrich Hertz ..., (South Pole) , ..

.
[129] . , Nb ,
.
(LiNbO3) ABO3 ( ,
) (LiTaO3) (BaTiO3)[130] .
.
,
.
, ,
, ,
[131] .

, , ,
'
[91] . Nb
.
, .
, - 2003.
'
. 17,15 g 34 mm
2004, 2007 2010
(, , ) [132] .
417
(2006)
.
25
7,15 g
Nb.
418
(2008) .

25
6,5 g Nb.
(2009) 2009 .

25
6,5 g Nb.
(2010)
.
25
6,5 g
Nb.
ISBN 978-3-540-44376-6. .
[3] WolframAlpha : Niobium (http:/ / www. wolframalpha. com/ input/ ?i=Nb)
[4] American Society for Metals (1993). ASM metals reference book (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=9ohkDUryVZ0C&
printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_ge_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage& q& f=false) (3 ). ASM International. ISBN 0871704781. .
1/4/2011.
[5] Georges, Audi (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data Center) 729:
3128. doi: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. nuclphysa. 2003. 11. 001).
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rsnr. royalsocietypublishing. org/ content/ 57/ 3/ 299. full. pdf+ html) (PDF). Notes and Records of the Royal Society 57 (3): 299-316. .
30/3/2011.
[7] Sir Hans Sloane

[8] Per Enghag (2004). John Wiley and Sons. ed. Encyclopedia of the elements: technical data, history, processing, applications (http:/ / books.
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978-3-527-30666-4. .
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"
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[17] Kobell, Fr. V. (1860). "Ueber eine eigenthmliche Sure, Diansure, in der Gruppe der Tantal- und Niob- verbindungen". Journal fr
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[20] Clvis Antonio de Faria Sousa (PDF). THE EVOLUTION OF FeNb MANUFACTURING (http:/ / www. cbmm. com. br/ portug/ sources/
techlib/ science_techno/ table_content/ sub_1/ images/ pdfs/ 006. pdf). CBMM - Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Minerao. .
11/5/2011.
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. , , , , , ,
PGM
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d-block& hl=el& ei=DxFoTI_UBaWX4gatrZWZBA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q& f=false). New Delhi : Discovery Publ. House. ISBN 8183562426. .
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424
425
Cr
Mo
(Mo)
()
42
, ,
6 ,5, d

(A )
95,94 g/mol
[Kr] 5s1 4d5
CAS
7439-98-7
139 pm
1545 pm
2,16 ( Pauling)
6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, -1, -2
426

1: 684,3 kJ / mol
2: 1560 kJ / mol
3: 2618 kJ / mol

2623 C
4639 C
10,28 g/cm3
(25 C) 24.06 J/mol
(20 C) 53.4 n/m
(27 C) 138 W/m
Mohs
5,5
Vickers
1530 MPa
Brinell
1500 MPa

(Bulk modulus)
230 GPa
Poison
0.31
(25C, 1
Atm)

42 95,94 .
2617 C 4612 C.
. (MoS2),
.
( .
(Carl Wilhelm Scheele ), 1778, ,
1782, (Peter Jacob Hjelm) .[1]
, .
(
): :
2MoS2 + 7O2 2MoO3 + 4SO2
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((NH4)2[MO4]). , ,
, .[2]

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, MoCl2, MoCl3, MoCl4, MoCl5 MoCl6). , ,
, MoO (), MoO2 () MoO3 (),
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.
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427
428
Mn
Tc
Re
(Tc)
()
43
, ,
7 ,5, d

(A )
98,9062 g/mol
[Kr] 4d5 5s2
CAS
7440-26-8
136 pm
1477 pm
1,9 ( Pauling)
+7, +6, +5, +4, +3, +2, +1, -1, -3
429

1: 702 kJ / mol
2: 1470 kJ / mol
3: 2850 kJ / mol

2157 C
4265 C
11 g/cm3
(25 C) 24,27 J/mol
69,10m
(300 K), 50,6 W/m
( ) (20 C) 16.200 m / s
(25C, 1 Atm)

43 98,9062 .
220050C 4877C.
. .
, .
, 10-10 .
1937
.
. .
, 97Tc 2.600.000 ,
.

( , ).
{ , ), .
( = 2,735 , c =
4,391 ).

.
-3 +7.
. +7.
Tc2O7 TcO2,
( X ) TcX6, TcX5 TcX4.
TcO3F TcO3Cl.
Tc2S7 TcS2. , HTcO4
MTcO4 ( M ).

, .
. ,
, , .
- , ISBN
960-524-026-2
- . , ISBN 960-531-021-1
Live - Pedia, [1]
[1] http:/ / www. livepedia. gr/ index. php/ %CE%A4%CE%B5%CF%87%CE%BD%CE%AE%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BF
430
431
Ru
(Ru)
()
44
, ,
8 ,5, d

(A )
101,07
[Kr] 4d75s1
EINECS
231-127-1
CAS
7440-18-8
134 pm
1467 pm
2,3
432

+2, +3, +4
1: 710,2 J/mol
2: 1620 J/mol
3: 2747 J/mol

2334C (4233F) (2607 K)
4150C (7502F) (4423 K)
12,45 g/cm3
38,59 KJ/mol
591,6 KJ/mol
24,06 J/molK
74,27 nm
13,46 MS/m
(27C) 117 W/(mK)
Mohs
6,5
Brinell
2160 MPa

(Young's modulus)
447 GPa

(Shear modulus)
173 GPa

(Bulk modulus)
220 GPa
Poison
0,30
(20C) 5970 m/s
(25C, 1
Atm)

( : ruthenium) 44
101,07. "Ru" 8 ,
5 d-block. 2334C 4150C[1] .
, " ", PGM, Platinum Group Metals.

433
H
Li
He
Be
Na Mg
Al
Si
Cl Ar
As
Se Br Kr
Ca Sc
Rb Sr
Ti
Cr Mn Fe
Co
Ni
Cu Zn Ga Ge
Zr Nb Mo Tc
Ru Rh
Pd Ag Cd In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hf Ta W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au Hg Tl
Pb
Bi
Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac **
Rf Db Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cs Ba La
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
** Th Pa
Ne
Xe
Platinum group metals (PGM)
, , , , ,
.
PGM
.
PGM , 1844
(Karl Claus) , , (Russia),
.
1828

,
, .
.
: 96Ru, 98Ru, 99Ru, 100Ru, 101Ru, 102Ru 104Ru.

16 .
18
, ,
19 [2] . 1828,

[3] . ,
.
Jdrzej niadecki, 1807,
44. "Vesta"
. ,
, . niadecki,
, [4] .
(Jns Jakob Berzelius),
(Gottfried
Wilhelm Osann) ' 1827[5] .
434
. Berzelius
, Osann , (pluranium),
(ruthenium) (polinium). ,
[6] .
1844, ( ) (Karl Ernst
Claus Karl Karlovich Klaus) (1796-1864)
Osann
[2] . Claus 6
( )
,
[6] . Claus
,
.
,
Karl Ernst Claus
. , Demidov
5000 [6] . Claus
Berzelius,
.
"" (Ruthenia), (Rus),
, , ,
. Osann 1828.
Claus[6] :
I named the new body, in honour of my Motherland, ruthenium. I had every right to call it by this name
because Mr. Osann relinquished his ruthenium and the word does not yet exist in chemistry.
( , , . . Osann
() )
- -
74o ,
. 12 , 5000
[7] .
Ru
[8]

ppb
ppb

0,05
0,06
830
160
0,2
0,0007
0,00004

PGM , ,
, , .
, RuS2 FeS2[9] .
PGM , :
11 % Ru,
2 % Ru[10] .

.
-
PGM
. , , 3 g /tn.
(), 0,2 g Pt/tn.
PGM .
.
,
, ,
. ' ,
4 7 [11] . ,
" ",
PGM, ,
. 100 1000
. .
- ,
,
, . ,
1400 ,
.
1500C ,
.
. ,
Stillwater ... 850.000 ,
15,5 PGM[12]
, 100 /,
1600C
, , "" (matte) PGM
. matte , ,
, PGM.
-
, ,
.
,
,
, [13] .

435

.
Ru [14] [8] : (Au) /
(Ag) .
(Pt), (Pd) Au. . (Ru), (Os),
(Rh), (Ir) Ag .
(Pb) (HNO3) Ag Pb
(AgNO3) (Pb(NO3)2). Ru, Os,
Rh, Ir. (aHSO4) ,
(), Rh2(SO)3, (Ru, Os, Ir) ,
(Na2O2) IrO2
Ru Os RuO42- OsO42 .
RuO4 OsO4. (VIII), RuO4, , HCl,
, H3RuCl6 Ru NH4Cl
, (NH4)3RuCl6 Ru
100C : 2(NH4)3RuCl6 + 3H2 2Ru + 6NH4Cl
+ 6HCl.

235U 63,44
Ru
.
3 %
, 1
1,9
Kg Ru[16] . 103Ru (
39 ) 106Ru (
373 )
. ,
[15]
MBq
/g PGM

. Ru. Pd
, Rh .
10
.
Ru ,
[17] .

8:00 ( ) 24 2011 140 /[18]
.
, .
99,9 %[19] 1992 2005 56 /.
2006 ' 180 / 2008
365 /. 2009
7 2011 180 / 2006.
436
437
Ru ( PGM Ir, Os, Rh)

Ru
.
,
.

.
,
.

-272,66C
- -262C[20] .

.

: 2315C 10-5 Atm
1 Atm 4115C.

Ru,
= 270,59 pm
c = 428,15 pm
4
( Os, Ir, Re).

,
PGM[21] .

Ru .
, ,
65 %[21] .

() 99,99%.
.
18
3 PGM (
)[22] .
' ( ) .
d
.
Rh
.
438
.
d-block ( d diffuse
)[23] .
( KJ/mol) Ru+ Ru9+

Ru, "" :

(KJ/mol)
Ru - Ru+
711
Ru+ - Ru2+
1617
Ru2+ - Ru3+
2747
Ru3+ - Ru4+
4500
Ru4+ - Ru5+
6100
Ru5+ - Ru6+
7800
Ru6+ - Ru7+
9600
Ru7+ - Ru8+
11500
Ru8+ - Ru9+
18700
Ru8+ - Ru9+
20900
|+
0 (V)
Ru2+ + 2e- Ru
+0,45
RuCl5- + 2e- Ru2+ + 5Cl-
+0,3
RuCl3 + 3e- Ru + 3Cl-
+0,68
RuO2 + 4H+ + 4e- Ru + 2H2O +0,79

RuO4- + e- RuO42-
+0,59
RuO4 + e- RuO4-
+1,00
|+
439

()
26
2, 8, 14, 2
44
2, 8, 18, 15, 1
76
2, 8, 18, 32, 14, 2
108
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2
'
,
: Ru2+ +
2e- Ru (+ 0,45 V)

,

(. )
.
,

Ru
.
800C
Ru(VIII), RuO4[24] .
, Lewis . Ru

[24]
0,15 % - 0.25 % w/w.

, ,
. (KClO3)
, [24] .

Ru NaOH 350C : , 7,20 mg
Ru/cm2 PGM[21] .

(NaOCl),
100C.
(Na2O2) 336 mg Ru/cm2
350C PGM.
(CN) 700C ,
16,80 mg Ru/cm2 , (Na2CO3) 920C
8,90 mg/cm2 .
(KHSO4) 5,05 mg Ru/cm2
440C[21] .
440

Ru 2 - (IV)[25] , RuO2 :
Ru + O2 RuO2

. , Ru [25] :
- (), RuBr3, Ru Br2 450C
20 Atm[26] :
2Ru + 3Br2 2RuBr3
(V), RuF5, F2 Ru
297C[26] :
2Ru + 5F2 2RuF5
(), RuCl3.xH2O, (), RuI3,
(IV) (VI), RuF4 RuF6 (IV), RuCl4,
Ru[25] .
7 34
(.
) 106Ru, 103Ru 97Ru.
17 5 , 95Ru
105Ru. , 102Ru, -
102c +- 102Rh.
- -
, ,
- [27] .
, [28]
,
. (VIII), RuO4, ,
, .

: -2
+8. Ru +2, +3, +4.
.
441
[25]

RuCl2
RuBr3
RuI2
RuF3
RuF4
RuF5
( )

,
. ,
[23] .
Ru+3 Ru+4
, "
:

() RuCl3
()
RuI3
() RuBr3
() RuF3
|+ Ru+3
(IV)
RuO2
(IV)
RuF4
(IV)
RuCl4
(IV)
RuS2
(IV) RuTe2
(IV)
RuSe2
|+ Ru+4
(C5H5)2Ru
RuCl(PPh3)2(C5H5)
RuO2
Ru3(CO)12
442
Ru

2
Na2[Ru(CO)4]
0
Ru(CO)5
+1
RuF
+2
RuCl2
+3
RuCl3
+4
RuO2
+5
[RuF5]4
+6
K2RuO4
+7
KRuO4
+8
RuO4
Ru :
(), RuCl3. , - ( ) - (
). " ()", RuCl3.xH2O ( x=3)

- Ru() Ru(II)[26] .
. Ru(VIII), RuO4.
(+8)
, . ,
[26] . Ru(III), Ru2O3, .

To C-Ru.
. Ru ,
Ru
. 1960
1970. , ,
, . Ru
[29] .
:
(Ruthenium blues). Claus
1846[25] . cluster[30] (Cl3Ru(-Cl)3Ru(-Cl)3RuCl3)4- Ru
2 2,5.
.
(Ruthenium red), [Ru3O2(NH3)14]Cl6.42[25] . ,
Ru3+ Ru+4. , [Ru3O2(NH3)14]7+.
, .

[31] . ,
-, Ru(CO)5, -, Ru2(CO)9
- Ru3(CO)12[32]

Ru [25] .
, (C5H5)2Ru. sandwich[33]
.
1952 [34] .
Creutz[35] -Taube[36] , [(NH3)5Ru(pyrazine)Ru(NH3)5]n+
sandwich
n=5. n = 4 (
Ru = +2) n = 6 (
Ru = +3). Creutz-Taube,
Ru +2 +3. Ru [26] .
(Grubbs) 1 2

[26] .
1990 (Bob Grubbs)[37] ,
Ru ,
. ,
ligands (
PR3 R = , , , ). ,
Grabbs 1
'
.
.
. ligand[32] . Ru
. Ru(NO)L5 ( L5
) .
() (), [Ru(N2)(NH3)5]Cl2[14] .
1965 ligand , 2[32] . 2
2 Cl2 , 3.
2
3[32] . Ru 2
. [Ru(NH3)5-=-Ru(NH3)5]4+.
443
444
Ru
[38]
2006-2007
( )
2006
2007
1272 (75%) 857 (75%)
223 (13%)
101 (9%)
137 (8%)
119 (10%)
54 (4%)
67 (6%)
1686
1144
.
( Grubbs),
,
, , .
, ,
, ,
.
,
.
.
, ,
.
Ru. 0,1 % ,
. Ti-Ru
, ,
.

, .
EPM-102 ( 3 % Ru) TMS-162
( 6 % Ru)[39] .

, [40] .
,
, ,
. , 1944 , "Parker 51"
"RU" 14 96,2 % 3,8 % [41] .
-

, NAMI-A KP1019,

[42] . " ",
, ,
1961 [43] .
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[2] Mary Elvira Weeks (1933). Discovery of the Elements (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=SJIk9BPdNWcC& pg=PA99& dq=The+
discovery+ of+ the+ elements. + VIII. + The+ platinum+ metals& cd=1#v=onepage& q=The discovery of the elements. VIII. The platinum
metals& f=false). Easton. .99-116. .
[3] Raub, Christoph J. (2004). The Minting of Platinum Roubles. Part I: History and Current Investigations (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview.
com/ dynamic/ article/ view/ 48-2-066-069). 48. pp. 6669. .
books?id=yb9xTj72vNAC& pg=PA134& dq=The+ Discovery+ of+ Ruthenium& cd=2#v=onepage& q=The Discovery of Ruthenium&
f=false). Greenwood Press. .134. .
[5] "New Metals in the Uralian Platina" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=x57C3yhRPUAC& pg=PA391). The Philosophical Magazine 2:
391392. 1827. .
[6] Pitchkov, V. N. (1996). "The Discovery of Ruthenium" (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/
pmr-v40-i4-181-188). Platinum Metals Review 40 (4): 181188. .
[7] Emsley, J. (2003). "Ruthenium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press.
.368370.
[8] webelements: Ruthenium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ ruthenium/ )
[9] Egon Wiberg,Nils Wiberg,Arnold Frederick Holleman (2001). Inorganic chemistry (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=vEwj1WZKThEC&
pg=PR28& dq=ruthenium+ occurrence& lr=& as_brr=0& cd=23#v=onepage& q=ruthenium & f=false). Academic Press. .1458 - 1471. .
[10] Hartman, H. L.; Britton, S. G., . (1992). SME mining engineering handbook (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=Wm6QMRaX9C4C& pg=PA69). Littleton, Colo.: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. .69. ISBN 9780873351003.
.
[11] United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (http:/ / www. unctad. org/ infocomm/ anglais/ platinum/ chain. htm)
[12] SAVE Tangle Lakes (http:/ / www. savetanglelakes. org/ docs/ PGMuse. pdf)
[13] George, Micheal W.. 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Platinum-Group Metals (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ platinum/
myb1-2006-plati. pdf). United States Geological Survey USGS
[14] .. (1983). . 2. , . .471-487.
[15] Becquerel (Bq) SI. 1 Bq = 1 /s. 1 MBq = 106 Bq
[16] Bush, R. P. (1991). "Recovery of Platinum Group Metals from High Level Radioactive Waste" (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/
pdf/ pmr-v35-i4-202-208. pdf). Platinum Metals Review 35 (4): 202208. .
[17] Kolarik Zdenek, Renard Edouard V. (2005). "Potential Applications of Fission Platinoids in Industry" (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview.
com/ pdf/ 79-90-pmr-apr05. pdf). Platinum Metals Review 49: 79. .
[18] PLATINUM today : Prices Charts (http:/ / www. platinum. matthey. com/ pgm-prices/ price-charts/ )
[19]
[20] C.R.Hammond : THE ELEMENTS (http:/ / www-d0. fnal. gov/ hardware/ cal/ lvps_info/ engineering/ elements. pdf)
[21] The PGM Database (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ jmpgm/ index. jsp)
[22] WolframAlpha : PGM conductivity (http:/ / www. wolframalpha. com/ input/ ?i=Ru,+ Pt,+ Os,+ Ir,+ Rh,+ Pd+ conductivity)
[23] ... . .
[24] Franois Cardarelli (2008). Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=ArsfQZig_9AC&
pg=PA409& dq=history+ of+ ruthenium& cd=8#v=onepage& q=history of ruthenium& f=false). Springer. .409. .
[25] S.A. Cotton (1996). Chemistry of precious metals. Blackie Academic & Professional. .2-75.
[26] Catherine E. Housecroft,A. G. Sharpe (2005). Inorganic chemistry (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=_1gFM51qpAMC& pg=PA697&
dq=Chemistry+ of+ precious+ metals& cd=4#v=onepage& q=ruthenium& f=false). Pearson Education. .671 - 679. .
[27] Inhalation of radionuclides and carcinogenesis (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ energycitations/ product. biblio. jsp?osti_id=4142243)
[28] Food Info : (http:/ / www. food-info. net/ gr/ metal/ ruthenium. htm)
[29] Shunichi Murahashi (2004). Ruthenium in organic synthesis (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=bgaw-z0aNEAC& pg=PA154&
dq=history+ of+ ruthenium& cd=4#v=onepage& q=history of ruthenium& f=false). Wiley - VCH. .154 - 157. .
[30] .
[31] CO
[32] . (1986). . .... .49 - 79.
[33]
ligands ()
445

[34] Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson (1921-1996). . 1973, Ernst Otto
Fischer, " , ,
, "
[35] Carol Creutz. Creutz-Taube
[36] Henry Taube (1915-2005). . 1983
, "
[37] Robert H. Grubbs (1942-). . 2005, Yves Chauvin
Richard R. Schrock, " "
[38] PLATINUM 2008. Published in May 2008 by Johnson Matthey..
[39] Roger C. Reed (2006). The superalloys: fundamentals and applications (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=SIUGcd4a-EkC& pg=PA20&
dq=EPM-102& cd=5#v=onepage& q=ruthenium& f=false). Cambridge University Press. .20 - 26. .
[40] Kuang, Daibin; Ito, Seigo; Wenger, Bernard; Klein, Cedric; Moser, Jacques-E; Humphry-Baker, Robin; Zakeeruddin, Shaik M.; Grtzel,
Michael (2006). "High Molar Extinction Coefficient Heteroleptic Ruthenium Complexes for Thin Film Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells". Journal
of the American Chemical Society 128 (12): 4146. doi: 10.1021/ja058540p (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ja058540p). PMID 16551124 (http:/
/ www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 16551124).
[41] Mottishaw, J. (1999). "Notes from the Nib WorksWhere's the Iridium?" (http:/ / www. nibs. com/ ArticleIndex. html). The PENnant XIII
(2). .
[42] James C. Dabrowiak (2009). Metals in Medicine (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=tBz4PlWW_8YC& pg=PA71& dq=Synthetic+
metallomolecules+ as+ agents+ for+ the+ control+ of+ DNA+ structure& cd=1#v=onepage& q=NAMI-A& f=false). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
.149 - 167. .
[43] Hayat, M. A. (1993). Stains and cytochemical methods (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=oGj7MLioFlQC& pg=PA305). New York,
NY: Plenum Press. .305310. .
1. Cotton S.A. (1997). Chemistry of Precious Metals. New York. ISBN 0751404136.
2. Cardarelli F. (2008). Materials Handbook. Springer. ISBN 9781846286681.
0198503407.
7. Greenwood N. N., Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2 ). Oxford. ISBN 0750633654.
8. Hartman H. L., Britton S. G. (1992). SME Mining engineering handbook, 1. Society for Mining,
Metallurgy, and Exploration. ISBN 9780873351003.
9. Hayat M.A. (1993). Stains and Cytochemical Methods (1 ). Springer. ISBN 9780306442940.
10. Housecroft C.E., Sharpe A. G. (2005). Inorganic chemistry. Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 9780131755536.
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ISBN 9780470864036.
12. Lide D.R. (2004). CRC handbook of chemistry and physics: a ready-reference book of chemical and physical
data. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 0849304857.
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ISBN 0748764208.
14. Miller R. (2004). The elements: what you really want to know. Lerner Publishing Group. ISBN 0761327940.
15. Morrison R. T., Boyd R. N. (1991). 1, 2, 3. . ISBN 0136436692.
16. Murahashi Shunichi (2004). Ruthenium in Organic Synthesis (2 ). Wiley - VCH. ISBN 3527306927.
17. M .. (1994). . , . ISBN 9603432725.
18. M ... . .
446

20. Reed R.C. (2006). The Superalloys : Fundamentals and Applications. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0521859042.
21. T . (2001). . , . ISBN 9789604317547.
Elementymology & Elements Multidict : Ruthenium (http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Ru)
Mineral Species containing Ruthenium (Ru ) (http://www.webmineral.com/chem/Chem-Ru.shtml)

The periodic table of videos (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/044.htm)
Ruthenium images and pictures (http://www.periodictable.com/Elements/044/index.html)
Olefin metathesis : Big-deal reaction (http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/8051/8051olefin.html)
Rob Toreki's Organometallic HyperTextBook : Olefin metathesis (http://www.ilpi.com/organomet/
olmetathesis.html)
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2005 (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2005/index.
html)
447
448
Rh
1 g

,
(Rh)
()
45
, ,
9 ,5, d

(A )
102,90550
[Kr] 4d85s1
EINECS
231-125-0
CAS
7440-16-6
134 pm
1427 pm
2,28
+3
1: 719,7 kJ/mol
2: 1740 J/mol
3: 2997 KJ/mol
449

1964C (3567F) (2237 K)
3695C (6683F) (3968 K)
(20C)12,41 g/cm3
26,59 KJ/mol
494 KJ/mol
24,98 J/molK
49 nm
20,41 MS/m
(27C) 152 W/(mK)
Mohs
6,0
Vickers
1246 MPa
Brinell
1100 MPa

(Young's modulus)
380 GPa

(Shear modulus)
150 GPa

(Bulk modulus)
275 GPa
Poison
0,26
(20C) 4700 m/s
(25C, 1
Atm)

( : Rhdium) 45
102,9055. "Rh" 9 , 5
d-block. 1964C 3695C[1] .
"" "" ,
.
, " ", PGM, Platinum Group Metals
PGE, Platinum Group Elements.

450
H
Li
He
Be
Na Mg
Al
Si
Cl Ar
As
Se Br Kr
Ca Sc
Rb Sr
Ti
Cr Mn Fe
Co
Ni
Cu Zn Ga Ge
Zr Nb Mo Tc
Ru Rh
Pd Ag Cd In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hf Ta W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au Hg Tl
Pb
Bi
Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac **
Rf Db Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cs Ba La
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
** Th Pa
Ne
Xe
, , , , ,
.
1803
. PGM ,
.
- [2]
: 1 Kg 80.000 2010.
, ,

.
.
, 103Rh.
1803[3] (William Hyde

Wollaston), [4] .
, , [5] .
,
, , NH4Cl, ,
(NH4)2PtCl6. , ,
, , .
, . ,

Na3[RhCl6].12H2O[6] . ,
[4] .
O .
- -
, 1820 .
, - .
PGM (Humphry Davy)
1817, [4] . , (The'nard)
-- . ,
451
, , [7] .
1908, (Sir William Crookes) Johnson Matthey
, , . Crookes
, , [4] .
, .
- -
2009
22 (719.000 )
15,5 (542.000
)[8] .
2007
2.470 [9] .
PGM ,
,
,
2007 (25,5 822.000 )
.

,
.
, , PG,
:
Bushveld[10] (> 80%).
7 % Rh[11] .
--PGM (Taimyr) (Noril'sk)
(Monchegorsk) .
3 % Rh[11] . .
(Stillwater) ...
1987[12] .
Rh
[13]

ppb
ppb

0.6
0.007
0.02
180
40
0.70
0.1
(Sudbury) , .
(Hawk Ridge) (Manitoba)[14] .
Sudbury ,
[15] .

(Great Dyke)[10]
PGM ( 8.000 )[16] .
PGM
.
(Choco) ,
(Witatersrant) . .
PGM,
. Rh ""
65 % 90 %.

20 [12] .
PGM .
.
,
, ,
. ' ,
4 7 [17] . ,
" ", PGM,
,
. 100 1000
. .
- ,
,
, . ,
1400 ,
.
1500C ,
.
. ,
15,5 PGM[18]
, 100 /,
1600C
, , "" (matte) PGM
. matte , ,
, PGM.
-
PGM [17] .
,
. :
PGM (Au) / (Ag) .
matte (Pt), (Pd) Au.
. (Ru), (Os), (Rh), (Ir) Ag
452

. (Pb) (HNO3)
Ag Pb (AgNO3) (PbNO3).
Ru, Os, Rh, Ir. (aHSO4)
, (), Rh2(SO4)3[13] , (Ru, Os, Ir)
. (NaOH),
(), Rh(OH)3, (HCl)
, H3RhCl6. (NaNO2) (NH4Cl),
(NH4)3[Rh(NO2)6]. HCl
, (NH4)3RhCl6[19] . ,
1000C : 2(NH4)3RhCl6 + 3H2 2Rh +
6NH4Cl + 6HCl
()

3 % w/w
-235
400 g
. '

102mRh 2,9

20

[20]
MBq
/g PGM

. Ru. Pd
107Pd, Rh

.
2,9
50 %.
, 1 Ci[21]
. , 8,1 Ci/g 5
8 4,1 Ci, 11 2,2
Ci, 14 1,1 Ci, 17 0,55 Ci 20 0,27
Ci/g. 30 , 0,00027 Ci,
.
102mRh ( 3,6810-9 g/Kg
) .
,
,
[22] .
453
454

. 24 2011 8.00 ( ),
1.625 / 52.245 /Kg 37.457 /Kg[23] .
2010 2.645 / 1,6
, 2,4 150 .
1992 2004 940 /, 2005
19 2008 10.100 / [23]
.
2008 ,
3 2009 1.950 /, 2010[23] .
Rh 1992-2009 2010
1992 2009
(/)
2010
Wall Street
' .
' .
455
Rh
= 380,4 pm

. (13
) (19
)[24] , ,
, [25] ,
Ir, ,
PGM.

0,9 [13] .

.

: 2015C 10-5 Atm
1 Atm 3724C.
[26]
, [27] .
-196C.
(Young) Ir Pt Pd.

0C 100C,
145 W/(m.K)[27] .
PGM.

76 % 82 %[27] .
, PGM.

. PGM
Ir . 8
.
' ( ) .
d
.
Rh
.
.
d-block ( d diffuse
)[28] .
( KJ/mol) Rh+ Rh9+
456
[13] Rh,
"" :

(KJ/mol)
Rh - Rh+
720
Rh+ - Rh2+
1744
Rh2+ - Rh3+
2997
Rh3+ - Rh4+
4400
Rh4+ - Rh5+
6500
Rh5+ - Rh6+
8200
Rh6+ - Rh7+
10100
Rh7+ - Rh8+
12200
Rh8+ - Rh9+
14200
Rh8+ - Rh9+
22000
|+
0 (V)
Rh3+ + 3e- Rh
+0.8
RhCl63- + 3e- Rh + 6Cl-
+0.44
RhCl62- + 4e- Rh + 6Cl-
+0.835
Rh2O3 + 6H+ + 6e- 2Rh + 3H2O
+0.87
RhO2 + 4H+ + 6Cl- + e- RhCl63- + 2H2O +1.4

RhO2+ + 2H+ + e- Rh3+ + H2O
+1.40
RhO42- + 6H+ + 2e- RhO2+ + 3H2O
+1.46
|+
457

()
27
2, 8, 15, 2
45
2, 8, 18, 16, 1
77
2, 8, 18, 32, 15, 2
109
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 15, 2
'
,
: Rh3+ +
3e- Rh (+ 0,8 V)

,

(. )
.

,
Rh
.

.
.
[29]
2---[30] .

( , , )
. 100C HBr 60 % H2SO4
96 %[27] .

. (1 , 410C, ,
20 % 100 % 2), 8 cm2 20 - 30 mg
NaOH, , 10
g[27] .

(NaOCl).
(CN) 700C
11 mg Rh/cm2 , (Na2CO3)
920C 0,48 mg/cm2 .
(KHSO4) 440C 11 mg Rh/cm2 [27] .
2
458
300 - 1000C, 2 (),

Rh2O3, 1000C[31] :
4Rh + 3O2 2Rh2O3
(IV), RhO2
400C 900C 2 3500 Atm[31] :
Rh + O2 RhO2
RhO 1000C, Rh2O 1100C.
[31]
Rh 400C 6 Atm :
2Rh + 5F2 2RhF5
(RhF4, RhF6) .
() :
800C :
2Rh + 3Cl2 2RhCl3
45 % HBr/Br2 400C Br2 :
2Rh + 3Br2 2RhBr3 ()
400C :
2Rh + 32 2Rh3 ()
, 103Rh.
101Rh, 102Rh, 102mRh 99Rh 3,3 16,1 .
. ' 1 .
102mRh 101mRh.
103Rh , , '
103Ru -- 103Pd .
- -
, .

[32] . [33] 5 ppm
, .
1993 2008 [34] .
OSHA[35] ,
0,1 mg/m3[36] 0,001 mg/m3[37] ,
8 , 40 .
NIOSH[38] ,
100 mg/m3[39] , 2 mg/m3[40] .
, 30
[36] .

20C.

. .
459
.
(), RhCl3, ,
. LD50[41] RhCl3
Sprague-Dawley 198 mg/ kg 215 mg/kg.
,
[42] .

.

[31]

RhCl3
RhBr3
RhI3
RhF3
RhF4
RhF6
( )

,
. ,
[28] .
Rh+3 Rh+4
, ""
:

() Rh2O3
()
RhCl3
()
RhI3
()
RhBr3
()
RhF3
()
Rh2S3
|+ Rh+3
460
(IV)
RhO2
(V)
RhF4
(IV)
RhS2
(IV)
RhSe2
(IV) RhTe2
|+ Rh+4
RhCl3
Rh2O3
RhO2
Rh4(CO)12
Rh

0
Rh4(CO)12, Rh2(CO)8, Rh8(CO)16
+1
RhCl(PH3)2
+2
Rh2(O2CCH3)4
+3 RhCl3, Rh2O3
+4
RhF4, RhO2
+5
RhF5, Sr3LiRhO6
+6
RhF6
+3
0 ( .. 0 Rh2(PF3)8) +6.
, .
(), Rh2O3 (IV) (RhO2)
(RhO2xH2O). (V) -, Sr3LiRhO6
-, Sr3NaRhO6
.. () , RhCl3, , RhCl3.32[43] ,
(IV), RhF4, (V), RhF5 (VI), RhF6.
Rh(H2O)63+,
(.. RhCl(H2O)52+). Rh(OH)3.3H2O
Na3RhCl6.

(
) .
.
+1, +2, +3 +4
d : d8, d7, d6 d5.
()

trans---()
(), trans-RhCl(CO)((PPh3)2
--()
(), RhH(CO)(PPh3)3.
, (C6H5)3P PPh3),
, [45] .
()[19] .
()
6[19] [46] ..
[RhF6]3-.

0.
[47]
:
[44]
RhH(CO)(Tppts)3

-,
Rh2(CO)8,
.
-
Rh6(CO)16
Rh4(CO)12 -
[45] .
, - ,
Rh2Cl2(C2H4)4, RhCl3.3H2O[31] .
Rh+3 [Rh(NH3)5Cl]Cl2 [31] .
Wilkinson
Wilkinson
()() RhCl(PPh3)3
Ph , C6H5-. Ph3P
[48] .
Wilkinson

-
Wilkinson
,
.. . [19] .
461
462
Monsanto
cis---,
cis-[Rh(CO)2I2]-, , CH3OH, ,
CH3COOH. Monsanto[49] . 99%
3060 Atm 150200C. Monsanto
Cativa[50] ,
. ,

[45] .
Rh
2006-2007 ( )
2006
2007
692 (83%) 696 (81%)
[51]
65 (8%)
64 (7%)
49 (6%)
64 (7%)
9 (1%)
9 (1%)
23 (2%)
23 (3%)
838
856
2006 2007, 80 %[52]

. Rh

(x)

: 2NOx xO2 + N2.
.
2007, 5,7 . 22
, 1/4[52] .
Rh ..
( Monsanto),
[53]
[54] , [55] ..

, .. " "

. "
". ""[56]

"
, Ag2S , H2S
"
.
,
,
[57] .
, , ,
.. , (, , )
. (Guinness Book of World
Records), 1979 K (Paul McCartney)[58]

[59] . , , " " "
" .

. ,
, ,
[60] .
:
[61] ,
. 87 % 13 %
, 1000C - 1650C[62] .
, [63]
.
[64] , - .
Graf von Faber-Castell[65] Caran dAche[66] ,
.

. 1936 Amaldi Fermi
[67]
.
463
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[5] Lide, David R (2004). CRC handbook of chemistry and physics: a ready-reference book of chemical and physical data. Boca Raton: CRC
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/
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.
.
[28] ... . .
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[34] Rhodium Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS) (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh-rtecs/ VI8A61C8. html#W)
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.
[36] Environmental Chemistry (http:/ / environmentalchemistry. com/ yogi/ periodic/ Rh. html#Regulatory)
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owadisp. show_document?p_table=STANDARDS& p_id=9992)
[38] "National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health". " "
... , , , .
[39] NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards : Rhodium (metal fume and insoluble compounds, as Rh) (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ npg/
npgd0544. html)
[40] NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards : Rhodium (soluble compounds, as Rh) (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ npg/ npgd0545. html)
[41] , , LD50,
. LD50
,
.
[42] Robert R. Landolt, Harold W. Berk and Henry T. Russell (April 1972). "Studies on the toxicity of rhodium trichloride in rats and rabbits"
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Pharmacology 21 (4): 589-590. .
[43] ()
[44] : --() ().
Tppts PPh3SO3-Na+
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() , .
[47] . T (1986). . .... .62.
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466
467

s9.html)
Pictures of Rhodium, its minerals and applications (http://periodictable.com/Elements/045/pictures.pr.html)
Mineral Species containing Rhodium (Rh ) (http://www.webmineral.com/chem/Chem-Rh.shtml)
The Periodic Table of Videos : Rhodium (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/045.htm)
KITCO Rhodium Prices Charts (http://www.kitco.com/charts/rhodium.html)
Library of Inorganic Structures : Rh (http://www.3dchem.com/element.asp?selected=Rh)
468
Ni
Pd
Pt
, 99,99%

,
(Pd)
()
46
, ,
10 ,5, d

(A )
106,42
[Kr] 4d10
EINECS
231-115-6
CAS
7440-05-3
140 pm
139 pm
2,20
+3, +4
469

1: 804,4 J/mol
2: 1870 J/mol
3: 3177 J/mol

1554,9C (2830F) (1828,06 K)
2963C (5365F) (3236,16 K)
12,023 g/cm3
16,74 KJ/mol
362 KJ/mol
25,98 J/molK
99,6 nm
75,3 W/(m K)
Mohs
4,75
Vickers
461 MPa
Brinell
37,3 MPa

(Young's modulus)
121 GPa

(Shear modulus)
44 GPa

(Bulk modulus)
180 GPa
Poison
0,39
(20C) 3070 m/s
12 ( ), 43
24, 25, 33
NFPA 704
(25C, 1
Atm)

(palladium) 46
106,42. "Pd". 10, 5 d-block
.
1554,9C
2963C[1] .
1803
"" .
470
, , , , ,
. [2] ,
.
, " ", PGM, Platinum Group Metals.

H
Li
He
Be
Na Mg
Al
Si
Cl Ar
As
Se Br Kr
Ca Sc
Rb Sr
Ti
Cr Mn Fe
Co
Ni
Cu Zn Ga Ge
Zr Nb Mo Tc
Ru Rh
Pd Ag Cd In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hf Ta W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au Hg Tl
Pb
Bi
Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac **
Rf Db Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cs Ba La
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
** Th Pa
Ne
Xe
,
, . ,
.

.
, , , ,
.
102, 104, 105, 106, 108
110.
1803[3] [4] (William Hyde

Wollaston). 1804 "".
" ",
, .

, , 1803,
[3] .

.

1805 [5] .
,
1826[6] .

William Hyde Wollaston
,
(1766-1828)
(NaOH) . ,
(NH4Cl),
. (PdCN)
, Hg(CN)2. .
Pl, 1814 (Jns Jakob
Berzelius) Pa[7] Pd.
1803 - 1821, o 255 302
( 89 % w/w) 47000 [3] ,
-
.
(Royal
Observatory Greenwich)
(Edward Troughton) 1812[3] .
(Norton Johnson), Johnson
Matthey, 1837
80 % 20 % . Pd
[3] .
1840, (Alfred Smee)
" "
[8] .
1866 (Thomas Graham),
, 600
"-"[3] .
19 , Na2[PdCl4]
2[PtCl4], -.
.
( PGMs) 19 .
(Thnard) ,
[3] .
471

20 , [6] : 1924
PGMs , 1930
, 1931 Heraeus Kulzer GmbH [9]

. 1970,
,
.
- -
2007,
,
50% ,
,
...[10]

. ,

, ,
[11] .

[10]
2007
(8585000 )
,
'
.

2008 1.600.000
6.100.000 [12] . Pd
"" 80 %
96 %.
PGM , ,
.
.
PGEs, ,
:
Bushveld PGM.
2,1 96.000 Km2[13] . PGM
32 % Pd[14] .
472
473
Pd
[15]

ppb
ppb

0,02
0,04
670
130
6,3
--PGM (Taimyr) (Norilsk)

(Monchegorsk) . PGM
67 % Pd[14] . [16] .
(Stillwater) ... 2,7
3,14 .
() (Sudbury) . (Hawk
Ridge) , (Manitoba) (Lac des Iles)[17] .
(Great Dyke) . PGM
( 8.000 ) 2,5 [13] .
PGM

. .
(Choco) ,
(Witwatersrand) . .
-

. , 3 7 12
1 (31,135 g)
.

[18] .
, ,[6] ,
, , ,
, " "[19] .
, PGM, ,
.
. ,
1500C, PGM ,
, .
PGM,
.
, 100 /,
1600C
, , "" (matte) PGMs
. matte , ,

, PGMs.
-

PGMs .
,
. :
PGM (Au) /
(Ag) , matte

(AuCl4-) (PtCl62-)

, H2PdCl4.
() AuCl3 () (FeCl2),
,(NH4)2PtCl6,
, NH4Cl. H2PdCl4[20] . Pd
PdCl2(NH3)2 (3)
(HCl). .[15]

(spot)[22]
18
2011
743
/[23] .
20 ,

. 2000,

[21]
/ 1992 2009
PGM 2001

[6] .
956 /. 2001 1090
/. , Ford, '
,
, 1 75
%.[24] .
474
1981
1553,85C.[25] 2004
[26] 1552,95C0,21 K
1554,9C 23
[1]
.
Pd [11] PGMs.

.
, [11] .

( 5s 4d,
Pd,
= 389,07 pm
)
.
[27] PGMs .
: 1721C
10-5 Atm 1 Atm 3234C.
[28]
12 % ' . 28
Vickers [1] . Brinell[29]
308,9 MPa.
. 10%,
598,2 MPa[30] .
774,7 MPa 90%.
-196C[30] .
100 nm (=10-7 m).[11]

Pd 26
0C 100C, 74 W/(m.K) 27C 75.3 W/(m.K),
Pt PGM[30] .
200C (75 W.m-1.K-1) 700C (93 W.m-1.K-1)
,
[30] .

54 % 67 %[30] . ,
, , .

, .
25C (1107 S/m) 24 [1] .
1 % (Te), 1,661107 S/m
475
476
1 % ' (Au) 1,54108 S/m . .

Pd Pd.[30]
' ( ) .
d
. Pd 4s2 2p6 4d9 5s1
4s2 2p6 4d10,
, PGM.
Pd
.
.
d-block ( d diffuse
)[31] .
( KJ/mol) Pd+ Pd10+
Pd,
"" :

(KJ/mol)
Pd - Pd+
804
Pd+ - Pd2+
1870
Pd2+ - Pd3+
3177
Pd3+ - Pd4+
4700
Pd4+ - Pd5+
6300
Pd5+ - Pd6+
8700
Pd6+ - Pd7+
10700
Pd7+ - Pd8+
12700
Pd8+ - Pd9+
15000
Pd9+ - Pd10+
17200
|+
477
0 (V)
Pd2+ + 2e- Pd
+0.987
PdO3 + 2H+ + 2e- PdO2 + H2O
+1.22
PdO2 + H2O + 2e- PdO + 2OH- +0.73

PdO2 + 4H+ + 2e- Pd2+ + 2H2O +1.194
PdCl62- + 2e- PdCl42- + 2Cl-
+1.288
PdCl62- + 4e- Pd + 6Cl-
+0.96
PdBr62- + 2e- PdBr42- + 2Br-
+0.994
Pd(OH)4 + 2e- Pd(OH)2 + 2OH- +0.73

Pd(OH)2 + 2e- Pd + 2OH-
+0.07
|+

()
28
2, 8, 16, 2
46
2, 8, 18, 18
78
2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1
110
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 17, 1
|+ 10

'
,
: Pd2+ +
2e- Pd (+ 0,987 V)

,

(. )
.
,
,
.
Pd

- (Pd-H). . 10-7 10-5 cm,
900 [11] .
, .
478

20C, 40 %,
36 %, 96 %[30] . 100C,
36 %, 60 % 96 %[11] .

"" (PdCl2.2H2O)
. .
[30]
. (1 , 410C,
, 100 % 2), 8 cm2 Pd 3,6 g
NaOH, , 5 g.
25 % 20 % 2, NaOH 8 cm2 Pd 1
410C, 7 g . NaOH 350C
, 1,92 mg Pd/cm2 .
[30]
(NaOCl), (CN)
() (CuCl2), 100C. CN
700C , 320 mg Pd/cm2 , PGM.
(Na2CO3) 920C
1,08 mg/cm2 . (KHSO4) 4,32 mg
Pd/cm2 440C. (Na2O2) 3,6
mg Pd/cm2 350C.
2
2 (PdO)[15] :
2Pd + O2 PdO ()
700C 870C[32] .

Pd [32]
20C,
[30] . 260C Pd Cl2 :
Pd + Cl2 PdCl2 ()
HBr/Br2 500C :
Pd + Br2 PdBr2 ()
PdF3 Pd2+PdF62- :
2Pd + 3F2 2PdF3 ()
PdF3 F2 300C PdF4, Pd4+:
2PdF3 + F2 2PdF4 ( )
[30] , ([F]) 900-1700 Pa
:
Pd + 6[F] PdF6 ( )
PdF6 [32]
Pd 20C.

, ,
10
' . :
C-C.
, .. C=O, OH.
.
.
, .
.

Lindlar[33] .
1952 H. Lindlar (CaCO3)
.
,
, cis-.
Pd
""
CO[34] .

..
(coupling reactions,
)
(Tsuji) (Trost)
[34] . 2010
(Richard Heck, 1931-)
Delaware (Ei-ichi Negishi, 1935-)
Purdue (Akira Suzuki, 1930-)
Pd(PPh3)4
Hokkaido, Nobel
[35] :
Stille ( Kosugi-Migita-Stille)[36] Pd
()(0),
Pd2(dba)3.
A Heck ( Mizoroki - Heck)[34] [37] Pd(PPh3)4, PdCl2
(CH3COO)2Pd .
Tsuji - Trost[38] . Pd(PPh3)4).
A Suzuki ( MiyauraSuzuki)[34] [36] . Pd(PPh3)4.
Hiyama[39] . "" sandwitch
()(), 3-C3H5)2Pd2Cl2
Sonogashira[40] . Pd(PPh3)4 PdCl2(PPh3)2.
Negishi[36] . Pd(PPh3)4 .
Buchwald-Hartwig[41] [39] . Pd2(dba)3.
479
102 (
1.02 %), 104 (11.04 %), 105 (22.33 %), 106 (27.33 %), 108 (26.46 %) 110 (11.72 %). 110Pd
( >61015 )
107Pd 6.5106 . 100Pd, 101Pd 103Pd
(Rh) , 107Pd, 109Pd,
- (Ag) 111Pd, 112Pd
111Cd 112Cd [42] .
- -

. ,
.
,
.
.
, , ,
.
,
. , ,
.
.
, (PdCl2), 0,065 g
[43] , , ,
, . ,
.

Pd.

.
0,4 ppm.
3 ppm.[43]
. PGMs
.
. ,
PGMs (International Platinum Group Metals Association IPA) .
,
[44] .
480
481

[32]

PdCl2
PdF6
PdI2
PdF2
PdF3
PdF4
( )

,
. ,
[31] .
Pd+2 Pd+4 ""
:

()
PdF2
()
PdBr2
()
PdI2
()
PdS
()
PdSe
() PdTe
()
PdO
|+ Pd+2
(V)
PdF4
(V)
PdS2
(V)
PdSe2
(V) PdTe2
(V)
PdO2
|+ Pd+4
+2 +4. -
+3,
Pd +2 +4. ,
+6.
:
, PdHx. Pd .
PdH0,03, PdH0,56. H:Pd = 0,83:1.
482
A2PdH4 ((A = Rb, Cs) A3PdH5 (A = K, Rb, C).[32] .

( ) (), (CH3COO)2Pd.
.. ,
, ,
[32] .
(CH3COOCH=CH2) .

O2.
()
(), PdCl2.
PdCl2 (CH2=CH2)
(, CH3CHO) 19 [34] . ,
PdCl2
. PdCl2
. ,
.

(CO)
PdCl2
Pd.
[20] :
PdCl2 + CO + H2O Pd + CO2 + 2HCl.

[45] .

19 [Pd(NH3)4]PdCl4
(Vauqelin's salt)[32] 1813, ,
, L.N. Vauquelin.
,
10-15 % mole ( )
0.1 % mole ( ). '
, PdSiO, ,
(SiO)[34] .
Pd69(CO)36(PEt3)18 Pd145(CO)x(PEt3)30[34] .
483

0.
PdCl2 Pd(PR3)n P
, n = 2, 3, 4 R
[32]
Bu,
Et,
cy,
Me,
Pr,
bz,
Ph[46]
.
()(0), Pd[P(C6H5)3]4,
Pd(PPh3)4, PdP4,
, [34]
.
Pd(PPh3)4
[PdCl4]2-, (), Wacker

Hoechst-Wacker 95 %
50-130C 3-10 tm[6] . .
.
4 [34] .
Tsuji - Wacker '
PdCl2[47] .
-
Pd
[10]
[12]
2006-2007
-2008
()
2006
2007
2008
4015000 4450000 3793000

(54,2%) (56,8%) (49%)
1205000 1285000 1006330

(16,3%) (16,4%) (13%)
995000
(13,4%)
740000
(9,4%)
619280
(8%)
620000
(8,4%)
635000
(8,1%)
696690
(9%)
440000
(6%)
370000
(4,7%)
50000
(0,7%)
260000
(3,3%)
85000
(1%)
95000
(1,3%)
1625610
[48]
(21%)
7410000 7835000 7741000

( 50 %)
[49] '
. Diesel

Pd Pt[6] . Pd

1970, . 1980
2005 . ,
, ,
,
( , Al2O3).
Pd C-C C-F[50] .

( 15 %) .
,
.
,
.

(MLCC)[49] . ' ,
( Pd Pd-Ag)
. 1990, MLCC
1997 , ,
.

(HIC).
,
. , Ag-Pd.

. HIC.
To Pd ()
. ,
. ,
.

1939
.
,
" "[49] .
' ,
" ", .
2001
[51]
.

2004 .
,
484

, 2005, 21 %
[52] .
Royal Palladium[53]
1800,
. , ,
. ,
, , .

,
[54] . 1980,
Pd .
1996 - 2003, . , 2010
Pd
.
,
.
. ,
, "" .
PGMs [6] .
Pd ,
20 % Pd.
" kinpala"[55] 90 %
.
.
() 103Pd
.
,
[6] .
. , 90 %
. 103Pd
[56] , 125 .
Pd2+
E.coli[57] . ,
Pd2+, E. coli
.
-
2001 ,
. Pd , ,
[6] .
. PdCl2

.

485
486
.
1904,
. '
. 300 mg
. 1968 "" '
PGMs.

, [58]
900 [59] .

[60] . , , Norilsk Nickel
, 2003
[61]
. ,
.

- (TCE, ClHC=CCl2) - (PCE, Cl2C=CCl2)
, .
, , .
,
. ,

[6] .
(> 1 mg/L)[62] , in situ ( )
, , TCE PCE
, :
ClHC=CCl2 + 42 CH3CH3 + 3HCl Cl2C=CCl2 + 5H2 CH3CH3 + 4HCl.
99 %.
1,1,1-, 1,2- ,
[62] .
'
To
ISO 4217.
"" ,
1966 5
[63] . ,

, , , , ,
, ... ..
.
Pd () , 25
'. 31,1 g
31/8/1989 12.000 .
, ,
[64] 100 nm.

,

. 70
. (
) 1800

1910
[6] .
Pd 1917.

1885
1970.
Robert Louis Stevenson. :
36,90 x 29,20 cm.

.

"" .[65] .
-

, ()[66] ,
[67] ,
CD player, .
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[2] (troy ounce) . 1 = 31,1035 g 1 g =
32,1507 troy oz
[3] W. P. Griffith (2003). "Rhodium and Palladium - Events Surrounding Its Discovery" (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/
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. .
[5] William Hyde Wollaston (January 1, 1805). "On the Discovery of Palladium; With Observations on Other Substances Found with Platina"
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the reduction of the metals (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=wUmRI_7XWvgC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Elements+ of+
electro-metallurgy+ by+ Alfred+ Smee& source=gbs_similarbooks_s& cad=1#v=onepage& q=palladiating& f=false). London : E. Palmer and
Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Longman. .xxv. .
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16/6/2010.
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. .110-136. .
487

.
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(http:/ / users. uoa. gr/ ~econom/ pdf/ PGE. pdf). , & . .
16/6/2010.
[18] Stillwater Mining Company (http:/ / www. stillwatermining. com/ )
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[20] .. (1983). . 2. , . .474.
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[22] spot , .
, () ("")
[23] Live Palladium Price (http:/ / www. taxfreegold. co. uk/ palladiumpricesusdollars. html)
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)
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content/ l41m0474t18t2x58/ ). International Journal of Thermophysics (Springer etherlands) 2: 63-70. .
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melting point of palladium" (http:/ / iopscience. iop. org/ 0026-1394/ 41/ 1/ 007/ ). Metrologia 41. .
[27] .
.
.
[29] Brinell .
[30] The PGM database (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ jmpgm/ index. jsp)
[31] ... . .
[32] Cotton S.A., "Chemistry of Precious Metals", New York, 1997
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Wiley & Sons. .564-567. .
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[45] .. (1986). . University studio press. .242.
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(C6H5CH2-), Ph= (C6H5-)
[47] Jiro Tsuji, Hideo Nagashima, and Hisao Nemoto (1984). "A general synthetic method for the preparation of methyl ketones from terminal
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ots=xoyq61OGA-& sig=dP4K5_uLKQzh0LvZTPJBa7DJRvk& hl=el& ei=qXzgS_ywONT2OeusrcAI& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result&
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MEM_031120. pdf). Mining environmental management. 2003. .
[62] Ms. Carmen Lebrn (2010). "In-Situ Catalytic Groundwater Treatment Using Palladium Catalysts and Horizontal Flow Treatment Wells
(ER-0012)" (http:/ / www. estcp. org/ Technology/ ER-0012-VFS. cfm). Environmental Security Technology Certification Program. .
[63] List of all Palladium coins (1966-2010) (http:/ / www. rene-finn. de/ English/ palladiumtabeng. html)
[64] Palladium Leaf (http:/ / www. theodoregray. com/ PeriodicTable/ Samples/ 046. 6/ index. s12. html). Theodore Gray
[65] Ware, Mike (2005). "Photography in Platinum and Palladium" (http:/ / www. ingentaconnect. com/ content/ matthey/ pmr/ 2005/ 00000049/
00000004/
art00009?token=00691e37351c78214488286b64277b6876275045416762492673655d375c6b687b76504c486625252c2a7b2f7c3f42763134e1150).
Platinum Metals Review 49: 190-195(6). .
[66] Toff, Nancy (1996). The flute book: a complete guide for students and performers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pCSanDD4CtsC&
pg=PA20). Oxford University Press. .20. ISBN 9780195105025. .
[67] RS Audio Cables, LLC (http:/ / rscables. ipower. com/ page6. html)
1. B .. (1993). . University studio press. ISBN 9789601202259.

3. Crabtree R.H (2005). The Organometallic Chemistry of the Transition Metals (2 ). Yale University, New
Haven, Connecticut. ISBN 471662569.
4. Dyson P.J., Geldbach T.J. (2005). Metal catalysed reactions in ionic liquids (2 ). Springer. ISBN
9781402039140.
6. Gielen M., Tiekink E.R.T. (2005). Metallotherapeutic Drugs and Metal-Based Diagnostic Agents: The Use of
Metals in Medicine (6 ). John Wiley & Sons Ltd. ISBN 9780470864036.
7. Gotthelf P. (2005). Precious metals trading: how to profit from major market moves (6 ). John Wiley &
Sons Ltd. ISBN 9780471711513.
9. Hammond C.R. (2000). The elements. CRC press.

12. Jollie D. (2008). PLATINUM 2008. Johnson Matthey, England.
13. Kotz J. C., Treichel P., Weaver G.. Chemistry and chemical reactivity. Thomson Brooks/Cole. ISBN
053499766X.
ISBN 748764208.
16. M .. (1994). . , . ISBN 9603432725.
17. M ... . .
19. Toff N. (1996). The flute book: a complete guide for students and performers. Oxford University Press. ISBN
9780195105025.
20. Tsuji Jir (2005). Palladium in organic synthesis. Springer. ISBN 9783540239826.
21. T . (2001). . , . ISBN 9789604317547.
Mining Glossary (http://www.platinum.matthey.com/production/mining-glossary/)

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) : Kinetics Database Resources (http://kinetics.nist.gov/
kinetics/rpSearch?cas=7440053)
Chunks, leaf, catalytic converter (http://www.theodoregray.com/periodictabledisplay/Elements/046/index.
s9.html)
Mineral Species containing Palladium (Pd ) (http://www.webmineral.com/chem/Chem-Pd.shtml)
The periodic table of videos (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/046.htm)
Collection of 14 structures for the element Pd (http://www.3dchem.com/element.asp?selected=Pd)
24-hour Spot Chart - Palladium (http://www.kitco.com/charts/livepalladium.html)
The platino-palladiotype process (http://www.alternativephotography.com/process_platino.html)
490
491
Cu
Ag
Au
(Ag)
()
47
, ,
(13) ,2, d

(A )
107.8682 gmol1
[Kr] 4d10 5s1
492
CAS
7440-22-4

144 pm
1,93 (Pauling)
1, 2, 3
1: 731.0 kJmol1
2: 2070 kJmol1
3: 3361 kJmol1

Mohs
2,5
Vickers
251 MPa

(Young's modulus)
83 GPa
(25C, 1
Atm)

Ag ( argentum, *arg-
"" "") 47. , ,
. ,
( ), ,
. ,
, .
,
, , , (' ), . ,
,
.
, .
,
.
1000 oz (~30kg)
(
)

.
, ,

. ' , 13.540

(
).[1] [2]
(HiFi).[3] ,
.
, [4] (
II ) .[5] (
,
.
.
.
,

. +1 (
, : AgNO3) , +2 ( ,
(II): AgF2) +3 (, : K[AgF4])
.
, 107Ag 109Ag, 107Ag

(51.839% ). 107.8682(2) g/mol.[6] [7]
, 105Ag 41.29,
111
Ag 7.45, 112Ag 3.13. ,
108mAg (t1/2 = 418), 110mAg (t1/2 = 249.79) 106mAg (t1/2 =
8.28).
, 3.
93.943 (94Ag) 126.936 (127Ag)[8]
, 107Ag,
. 107Ag
( 46), ( 48).
107Pd 107Ag 6.5 .

107Ag. 107Ag
1978.[9]
10
. 107Pd107Ag

.[10]

. , ,
0,025mg () 100gr 0,006mg.
0,3 1,1mg (10-2 10-4mg).
, .
.
( , ..).
,
493
494
.
. .
.
, ,
.
, , protargol
( . ,
( ,
).
HNO3 AgNO3,
.
,
, .
[1] Nichols, Kenneth D. (1987). The Road to Trinity. Morrow, New York: Morrow.
.42. ISBN 068806910X.

[2] Eastman at Oak Ridge - Dr. Howard Young (http:/ / www. tnengineering. net/
AICHE/ eastman-oakridge-young. htm) ( 2009-06-06 )
[3] Oman, H. (1992). "Not invented here? Check your history". Aerospace and
Electronic Systems Magazine 7 (1): 5153. doi: 10.1109/62.127132 (http://dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1109/ 62. 127132).
Cessna210

[4] WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements; Silver (http:/ / www.

webelements. com/ silver/ ). Webelements.com ( 2009-04-05 )
[5] Edwards, H.W.; Petersen, R.P. (1936). "Reflectivity of evaporated silver films".
Phys. Rev. 9: 871.

[6] Atomic Weights of the Elements 2007 (IUPAC) (http:/ / www. chem. qmul. ac.
uk/ iupac/ AtWt/ index. html) ( 2009-11-11 )

[7] Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements (NIST) (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ Compositions/ stand_alone.
pl?ele=& ascii=html& isotype=some) ( 2009-11-11 )
[8] Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for Silver (NIST) (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ Compositions/ stand_alone. pl?ele=Ag&
ascii=html& isotype=all) ( 2009-11-11 )
107
[9] Kelly, William R.; Wasserburg, G. J. (1978). "Evidence for the existence of Pd in the early solar system". Geophysical Research
Letters 5: 1079. doi: 10.1029/GL005i012p01079 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/GL005i012p01079).
[10] Russell, Sara S. (2001 pages = 19912004). "Origin of Short-Lived Radionuclides" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 3066270).
Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 359 (1787): 1991. doi: 10.1098/rsta.2001.0893 (http://
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rsta. 2001. 0893). .

, Cd
48,
112,41 320C
. ,
( 2),
,
.

1817 .

,

1
400
,
.
(CdO).
. (
), ( ), ...
495
496
In
99,99 %

,
(In)
()
49
, ,
13 (III ) ,5, p

(A )
114,818
[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p1
EINECS
231-180-0
CAS
7440-74-6
167 pm
150 pm
van der Waals
193 pm
1,78
[1]
497

+3
1:558,3 KJ/mol
2:182,7 KJ/mol
3:2704 J/mol

156,6C (313,88F) (429,75 K)
2072C (3762F) (2345 K)
7,31 g/cm3
3,281 KJ/mol
231,8 KJ/mol
[2]
[3]
26,74 J/molK
[4]
(20C) 83,7 nm
(27C) 81,8 W/(mK)
Mohs
1,2
Brinell
8,83 MPa

(Young's modulus)
10,6 GPa

(Shear modulus)
3,68 GPa
Poison
(20C) 0,4498
710 m/s ( )
[5]
2460 m/s ( )
[5]
[5]
[6]
20, 22, 36, 37, 38
26, 36
(25C, 1 Atm)

( : indium) , , , ,
. 49
114,818. "In" 13 (IIIA,
) , 5 p-block. 156,6C
2072C.
498
0,05 ppm[7] .
.
.
. ,
.
[8] .
1863
49 .
(indigo blue, , )
, .
, (Fe++In2S4)
(dzhalindite, In(OH)3). , , ,
[9] .
.
.
, , , , , ,
0,1 %[10] . .
[11] .
.
, , .. 1982 50 [12]
. T 2009 600 [7] .
,

. .
, +1 +3.
+2.
- (Indium Tin
Oxide, ITO)
(LCD) . In
, , , ,
, , ..
.
, [13] .
.
,
, 115In.
113
In
1863, (Ferdinand Reich, 17991882)

,
(Hieronymus Theodor Richter, 18241898) [3]
, '
[14] .
499

, , ,
,
.
,

.
.

451 nm[15] .

,
[16] .
O Ferdinand Reich

" "
indigo _______
[14] .
[3] :
... Es zeigte (sich) keine Thalliumlinie, dagegen eine indigoblauc bisher unbekannte Linie. Nachdem es
gelungen war, den vermutheten Stoff wenn auch bisher nur in usserst geringen Mengen. theils als
Uhiond. theils als Oxydhydrat, theils als Metall darzustellen, erhielten wir,, nach Betinden nach dem
Anfeuchien mit Chlorwasserstoffsure, im Spectroskop die blauc Linie so glanzcnd, scharf und
ausdauernd. dass wir aus ihr auf cm bisher unhekanntcs Metall, das wir Indium nennen m&hten. zu
schliessen nichi ansteh en.
( - .
, , , ,
, .
)
. , ,
, ,
. , ,
- , [16] .
. ,
,
.
, , , ,
. 8000 , 700
[14] .
.
, , , .
38,3
76,6 [17] .
, .
, , , ,
, 38,3 114,9

. , ,
, 114,82. 49
[3] .

. 2,15
, 1 Kg .
1867 , ,

[15] .
1876,
Bergamo .
Krakatoa, 1883[15] .
0,05 ppm[7] [2] [18]

0,072 ppm[3] . 0,001 %
[2] . 0,08 ppm [3] .
10-6 10-7 mg/L[2] [19] .
,
, , , , , , [20] .
, , , .. In3+
Zn2+,
(ZnS) .
, ,
1 ppm 100 ppm.
13 ,
11 ( Cu,
Ag), 12 ( Zn, Cd), 14 ( Sn, Pb)
15 ( Bi)[3] .
In ,
.
,
.
(
) (20 - 220 ppb)
(40 - 200 ppb). ,
, 10 - 60 ppb. 40 ppb 130 ppb,
, , 30 ppb 150 ppb.
70 ppb[21] .

[3] .
500

, ,

, , ,
, -,
skarn[22] [23] .
Cu, Pb, Zn,
Sn, Ag, skarn - 40 ppm In[3] .
8 ppm In. skarn
In 10 ppm[3] .
-
( ,
).

Pleasant New Brunswick
[23] 25
% .

2001

,
Kidd
Zn Cu.

.
[3] Sn, W,
Zn, Cu, Pb, , , In 2
5 ppm.
[3] .
,
.
Kidd ,
Neves-Corvo , Brunswick . 12 New Brunswick Kuroko
. Rammelsberg
1863[23] .

.
.
-,
20 ppm,
, In 5 - 50 ppm[3] .
501
502

(Pb, Cu, Sn, Zn)
,
.
,

, [7] .

.
[24]
Reich Richter. .
, ,
, ,
. ,
.

, , .
.
. ()
,
:
In(OH)3 + 2CH3COOH In(CH3COO)3 + 3H2O
2In(CH3COO)3 + 3H2S In2S3 + 6CH3COOH
, [25] :
In2S3 + 3H2 2In + 3H2S
Winkler. , ,
.
, , , , .

.
, .

.
()[25] :
2In(OH)3 In2O3 + 3H2O
( )
99 % 99,5 %
,
.
[26] .
, , ,
, , ' (), InCl ..
503
In-Pb-Sn 0,1 % 0,2 %

. 0,01 % In
20 .
.
0,1 % [23] .

, [24] :
In2O3 + 3H2 2In + 3H2O
In2O3 + 3C 2In + 3CO
:
In2O3 + 6Na 2In + 3Na2O
Rossler Wolf (InCl3)[24] :
2InCl3 + 3Zn 2In + 3ZnCl2
Schucht
(), In2(SO4)3, , () [25] :
(+) : H2O 2e + 2H+ + 1/2O2
(-): In3+ + 3e In

( )[27]
2005 2006 2007 2008

350
320
310
50
60
70
75
70
55
60
65
45
50
50
45
30
30
30
30
12
12
12
12
10
10
10
10
26
26
26
26
538
588
573
573
300
, , ,
, , .

0,5, 1,0 10 kg.

99,97 % 0,01 % ,
0,001 %
, , ,
[29] .

99,99999 %[27] .

[28]
1972 - 2009
...
1926 1933
. '
[23] ...
1941-1945 7 [28] .
1970,
. M 1986, 50
. 1987 53 1988 106 [28] 2009
600 ,
.
,
50 % .
, , , ,
, , 5 / .
[27] . 1969, ...
[28] .
[30] 1999
5.700 , 10 % ...
20
,
[23] .
Indium Corporation [31],

, 50.000 .
,
[32] . 2008 ( 500 /),
(15000 500
/), 130 [32] .
504

15
,
[33] .
2010
500 550 /
2011 800
/[13] .
1940,
,

, 950
/[34] . 1940
1945,
[28]
1972 2008

[35] .
... 1945 , 72
/[28] , 1963.
1973 - 1980.
. [35] .
1973 57 / 1980 550 /[28] .
1980 - 1986. Three Mile Island ( 1979),
...,
[35] . 1980-82,
1986 84 /[28] .
1986 - 1996.
- (indium-tin oxide, ITO) LCD,
1988[35] . , 300 /[28] .
1995
.
1996 - 2002. ,
[36] . 1998
LCD [35] ,
1/3 . 2002 1984, 97
/[28] .
2002 - 2006. ,
, 946 / 2005, ,
[37]
[38] .
505
506

,
.
[3] . ,

, 325 pm (
)
338 pm ( )[1] .
(156,5985C)[39] , 74
80 ,
( ),
[40] , 43 73
[41] .

, 20 23 70
[42]
. pm. 1 pm = 1012 m

( -150C)[6] .
, 43 48
. 1,2 ( ) Mohs. ,
,
[43] .
m = 10,210-6 cm3/mol[4] .
(7,31 g/cm3), 30 75 ,
. 6,99 g/cm3 1,65 mPa.s[5] .
12 MHz 2215 m/s,
710 m/s 2460 m/s[5] .
-269,74C (3,41 )[44] .

()
5
2, 3
13
2, 8, 3
31
2, 8, 18, 3
49
2, 8, 18, 18, 3
81
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 3
113
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 3
13
( )
p,
p-. p

,
,
[45] .
,
,

IUPAC (poor metals).
In
14 -p

, , , , ,
, , , , 113, 114, 115 116.
, '
.
[45] .
- .
, ,
, , ,
, .
() Bohr ,
. (relativistic
contraction) s , p d
f [46] .
,
, , s
.
(inert pair effect) [46] .
+1.

( KJ/mol) In+ In10+
In,
"" [47] :
507
508
(KJ/mol)
In - In+
558,3
In+ - In2+
1820,6
In2+ - In3+
2704
In3+ - In4+
5200
In4+ - In5+
7400
In5+ - In6+
9500
In6+ - In7+
11700
In7+ - In8+
13900
In8+ - In9+
17200
In9+ - In10+
19700
|+
0 (V)
In3+ + 2e- In+
-0,404
In3+ + 3e- In
-0,345
In(OH)3 + 3e- In + 3OH- -1,0

|+
, In3+ In+
[48] . In3+
[In(H2O)6]3+ [49] :
[In(H2O)6]3+ + 5Cl [InCl5]2 + 6H2O
pH 3 - 4, In(OH)3[50] .
,
"" .
, [51]
(), InO, (), In2O3 :
4In + 3O2 2In2O3
, , 6 ,
120-130C ()[49] ()

:
2In + 6HCl 2InCl3 + 3H2
[52]
[25] :
509
In + 6H2SO4 In2(SO4)3 + 3SO2 + 6H2O
[53] [51] .
InX3 (X = Cl, Br, I)
25C [1] :
2In + 3X2 2InX3
InX (X = Cl, Br, I)
NaCl. 350C[51] :
2In + X2 2InX

.
(flame emission spectroscopy, FES)
451,13 nm (451,1310-9 m) 410,18 nm (410,1810-9 m)
325,61 nm (325,6110-9 m) 303,94 nm (303,9410-9 m)[52] .
(atomic absorption spectroscopy, AAS) 325,61 nm.
,
.
39 97In 135In[54] . '

[55] . , ,
, 113In ( 4,29 %),
( 95,71 %) 115In
, 4,411014 . , -115,
- 115Sn. 111In .

.

, .
[56] .
, ,
. , ,
.

5 mg Kg . ,
, .

. ,
. , (),
In2O3, mg/Kg.
, InAs ,
[56] .
... [57] : NIOSH REL[58] :
TWA[59] 0,1 mg/m3.
510

In
.
. ...
0,2 ppm, 0,01 ppm.
, 2,6 ppm.
0,02 ppm 0,08 ppm,
0,107 ppm 1,92 ppm. , 0,675 ppm.
In ( 4,2 ppm)
[21] .

In .

1 ppm 2 ppm.
,
. , 5 ppm 9 ppm
[21] .
,
30 ppb 710 ppb ( 210 ppb), ( )
, 0,008 ppm 2,1 ppm.
80 ppb 300 ppb.

5s2 5p1 , ,
+3 3 . ,
+3. Al, In +1
5p1 . +2[2]
In24+.
, In(OH)3 InCl3
100C:
InCl3 + 3NH3 + 3H2O In(OH)3 + 3NH4Cl
, (
[60] ).
[In(H2O)6]3+ [In(OH)6]3. 10 MPa 250-400 C
InO(OH)[51] . ()[24] .
511
In2O3 . 2000C,
[2] . In 2, "",
, , [25] .
2In(OH)3 In2O3 + 3H2O
2In(NO3)3 In2O3 + 6NO2 + 3/2O2
In2(CO3)3 In2O3 + 3CO2
In2(SO4)3 In2O3 + 3SO3
(), In2O, n2O3
700C. , .
(), InO, .
In3O4 In2O3 InO,
In2OxnH2O (x = 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).
,
"" , , Lewis[48] . InF3
. InCl3 ,
. InBr3 , InI3 .
InX3D, InX32D InX33D D .
InF . InCl
InCl3/In, NaCl .
InSO3CF3 In(I)[1] .
InX2 (X = Cl, Br, I)
In(I) In(III), I+[InX4]. In2Cl3
In(III) , In3+[InX6]3[61] .
InH

2[51] .
InH3 2004 ,
.
(Cy)3PInH3 (Cy)3PInH3P(Cy)3 Cy = , C6H11.
[1] .
In2H4 -, H2In-InH2 .
, disyl =
CH(SiMe3)2 trisyl = C(SiMe3)3 Me = , CH3, In4(trisyl)4[51] .
(nH3)n n =
[51] .
512
, ,
. In(III) : -In2S3, -In2S3,
-In2S3. InS In24+ 2S2 In +2.
In6S7
In+ In24+ 3In3+ 7S2. n-.
. In2Se3 , , , , [62] . In4Se3
In+ In35+ 3Se2[63] . InSe -InSe -InSe. In6Se7
In+ In24+ 3In3+
7Se2[64]
. In4Te3 In+ In35+ 3Te2[63] . InTe In+
In3+ In+ In3+ 2Te2. In3Te4 [65]
[66] In4Te4 1/4 .
In
In-In. In7Te10 In24+ 12In3+ 20Te2-[67] . In2Te3
- -. In2Te5 -
Te . (2In3+ Te2Te32)n
Te2[68] .
, , ,
InN In2O3 NH3 630C.
InP, InAs, InSb In
,
[51] . ,
[69] . InAs1-xSbx.
.
To InSb
1980 (Ga)
.
, , [69] . :
GaxIn1-xAsySb1-y, GaxIn1-xAs, GaxIn1-xP, GaxIn1-xSb, GaxIn1-xAsyP1-y.
x, y . Ga0,47In0,53As0,24P0,76.

. ' [70] .
. ,
, ,
[29] .
513

(fusible)
150C.
100 ,
(Bi), (Sn), (Pb)
(Cd).
1,45C
1 % In 18 %[71] .
( ), , ,
[72] .
galinstan

[73] . , Bi, Sn
26 % In 78,89C, Bi, Pb, Sn 21 % In 57,78C,
Cd 19,1 % In 47,22C[29] .
76 % Ga - 24 % In, 16C. galinstan,
Ga (gal-), In (-in-) Sn (-stan), 20C
2300C. , .
, 20C[74]

1980
InP. :
M Grignard [1] (R- = , CnH2n+1) . InBr3 + 3RMgBr
R3In + 3MgBr2
M . InCl3 + 3AlR3 InR3 + 3R2AlCl
M 2In + 3R2Hg 2InMe3 + 3Hg
M (X = RO R2N ..) InR3 + HX R2InX + RH

In() [1] [In(acac)3] ( acac
= , C5H7O2) [In(ox)3] 3 ( ox = , C2O42)
cluster [In2Fe6(CO)24]2.
[2] In(I) [In(crown)][InX4]
18--6
[In(cyclam)][InX4]
cyclam
=
1,4,8,11--.
[In(H2O)6]3+ 6
:
[In(H2O)6]3+ [In(H2O)5(OH)]2+ + H+
514
1863,
1930.
... 1926[35] , 1933
. '
,
1950, .
2000 , 50 % 80 %
[32]
, 15 % [70] , .
.
, 111In .
[23] -, In(CH3)3,
-, In(C2H5)3, -, In(C6H5)3, (), InCl2, , In(OH)3,
(), In(NO3)3, In2O3, In2O InO, (), InPO4,
(), In2S3, (), InCl3 (), In2(SO4)3.
(), In2O3,

,

, ,
n-,
,
-
10 nm

[75]
.

[76]
LCD1.
2.
ITO 3.
4. ITO 5.
6.

- (indium tin oxide) ITO

90% w/w In2O3 10 % w/w SnO2[23] .
, ,
.
.
, ,
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InAs, InSb, [69] . '
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[77] .
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.
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.
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.
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.
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.[73] .
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Davidson Instrument Panels Textron

,

[76] .
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[84] .
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[77] .
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A metal alloy that is liquid at room temperature (http://scitoys.com/scitoys/scitoys/thermo/liquid_metal/
liquid_metal.html)
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(A )
126,904 g/mol
[ Kr ] 4d10 5s2 5p6
CAS
7553-56-2
140 pm
~139 pm
van der Waals
198 pm
2,66 ( Pauling)
527

7, 5, 3, 1, -1
1: 1008.4 kJmol1
2: 1845,9 kJmol1
3: 3180 kJmol1

113,7C,
184,3C,
113C, 12,1 kPa
544C, 11,7 MPa
4,93 g/cm
(25C) 54,44 Jmol K
3
-1
-1
(25C, 1
Atm)

53, VII
( 1811
(Bernard Courtois).
,
, , (NaNO3),
(NaIO3)
(NaI),
:
2I- + Cl2 2Cl- + I2
,
, .[1]
.
, () :
Cu2+ + 2 I CuI2
:
2 CuI2 2 CuI + I2
.
, , ,
:[2]
NaI (s) + H2SO4 (l) HI (g) + NaHSO4 (s)
2HI (g) + H2SO4 (l) I2 (g) + SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

, , .
528
.
NaI (s) + HCl (aq) HI (aq) + NaCl(s)
2HI (aq) + H2O2 (aq) I2 (s) + 2H2O (l)

.
53 126,9045, 113,5 C 184
C 35 atm)"
:
, .
37 , 127I.

,
.
.
, , ,
:
CH4 + I2 CH3I + HI

, ,
,
.
, ( )
, , ,
.[3] 131
, , .

. ,
.

.
(I2) .
2-3 .
.
1mg .
,
.
529
,
[1] Jessica Elzea Kogel, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration (U.S.), Nikhil C. Trivedi, James M. Barker, Stanley T. Krukowski,
Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and Uses, SME, 2006 ISBN 0-87335-233-5
[2] Web Elements (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ iodine/ )
[3] Iodine.com (http:/ / www. iodine. com/ methyliodide. htm)

54 131,30 .
-111,9 C
-108,1 C.

1898 .
Xe.
, ,

(0,000008%). 9
.
40 ,
.

.
-135

.
.
, ,
.
"" , 1976, . 58
530

Cs, 55
132,9054 .
28,5 C 678,4 C.
.
1860

.

"caesisus" "
.[1]

, .
33%

.
( ).
.
.
, '
.
,
.
( 28,4 C).
, .
, , .

.
,
,
, ..
.

.

.
, , ,
, :
) : , , ,
) : ,
,
) : .
,
, .. ,
, , , , ,
( ) . 1967,
-133
. .
1990,
. ,
, . -137 30
, o , .
,
.
[1] American Elements.com (http:/ / www. americanelements. com/ csmn. html)
()
,
, .. .
531
56 137,33.
Ba. 725 C 1140 C.
,
, ,
. 850 C ,
.
, .
.

.
, ,

.
, .
532
533
La
Ac
(La)
()
57
, ,
- ,6, f

(A )
138,90547 g/mol
534
[ Xe ] 5d1 6s2
CAS
7439-91-0

187 pm
2078 pm
1,10 ( Pauling)
3, 2
1: 538,1 kJ/mol
2: 1067 kJ/mol
3: 1850,3 kJ/mol

920C
3464C
6,162 g/cm
402,1 kJ/mol
(25C) 27,11 J/mol -1 K
(, poly) 615 nm
(300 K) 13.4 W/m
Mohs
2,5
Vickers
491MPa
Brinell
363MPa

(Young's modulus)
(A ) 27.9 GPa

(Shear modulus)
( ) 0,280
-1
-1
/K
(25C, 1
Atm)

57 138,9055 .
920 C 3469 C. La.
.
( ,
). Mosander 1839 [1] ,
,
.
((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO4), ((Ca, Ce, La,

Y)2(Al, Fe)3(SiO4)3(OH)) ((Ce, La, Y)CO3F)[2]
( 25%) ( 38%).
Mosander ().
Hillebrand-Norton, .
.

,
. , 138La 139La.
( 400 )
.

.
La2O3. , , ,
, , [3] .
.
. ,

.
.
,
, .
[1] . . , , . ,. 771
[2] Mineral Gallery (http:/ / www. galleries. com/ )
535
536

Ce
Th
(Ce)
()
58
, ,
- ,6, f

(A )
140.116 g/mol
[Xe] 4f2 6s2
CAS
7440-45-1
181.8 pm
2049 pm
1,12 ( Pauling)
4, 3, 2
537

1 534,4 kJ/mol
2: 1050 kJ/mol
3: 1949 kJ/mol

795C
3443C
6,770 g/cm3
828 n/m
(300 K) 11,3 W/m
Mohs
2,5
Vickers
270MPa
Brinell
412MPa

(Young's modulus)
( )21.5 GPa
Poison
( )0,24
(20 C) 2100 m/s ( )
-1
-1
(25C, 1
Atm)

58 140,12 .
795 C 3257 C. : Ce
Ce2O3 CeO2
.
.
.

.
1803
, , , .
(1801)
"".
,
, , , ,
. , , . , ,
.
538
, , +3 +4.
, Ce+3
Ce+4. (Ce+4O2)
(Ce+3Cl3),
. , , ,
:
2Ce + 6HCl 2CeCl3 + 3H2 (g)
.
70% 30% (, , ).

, .
"" .
,
:
2CeO2 + 2CO Ce2O3 + 2CO2
, Ce+3
Ce+4 :
2Ce2O3 + O2 4CeO2
, , ""
. , ,
1% ,
.

. ,
.
539

Pr
Pa
(Pr)
()
59
, ,
- ,6, f

(A )
140.90765 g/mol
[ Xe ] 4f3 6s2
CAS
7440-10-0
182 pm
2037 pm
1.13 ( Pauling)
4, 3, 2
540

1: 527 kJ / mol -1
2: 1020 kJ / mol
3: 2086 kJ / mol

935 C
3520 C
6,77 g/cm3
331 kJ/mol
0,700 /m
(27C) 12,5 W / m
Vickers
400a
Brinell
481a

(Young's modulus)
( ) 28,8 GPa
Poison
( ) 0,281
( ) (20 C) 2280 m/s
-1
-1
(25C, 1
Atm)

59
140,9077 . 935 C 3127 C. : Pr
()
. C.A. von Welsbach
1885,
. .
, ,
,
.
Pr4O7 .
541

Nd
,

,
(Nd)
()
60
, ,
- ,6, f

(A )
144,242 g/mol
[ Xe ]4f4 6s2
CAS
7440-00-8
181 pm
2016 pm
1,14 ( Pauling)
542

3, 2
1: 533,1 kJ / mol
2: 1040 kJ/mol
3: 2130 kJ/mol

1024 C
3074 C
7,01 g/cm3
643 n / m
(300 K), 16,5 W / m
Vickers
343MPa
Brinell
265MPa
(Bulk modulus)
31,8 GPa
Poison
0.281
( )( 20 C) 2330 m / s
-1
-1
(25C, 1 Atm)

60 144,24 .
1010 C 3127 C. : Nd
, .
" .
543

Pm
(Pm)
()
61
, ,
- ,6, f

(Ar)
145 g/mol
[ Xe ] 4f 6s
CAS
7440-12-2
183 pm
199 pm
1,13 ( Pauling)
1: 540 kJ/mol
2: 1050 kJ/mol
3: 2150 kJ/mol

1042 C
3000 C
544

0,75 /m
(300 K), 17,9 W/m-1 K-1

(Bulk modulus)
33 GPa
Poison
( ) 0,28
(25C, 1
Atm)

61 (145) .
Pm.
1945 .
17,7 .
545

Sm
Pu
,

,
(Sm)
()
62
, ,
- ,6, f

(A )
150,4 g/mol
[Xe] 6s2 4f6
CAS
7440-19-9
180 pm
1988 pm
1,17 ( Pauling)
546

3, 2
1: 544,5 kJ / mol
2: 1070 kJ / mol
3: 2260 kJ / mol

1072 C
1794 C
7,52 g/cm3
(25 C) 29,54 J/mol
0.940 /m
(300 K) 13,3 W/m
Vickers
412 MPa
Brinell
441 MPa

(Bulk modulus)
( ) 37,8 GPa
Poison
( ) 0.274
( ) (20 C) 2130 m / s
(25C, 1 Atm)

Sm, 62
150,4 . 1072 C 1900 C, 7,537
+2,+3.
,
1879, , .
, ,
, , .
I .
.
, . 53, . 97
547

63 151,96 .
822 C
1597 C. : Eu

Eu2O3 .
.

1901
- .
548

Gd
Cm
(Gd)
()
64
, ,
- ,6, d

(A )
157,25 g/mol
[Xe] 4f7 5d1 6s2
CAS
7440-54-2
180 pm
1966 pm
1,20 ( Pauling)
1, 2, 3
549

1: 593,4 kJ / mol
2: 1170 kJ / mol
3: 1990 kJ / mol

1312 C
3273 C
7,90 g/cm3
(25 C) 37,03 J / mol
/
292K
1,310 /m
(300 K) 10,6 W/m
Vickers
570 MPa

(Bulk modulus)
37,9 GPa
Poison
0,259
( ) (20 C) 2680 m/s
(25C, 1 Atm)

64 157,25 .
1311 C 3233 C. : Gd
, .
.

65 158,9254.
1360 C 3041 C. : Tb

Tb4O7.
.

.
550
66 162,50 .
1412 C 2562 C. : Dy
Dy2O3

.

67 164,9304 .
1470 C 2720 C. Ho
1878

(Delafontaine)
(Soret). (Cleve) ,
, ,
, .
,
,
.
.
(
) .
.
, ,
.[1]
,
. , .
, ,
. , (Ho2O3)
, ,
(2) (3) . , , (HoN),
(, Ho2S3), (, B4Ho)[2]
.
, .
551
[1] David R. Lide, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: A Ready-reference Book of Chemical and Physical Data, CRC Press, 2004 ISBN
0-8493-0485-7
[2] Dale L. Perry, Sidney L. Phillips, Handbook of Inorganic Compounds, CRC Press, 1995 ISBN 0-8493-8671-3
68 167,26 .
1522 C 2510 C. : Er
Er2O3 ,

.

.
552
553
69 168,9342 .
1545 C 1727 C. : Tm

.

.
70 173,04 .
824 C 1466 C. : Yb
Yb2O3,

.

.
554
,

71 174,96 .
1656 C
3315 C. 1907
.

,
.
72 178,49.
2150 C 5400 C. .
.

1870. 1921
72
'
, , .

1972 " 72" ,
, Hafnia.
, . 3,2x10-4%
. 1-2% 6-7%
35%.
(ZrSiO4).
555

73 180,947 .
2996 C 5425100 C.

(Fe,Mn)Ta2O6, (Fe, Mn)(Nb, Ta)2O6,

,
.
1802
(Anders Ekeberg).
,
1801
1844
( (Rowe)
(Marignac, 1866) .
1903 (von Bolton).[1]
, ,

(Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac) 1866.[2]
.
.
. 150 C

.
, .
, Ta2O5 ( , .. +5),
, (LiTaO3) (LaTaO4)
TaO2 (() , .. +4). , , , .. +3,
+4 +5. , TaC, .

, , TaN
. ,
, (TaAl3, Ta3Al) ,
.[3] .
556
[1] Los Alamos National Lab., (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 73. html)
[2] Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac: "Recherches sur les combinaisons du niobium". Annales de chimie et de physique 4 (8): 775 (http:/ /
gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k34818t/ f4. table)
[3] Google patents (http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=5923464)

74 183,85.
341020 C 5660 C.
. , , ,

,

.
, ,
, .
A .
557
Re
(Re)
()
75
, ,
7 ,6, d

(A )
186,207
[Xe] 4f145d56s2
EINECS
231-124-5
CAS
7440-15-5
137 pm
1517 pm
1,9
+2, +4, +6, +7
558

1: 760 kJ/mol
2: 1260 J/mol
3: 2510 KJ/mol

3186C (5767F) (3459 K)
5596C (10105F) (5869 K)
(20C) 21,02 g/cm3
60,43 KJ/mol
704 KJ/mol
25,48 J/molK
(20C) 193 nm
5,18 MS/m
(27C) 48 W/(mK)
Mohs
7,0
Vickers
2450 MPa
Brinell
1320 MPa

(Young's modulus)
463 GPa

(Shear modulus)
178 GPa

(Bulk modulus)
370 GPa
Poison
0,30
(20C) 4700 m/s
[1]
(25C, 1
Atm)

( : rhenium) , ,
75 186,207.
"Re" 7 , 6 d-block.
3186C 5596C[2] .
1 ppb ( ) ,
.
3 ,
[2] .
, , .[3]
1925 , -
, , [4] .
.

.
. , ...,
(, ) .
:
.
,
,
.

.
3 +7,

.

.
,
.
185Re.
1869 (Mendeleev), ,
VIIB,
43 - (eka-manganese) 75 - (dwi-manganese).
, Mendeleev .
1904 (Masataka Ogawa)
(Sir William Ramsay), ,
, Ramsay ""
("nipponium") Ogawa[5] . 1906, Ogawa
,
, Np[6] , Z = 43[7]
1909 [8] . ,

. [9] Ogawa 43,
75 1925.
1914 (Henry Moseley) -

43, 61 (), 75[10] .
, 1925
.
(Walter Noddack, 1893-1960), '
(Ida Eva Tacke, 1896-1978) Noddack 1926
Noddack-Tacke (Otto Berg, 1873 1939)
(Druce) (Loring),
(Heyrovsk) (Dolejsek)
[11] . [12]
.
559

43[13] ( Mendeleev,
-) 75 ( -)
, , .

Noddack, Tacke Berg 43
,
75
, . Ma
Re. Noddack Berg

,

[14] .
Ida Noddack-Tacke
10 ppm

[15] ,
,
[16] . 43 1937
( Carlo Perrier) (Emilio Gino Segr) .
, 1928 1 g 660 kg
[17] . 1 g
15.000 [18] . H ,
1950.
1950
,
. 1955 , 1960
Kennecott (Kennecott process) 1967
-
Chevron Rheniforming. 1971
, 1984 1996
. 1994
(Kudriavy) (Iturup) .
2000 NASA 4
2008 10.000 /Kg[15] .
. 10o
. 0,001 g/[19] [20] [21] .
0,0005 g/[22] , 0,0007 g/ [23] 0,0026
g/[24] [25] . .
0,03 g/ 0,08 g/ 0,005 g/ 5 g/.
0,000002 g/ 0,002 g/[26] .
, ,
(MoS2) .
, ,
( ) [21] [27] .
560
561

.
... [28] .

,
,
,

,
[29] .
,
(porphyry
coppers), . ,

,
Chuquicamata

[30]
(10 - 100 ppm)
, ,
(, CuFeS2 / , Cu2S),
, , .

: - ,
-- --.

.
(Chuquicamata)
, 32 - 34 , 14 Km ,
1 km, 6 Km2 810 m[31] .

,
, 0 4200
g/[32] 2000 g/[33] .
,
20 200 g/ Re.
( Chuquicamata)
250 g/, 800 g/,
Pinto ... 2000 g/
, 1995[34] , 1300 g/[23]
.
18,8 /[26] .
562

, ,
, (dzhezkazganite), CuReS4,
1967 40 - 50 % [35] .
13600 22680
,
. ,
. , -
[11] .
1969
... .
,
, .
, .
, .. ,
[11] .

1994

(IV), ReS2,
Kudriavy Iturup
[36] .
, 74,38 % Re,

[37] .
2004

.
Kudriavy
(Cu,Fe,Co,Ni)(Re,Mo,Os)4S8

--PGM
- .
, [38] .
- -
, -
, 500 - 700C[23] ,
MoS2 (VI), MoO3 , SO2.
, (VII), Re2O7,
SO2 .
:
)
, HReO4 :
Re2O7 + H2O 2HReO4
563
) , NaOH,
NaReO4[39] :
Re2O7 + 2NaOH 2NaReO4 + H2O
, HReO4 NaReO4
, NH4Cl (
, KCl)
( , KReO4),
APR[23] .
HReO4 + NH4Cl N4ReO4 + HCl

NaReO4 + NH4Cl N4ReO4 + NaCl
99,95 %.
,
, :
2NH4ReO4 + 7H2 2Re + 8H2O + 2NH3
. , NH4ReO4
, Re2O7 :
2NH4ReO4 Re2O7 + 2NH3 + H2O
:
R2O7 + 7H2 2Re + 7H2O

.
. , (CIP)[40] 350 MPa
96,5 % .
(PIM)[41]
98 % .
, ( ) 5 2350C
- 75% [23] .
(99,995 %)
[11] .
,
5-8 mm.
[11] .
-
(spot)[42] 24 2011 4600
/[43] .
1970, 7,5
. 1980
20 .
1990 2000
31 42 .
460 % 35 [18] .
2008,

56,6
.

... 14 %,
13,5 % 9 %.
,
, , ,
,
, ,
, ,
[18] .

2008. =, =,

=, =, =, =

( APR) .

-.
1978 - 1980. 1978 1980,
3300 / 1980
[15] .
1980 - 1998. 1983 900 / 1985
350 /. , , ,
1990 1400 /.
.
1990 1996 300 /.
1998 - 2005.
1998 2001
1550 /.
2005 - 2008. 2005 2008

, 2008 10500
/[18] . 9800 / .
2009 - 2010. 2009 2010,
[44] .
, ,

.
564
565
Re,
= 276,08 pm
[23]
c = 445,80 pm
, ,

3
[2] . , 4
' ,
.
,
,
.

.
.

: 3030C 10-5 Atm
1 Atm 5681C.
[45]

, .

.
()
, [46] .
[47] . 2 ( )
2 ( ) .
463 GPa 900C 370 GPa 20 %
. , Poisson[48] .

40 W/(m.K)
.
, 48 W/(mK) 0 300.
0,126 J/(g.K) 0C 1600C 50 %
0,188 J/(g.K)[49] .
. , .
,
[50] .
-
( 36 70 )
. ,

99,995 %[51] .
- Mo7Re13 -264,85C
566
= -265,05C =C[52] . - W7Re13

-265,95C = -265,85C =C[52] . T
-270,73C (2,42 K)[53] .
[50] : f
,
15
.
"".
6 . ,
, , ,
.

' ( ) .
d .
( KJ/mol) Re+ Re7+
[24] Re,
"" :

(KJ/mol)
Re - Re+
760
Re+ - Re2+
1260
Re2+ - Re3+
2510
Re3+ - Re4+
3640
Re4+ - Re5+
4900
Re5+ - Re6+
6300
Re6+ - Re7+
7600
|+
567
0 (V)
Re3+ + 3e- Re
+0,3
ReO2 + 4H+ + 4e- Re + 22
+0,26
ReO4- + 8+ + 7e- Re + 420
+0,37
ReO4- + 4H2O + 7e- Re + 8-
-0,584
ReO4- + 4+ + 3e- ReO2 + 220
+0,51
ReO4- + 2H2O + 3e- ReO2 + 4- -0,595

ReO4- + 2+ + e- ReO3 + 220
+0,77
|+

()
25
2, 8, 13, 2
43
2, 8, 18, 13, 2
75
2, 8, 18, 32, 13, 2
107
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 13, 2
|+ 7

'
,
: Re3+ +
3e- Re (+ 0,3 V)

,

(. )
.

,
,
Re
,
.

. .
, . Re2O7.
Re
.
568
.
d-block ( d diffuse
)[54] .
- -
.
95 % 1,51
mg/ :
Re + 7HNO3 HReO4 + 72 + 3H2O
HNO3 , :
3Re + 7HNO3 3HReO4 + 7 + 3H2O
36 % 0,008 mg/[11] .
() 100C,
()[49] .

. 400C [21] ,
(VII), Re2O7 :
4Re + 7O2 2Re2O7
(VI), ReO3, Re2O7, (V), Re2O5
[55] .
. 400C ()
() :
Re + 2S ReS2
Re + 2Se ReSe2
(VII), Re2S7 [55] .
. Re2Cl10 500C[21] :
2Re + 5Cl2 Re2Cl10
ReCl3 .
125C ReF6 :
Re + 3F2 ReF6
400C, (VII)[21] :
2Re + 7F2 2ReF7
ReBr5 650C[21] :
2Re + 5Br2 2ReBr5
ReX4 (X = F, Cl, Br, I), ReX3 (X = Cl, Br, I) ReF5
.
185Re, ,
, . 185Re 37,4 %
, 187Re, 62,6 %, ,
~1010 . , 0,3 MeV,

[11] .
187Re . - 187Os
- 183Ta (), - 183W ()
- 189Hf ()[56] . - 187Re,
,
. ,
(Rb)-(Sr), (Sm)-Nd, (Lu)-(Hf)
(U)-(Pb),
[26] .
26 .
- -

. ,
300C [57] . ,
. (. Re3+)
(.. ReO4).
[35] .
, KReO4, , LD50[58] , 2800 mg/kg
. .
(), ReCl3, LD50 280 mg/kg[59] .
. 2003 [35]
0,4 ng[60] /L.
, 10 ng/L, .
, 1992 7,4-9,1 ng/Kg
4-6,9 ng/Kg[35] .
1999, 0,17 ng/L.
.
0,1 g[61] /Kg .
.
569
570
Re[21]

ReO3
ReO2
ReF4
ReF5
Re2O7
ReCl6
Re2O5
ReBr4
( )

,
. ,
[54] .
[21] : -3 ( [Re(CO)4]3), 1 (
[Re(CO)5]), 0 ( Re2(CO)10), +1 ( [Re(CN)6]5), +2 ( [Re(pyridine)2Cl2]), +3 ( Re3Cl9), +4 ( ReF4), +5
( ReF5), +6 ( ReO3) +7 ( Re2O7). +7, +6, +4 +2.
,
[21] .
-
+3 +7.
200C (Re2O5), 400C (ReO3), 500C (Re2O3)[21]
900C (ReO2)[21] . Re2O7
. '
.
. ReO4[55] .
: ReFn n = 4, 5, 6, 7,
ReCln n = 3, 4, 5, 6, ReBrn n = 3, 4, 5 ReIn n = 3, 4.
.
, ReCl3 ReCl5
- .

ReO4 ' Re
+7. , HReO4,
. ,
[62] .

.
, NH4ReO4
MReO4 = Li, Na, K, Rb, CS ,

,
NH4ReO4. 2
Re

, , , [ReCl6]n n = 2, 3, 4.
NH4ReO4 Re(III), KReO4
.
..
[Co(NH3)4](ReO4)2, [Co(NH3)6](ReO4)3 [Cr(NH3)6](ReO4)2, [Zn(NH3)4](ReO4)2,
[Cd(NH3)4](ReO4)2, [Ag(NH3)2]ReO4 ,
[C6H5)4s]ReO4, [50]
.
-
Vickers HV > 40 GPa[63] .
,
.
(HV = 70 - 150 GPa),
(ReB2) 1962[64] ,
. (HV ~ 22
GPa)
(WC) (SiC) (TiB2) (ZrB2). ,
ReB2[65] .
Re ()
Re ()
- [66] .
' .

1966 (Eisenberg) (Ibers)
Re[S2C2(C6H5)2]3 Re 6
[66] ,
[67] .
.
[ReF8]3
8 ligands ( F).
[50] .
9
[ReH9]2,
.
[ReH9]2 .
Re.
, ,
, .
'
(C5H5)Re 1955 (Wilkinson)
.
sandwich[66] (n5-C5H5)ReH
571
572
[50] .
CH3ReO3, ReBr(CO)5, ReH(CO)5 ..

. Re2(CO)10
Re2(CO)8[66] [Re2Cl8]2
Re-Re 224 pm (=
2,2410-10 m) , 1250 - 1670 KJ/mol[50] .
.
CsReCl4
1935. 1963
Re-Re
248 pm[68] .
[Re2Cl8]2
.
H2Re4(CO)14, Re-Re 58
.
. cluster [Re6(CO)16][66]
Re .
: ,
()
.
.
[69] :
(3186C) (2800C).
2000C.
, , 25C 1200C.
.
.
.
.
[69] :
.
. (Re2O7),
220C 360C
, .
2009 72

,
75 %,
[70] .
,
3 % 6 %[71] ,
, 2 3
,
"" (superalloys)
,

F100 Pratt & Whitney F-15 F-16,
,
2

,
, 10
[70] .
(
),
.
2008, General Electric Aviation ( General Electric Company)

.
,

[70] .

15 %
, ,
, "" , [18]
,
[70] .
30 % ,
[72] . (Al2O3)
0,3 % Pt 0,3% ( ) 0,4 % Re[15] .
Pt-Re , ,

[70] .
,
, 100C.
Re Pt 66,7 % Re,
[73] .
573

Re2O7 -[74]
.

,
,
[75] . 186Re, 89,3
- 186Re (EDP-Re-186),
, , .
, ,
,
[76] .
188Re
186Re (11 mm 188Re 5 mm 186Re),
, 17 [77] .

- (Re-W) , ,
, ,
. Re
27 % [78]
[79] , , 2200C[80] ,
..
- (Re-Mo)
, , , , ,
, , ..
Re-W Re-Mo 8 %
[70] .

,

[81] .

: .

. '
. 5000 ,
15 ,
10 %[15] .
'
.
, .

574

- -
2004 2 [15] .
2004 4,5 .
[2] WolframAlpha : Rhenium (http:/ / www. wolframalpha. com/ input/ ?i=Re)
[3]
[4] 1939
[5] (Nippon)
[6]
[7] Dr. Masanori Kaji. A discovery which served as a foothold (http:/ / www. 300. years. spb. ru/ eng/ 3_spb_3. html?id=22). .
18/6/2010.
[8] Jas. Lewis Howe (1909). "Recent Work in Inorganic Chemistry" (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1021/ ja01942a006). Journal of the
American Chemical Society 31 (12): 12841305. .
[9] Yoshihra, H. K. (2004). "Discovery of a new element 'nipponium': re-evaluation of pioneering works of Masataka Ogawa and his son Eijiro
Ogawa" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6THN-4D1DM5W-1& _user=10& _coverDate=08/ 31/ 2004&
_rdoc=1& _fmt=high& _orig=search& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10&
md5=db3f34f3c37c930293a17e91feee115a). Atomic spectroscopy (Spectrochim. Acta, Part B) 59 (8): 13051310. .
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[10] Moseley, Henry (1914). "High Frequency Spectra of the Elements, Part II" (http:/ / www. chemistry. co. nz/ henry_moseley_article. htm).
Philosophical Magazine. .
[11] RHENIUM AND RHENIUM COMPOUNDS (http:/ / www. scribd. com/ doc/ 30122497/ Rhenium-and-Rhenium-Compounds)
[12] Loren C. Hurd (1933). "The discovery of rhenium" (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1021/ ed010p605). J. Chem. Educ. 10 (10): 605. .
[13] Noddack, W. (1925). "Die Ekamangane" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ g2l4q32160275026/ ). Naturwissenschaften 13 (26):
567574. .
[14] Aaron J. Ihde (1984). The development of modern chemistry (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=34KwmkU4LG0C& printsec=frontcover&
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0486642356. .
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[35] Kabata-Pendias, Alina, Mukherjee, Arun B. (2007). Trace elements from soil to human (http:/ / books. google. gr/
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q=dzhezkazganite& f=false). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-32713-4. .
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International. . 27/6/2010.
[40] (cold isostatic pressing),
,

[41] H (powder injection molding),

[42] spot , .
, () ("")
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.
.
[46] Djamel Kaoumi (2001). "INVESTIGATIONS OF THE CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY OF RHENIUM WITH URANIUM DIOXIDE AT
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[52] Kenji Kawashima, Takahiro Muranaka, Jun Akimitsu (2006). "Superconductivity in intermetallic compound Mo7Re13X (X=B,C)" (http:/ /
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. LD50
,
.
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[61] 1 g ( ) = 10-6 g
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577

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1. Cardarelli F. (2008). Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference (2 ). Springer. ISBN

978-1-84628-668-1.
3. Chandler H. (01-01-98). Metallurgy for the non-metallurgist. ASM International. ISBN 0-87170-652-0.
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0198503407.
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9780131755536.
12. M .. (1994). . , . ISBN 9603432725.
ISBN 0521859042.
15. T . (2001). . , . ISBN 9789604317547.
Live Rhenium prices (http://www.taxfreegold.co.uk/rheniumpricesusdollars.html)

s9.html)
Mineral Species containing Rhenium (Re) (http://www.webmineral.com/chem/Chem-Re.shtml)
Library of Inorganic Structures : Re (http://www.3dchem.com/element.asp?selected=Re)
Pictures of Rhenium, its minerals and applications (http://periodictable.com/Elements/075/pictures.pr.html)
:
(http://www.uzbekistan.gr/gr/book12.htm)
578
579
Os
(Os)
()
76
, ,
8 ,6, d

(A )
190,23
[Xe] 4f14 5d6 6s2
EINECS
231-114-0
CAS
7440-04-2
135 pm
1444 pm
2,2
580

+2, +3, +4, +8
1: 840 kJ/mol
2: 1600 J/mol

3033C (5491F) (3306 K)
5012C (9054F) (5285 K)
(20C) 22,59 g/cm3
31 KJ/mol
738 KJ/mol
24,7 J/molK
96,6 nm
10 MS/m
88 W/(mK)
Mohs
7,0
Brinell
3920 MPa

(Young's modulus)
566 GPa

(Shear modulus)
222 GPa

(Bulk modulus)
462 GPa
Poison
0,25
(20C) 4940 m/s
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4] [5]
[6]
NFPA 704
(25C, 1
Atm)

(.: osmium) 76 190,23.

"Os". 8, 6 d-block
.
1803
"", , ,
, .
, , , , , .
[7] .
581
.
3033C (4 )
5012C (4 ).

.[1] :
22.590 (22,59 ).
, " ", PGMs, Platinum Group Metals.

H
Li
He
Be
Na Mg
Al
Si
Cl Ar
As
Se Br Kr
Ca Sc
Rb Sr
Ti
Cr Mn Fe
Co
Ni
Cu Zn Ga Ge
Zr Nb Mo Tc
Ru Rh
Pd Ag Cd In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hf Ta W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au Hg Tl
Pb
Bi
Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac **
Rf Db Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cs Ba La
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
** Th Pa
Ne
Xe
Platinum group metals (PGMs)
(VIII), OsO4,
.
.
, , .
(OsS2) 74,78 % Os[8] .
, PGMs, ,
, , .
, :
192
Os .
184
s,
187
Os,
188
Os,
189
Os,
190
Os
(Smithson Tennant) 1803

(William Wollaston).
PGMs.
"" ( " ") 17
(Choc) [9] .
, 1748[10] . ,
.
, (Joseph Louis Proust) [11] .
1803, - (Victor Collet-Descotils), (Antoine Franois)
(Louis Nicolas Vauquelin)
[11] . ,
(Smithson Tennant)[12] (Smithson Tennant)
582
. ,
[13]
. ptene "" ()[14] .
, .
, .
, cis-[Os(OH)2O4]2- OsO4 .
, OsO4,
.
, .[14] . ,
21 1804[15] .
1828 o Berzelius .
.
20 1828, , Wollaston
OsO4.
19 , OsO4
.
.
1897 (Carl von Welsbach)
, 20 , [16] (Fritz Haber)[17]
[18] ,
. [14] .
- -

( ). 15 - 40 % 80 - 50 % [19] .
. (
100 Kg )
[20] .
Os
[21]

ppb
ppb

0,02
0,01
670
70
1,8
0,2
PGM , Cu-Ni. ,
, , PG
Bushveld
PGM 1 % Os[22]
--PGM (Norilsk) 1 % Os[22] .
.[23] , Choco

[24] .
-
PGM .
.
,
, ,
. ' ,
4 7 [25] . ,
" ",
PGMs, ,
. 100 1000
. .
- ,
,
, . ,
1400 ,
.
1500C ,
.
. ,
15,5 PGM[26] .
, 100 /,
1600C
, , "" (matte) PGMs
. matte
, , , PGMs[25] .
-
PGMs [25] .
,
. ,
, [27] [28] : (Au) / (Ag) .
(Pt),
(Pd) Au. . (Ru), (Os), (Rh), (Ir) Ag
. (HNO3)
(Pb) Ag Pb (AgNO3 Pb(NO3)2).
Ru, Os, Rh, Ir.
(aHSO4) , (), Rh2(SO)3,
(Ru, Os, Ir) , (Na2O2)
IrO2 Ru
Os RuO42- OsO42- .
RuO4 OsO4. RuO4
Ru NH4Cl
. ' OsO4 ,
Na2[OsO2(OH)4].
583
584
(NH4Cl) OsCl2O2(NH3)4.
: OsCl2O2(NH3)4 + 3H2 Os + 2NH4Cl +
2NH3 + 2H2O

(spot)[29]
24 2011 380
/ 13,4 / [30] .

99 %. ,

.
,
PGMs. ,
. 1930
1998,
: 1930 1946,
57 /, 1947
1964 109 /
1965 1998 346 /[31]
15 2010
Os,
= 273,44 pm
c = 431,73 pm
.

.
(22,59 g/cm3),
-272,49C[32] . ,
Pr3Os4Ge13
-257,15C[33] .

.
PGMs :
2889C 10-5 Atm 1 Atm 4983C.

, , (
Brinell Young) . 20 % Pt 80 % Os 578
HV (560 HV)[33] .
395 GPa 462 GPa
(443 GPa).
[34] .

585
Pd Pt PGMs[4] .

.
(n) (400nm - 700nm)

n 4,05 3,76[35]
Os[36] .
, .
60 nm
[37] .
(Os),
99,99%

Os . 19
4 PGMs ( ,
)[38] .
[27] : f
,
15
.
"".
6 . ,
(19,25 g/cm3), (21,02 g/cm3), (22,56 g/cm3),
(21,45 g/cm3), (19,25 g/cm3) .
[39] [40] .
[14] 22.5870.009 g/cm3 22.562 0.009 g/cm3.
20 g/cm3.
' ( ) .
d
.
Os
.
.
d-block ( d diffuse
)[41] .
( KJ/mol) Os+ Os8+
Os,
"" :
586
(KJ/mol)
Os - Os+
840
Os+ - Os2+
1600
Os2+ - Os3+
2400
Os3+ - Os4+
3900
Os4+ - Os5+
5200
Os5+ - Os6+
6600
Os6+ - Os7+
8100
Os7+ - Os8+
9500
|+
0 (V)
Os2+ + 2e- Os
+0,85
OsO2(s) + 2H2O + 4e- Os(s) + 4OH-
-0,15
OsO4(s) + 8H+ + 8e- Os(s) + 4H2O
+0,85
OsO4(s) + 8H+ + 6Cl- + 4e- OsCl62- + 4H2O +1,0

HOsO5- + 2e- OsO42- + OH-
+0.3
OsO42- + 2H2O + 2e- OsO2(s) + 4OH-
+0,1
OsCl62- + e- OsCl63-
+0,85
OsCl63- + e- Os2+ + 6Cl-
+0,4
OsCl63- + 3e- Os(s) + 6Cl-
+0,71
|+

()
26
2, 8, 14, 2
44
2, 8, 18, 15, 1
76
2, 8, 18, 32, 14, 2
108
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2
'
,
: Os2+ +
2e- Os (+ 0,85 V)

,

(. )
.

,
,
,
Os

[28]
. Os
25C. 100C ,
, [19] .

, H2SO4, , HF,
, HCl. HCl 36 % HBr 36 % 100C.
, HNO3 62 % .
20C 100C[4] .

(KOH) OsO4.2KOH[42]

(NaOCl) [4] .
2
o Os(V), Os(VII) Os(VI) OsO4 OsOCl4. (IV), OsO2, OsO4[43] .
(VIII), OsO4, ,
300 - 800C
Os[19] : Os + 2O2 OsO4

+3[28] .
: OsF7, OsF8[43] . (V),
OsF5, . , (VI) [28]
. (VI) 250-300C : Os + 3F2
OsF6
: () . (IV) OsCl4
. , 700C
: Os + 2Cl2 OsCl4
: () . (IV) OsBr4
330C 120 Atm, 470C 10 Atm : Os +
587
588
2Br2 OsBr4
: (), OsI3, .
Os , : 187Os, 188Os, 189Os, 190Os

192Os. , 184Os 186Os, ,
. 187Os 187Re ( 4.56x1010 ) --[44]
187Os/188Os. , 187Re/187Os,
.
. , .
( )
- ( ),
65 [45] .
- -
. [46] .

OsO4.
[46] . OsO4
. ,
, [47] .
(VIII) ,
[48] . OsO4, ,
OsO2 , ,
[49] .
.

Os[28]

OsCl3
OsBr3
OsI
OsF4
OsI2
OsF5
OsF6
OsF7
( )

,
. ,
[41] .
, , ,
: +8[50] . Os +2 ([Os(CO)6]2+), +3 (OsI3), +4
(OsBr4), +8 (OsO4). +1 (OsI), +5 (OsF5), +6 (OsF6), +7(OsOF5).

1 2 , Na2[Os4(CO)13] Na2[Os(CO)4]
, (cluster) .
[51] [52] .
(IV), OsS2[42] .
,
,
M2OsH6 (M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba) Li4OsH6[28] .
OsF8, - Os+8, OsO2F4
OsO3F2[28] . (VIII), OsO4,
" "[19] .
[53] .
Os(IV) (OsO2)
. OsO4 , . ,
, .
,
-C60[54] .
1,2-[55] , :

0 : Os(CO)5,
Os2(CO)9, Os3(CO)12, Os4(CO)x (x = 14, 15, 16), Os5(CO)y (y =
16, 18, 19), Os6(CO)z (z = 18, 21), Os7(CO)21, Os8(CO)23
Os10(CO)26.
Os(II)
[Os(NH3)5(N2)]2+
(3).
, 2
Os3(CO)12
OsNN
OsNNOs, 2
.
, . 2
3
589
590
3[56] .
Os(VII) Os(VII) .. [Os(N)O3]
. , Os(VI)
.. OsO2X2(PR3)2 ( = Cl, Br PR3 = PMe2Ph, PEt2Ph, PPh3, [57]
.
, [OsO2(OH)4]2. d2 ,
' +6[19] . cis-
(VIII), OsO4. , K2[OsO2(OH)4],
OsO4 (KOH)
Sharpless[58]
[59] .
- OsH6(PR3)2, OsH4(PR3)3 OsH2(PR3)4,
.. Os(NO)2(PPh3)2, - -, - ..
-
1897 , (Carl
von Welsbach),
, 1902.
,

.[14]
,
78 , - 45
33
.[60]

.
, ,
, PGMs,

,
, . 90
% 10 %

.[61]

, ()
OsO4 ()
591
OsO4

.
. , C-C
,
,[64]

(contrast)
[65]
.
,
(OsFeCN),
.[66]
Os, Ag, Au
()
()

.

[62] [63]
.
,
.
. ,

.[67]
(
100 nm)

(UV) .

.
.[68]
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Ure A. (1808). A DICTIONARY OF ART, MANUFACTURES, AND MINES. New York:D. Appleton&Company.
ISBN 114745213X.
Live Osmium prices (http://www.taxfreegold.co.uk/osmiumpricesusdollars.html)

s9.html)
Mineral Species containing Osmium (Os) (http://www.webmineral.com/chem/Chem-Os.shtml)
Library of Inorganic Structures : Os (http://www.3dchem.com/element.asp?selected=Os)
Pictures of Osmium, its minerals and applications (http://periodictable.com/Elements/076/pictures.pr.html)
Molecule of the month : OsO4 (http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/oso4/oso4h.htm)
BBC News Online. "What is Osmium tetroxide" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3604857.stm)
595
596
Ir
(Ir)
()
77
, ,
9 ,6, d

(A )
192,217
[Xe] 64f145d76s2
EINECS
231-095-9
CAS
7439-88-5
136 pm
1416 pm
2,20
597

+3, +4
1: 880 KJ/mol
2: 1600 KJ/mol

2466C (4471F) (2739 K)
4428C (8002F) (4701 K)
22,56 g/cm3
41,12 KJ/mol
563 KJ/mol
25,10 J/molK
47,1 nm
21,23 MS/m
(27C) 147 W/(m K)
Mohs
6,5
Vickers
1760 MPa
Brinell
1670 MPa

(Young's modulus)
528 GPa

(Shear modulus)
210 GPa

(Bulk modulus)
320 GPa
Poison
0,26
(20C) 4825 m/s
(25C, 1
Atm)

(iridium) 77 192,217.
"Ir" 9 , 6
d-block. 2466C 4428C[1] .
, ,
.
, " ", PGMs, Platinum Group Metals.

598
H
Li
He
Be
Na Mg
Al
Si
Cl Ar
As
Se Br Kr
Ca Sc
Rb Sr
Ti
Cr Mn Fe
Co
Ni
Cu Zn Ga Ge
Zr Nb Mo Tc
Ru Rh
Pd Ag Cd In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hf Ta W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au Hg Tl
Pb
Bi
Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac **
Rf Db Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cs Ba La
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
** Th Pa
Ne
Xe
, , , , ,
.
1803
.
, , .
.
,
, . ,

, , ,
.

.

. '
, [2]
, ,
.
" -".
65
.
, 191Ir 193Ir.
PGMs.
700 ..
[3] , 17 PGMs "",
" ".
19 ,
, ,
[4] . (Joseph Louis Proust) to 1801 .
1803, - (Victor Collet-Descotils), (Antoine
Franois) (Louis Nicolas Vauquelin)
[4] .
, [5] (Smithson Tennant)
.
, [6]
. ptene ""
()[7] . , .
, ( Na2[IrCl6]nH2O)[7]
[8]
.
""

.

.
21 1804[4] .
(Jns Jakob Berzelius)
Ir.
,
(John George Children) 1813. , "
"[4] (
).
1842, (Robert Hare)
[9] ,

21.8 g/cm3
, . ,
- (Henri Sainte-Claire Deville) (Jules
Henri Debray) 1860. 300 L
[4] . (John Isaac Hawkins) ,
, 1834
. 1880, (John Holland) (William
Lofland Dudley)
. Johnson Matthey
1837[4] . 1889, 90 % 10 %

599

. [4] ,
2000C, (Otto Feussner) 1933.
1958 (Rudolf Ludwig Mssbauer)[10] [11]
,
191Ir. , 57Fe,
" Mssbauer" " Mssbauer"
, , , .
- -

. 4
, 10
80 [12] .
,
o : ,
.
1400
[13] .

,
,
,
.

,
: ( 50 % )
Willamette ,
( 70 % )[14] . PGM
, 4,7 ppm

.
,
, , . ,
PGM, , , .
, [15] .
PGM .
.
PGM ,
[16] .
600
601
Ir
[13]

ppb
ppb

0,01
0,01
550
60
0,4
0,05
PGM

[15] .
, , ...,
[17] . PGM
Bushveld .
,
2 m[16] .
... PGM (Stillwater) .
PGM (Noril'sk) (Taimyr)
(Monhegorsk). , ,
, , , ..[16]
PGM (Hawk Ridge) ,
, (Manitoba)[16] .
PGM (Selous) ,
, , , , , , ..
1992[18] , PGM
2 % Ir.
" -"
602
-
65

()
( )
()
( ).

.
(Luis Alvarez)[19]
1980,
" ",

.[20]
" -" .
() 1000
,

85 %

Yucata'n Chicxulub
[21] . Alvarez , Walter
, ,
.
, . Alvarez
, .
,
, .
(
) -.
- -,

.[22]
-

. , 3 7 12
[9] 1 (=31,135 g)
.
PGMs .
.
,
, ,
. ' ,
4 7 [23] . ,
" ",
PGMs, ,
. 100 1000

. .
- ,
,
, . ,
1400 ,
.
1500C ,
.
. ,
15,5 PGMs[24]
, 100 /,
1600C
, , "" (matte) PGMs
. matte , ,
, PGMs.
-
PGMs [23] .
,
. :
PGM (Au) / (Ag) .
, [25]
(Pt), (Pd) Au. (Ru), (Os), (Rh), (Ir)
Ag .
(Pb) (HNO3) Ag Pb (AgNO3)
(PbNO3). Ru, Os, Rh, Ir.
(aHSO4) , (), Rh2(SO)3,
(Ru, Os, Ir) , (Na2O2)
Ru Os RuO42- OsO42- .
, IrO2,
, (NH4)3IrCl6.
[13] .
603

Johnson
Matthey (Johnson Matthey Base Price)
8.00
, 1 2011 1050
/ . 33.758
/[26] .
2000
3 [14]
100.000 (ozt)[27] .
(
PGMs : Ru, Os, Rh)
[26]
/ (2005-2009)

Ir
.
,
[28] .

, , , . ,

.

1600C. Ir
(12
). ,
( 8 )
,
[12] . , ,
,

.

,
Ir, = 383,9 pm
.
: 2440C
10-5 Atm 1 Atm 4659C.
[29]
604

(1 Young). ,
[30] , Pt,Pd,Rh,
200C 600C Ir .
0C 1000C
. (5
) Poisson[31] ,
.

Ir 9 .
0C 100C, 145 W/(m.K)
PGM, 100
W/(m.K). [32] Ir 3,43106 K-1
-198C 6106 K-1 0C
[33] .
1077C[34] .

70 % 76 % 78 %
1000 nm[13] . ,
.

, 10
, 25 C.

PGM. -273,04C (0,11 )[13] ,
(-273,15C).
, ,
[35] [36] . [7]
22,5870,009 g/cm3 22,562 0,009 g/cm3. 19 g/cm3.
[25] : f
,
15
.
"".
6 . ,
(19,25 g/cm3), (21,02 g/cm3),
(22,59 g/cm3), (21,45 g/cm3), (19,25 g/cm3) .
' ( ) .
d
.
Ir
.
.
605
606
d-block ( d diffuse
)[37] .
( KJ/mol) Ir+ Ir9+
Ir, ""
:

(KJ/mol)
Ir - Ir+
880
Ir+ - Ir2+
1600
Ir2+ - Ir3+
2600
Ir3+ - Ir4+
3800
Ir4+ - Ir5+
5500
Ir5+ - Ir6+
6900
Ir6+ - Ir7+
8500
Ir7+ - Ir8+
10000
Ir8+ - Ir9+
11700
|+
0 (V)
Ir3+ + 3e- Ir
+1.15
IrCl62- + e- IrCl63-
+1.026
IrCl62- + 4e- Ir + 6Cl-
+0.835
IrCl63- + 3e- Ir + 6Cl-
+0.77
IrO2 + 4H+ + 4e- Ir + H2O
+0.93
IrO2 + 2H2O + 4e- Ir + 4OH-
+0.1
Ir2O3 + 3H2O + 6e- 2Ir + 6OH- +0.1

|+
607

()
27
2, 8, 15, 2
45
2, 8, 18, 16, 1
77
2, 8, 18, 32, 15, 2
109
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 15, 2
'
,
: Ir3+ + 3e Ir (+ 1,15 V)

,

(. )
.

.
, ,
, ,
, ,
[25] .
Ir

( , , )
[25] .

Ir [25] . NaOH
(1 , 410C, , 100 % 2), 8
cm2 1 g , ,
66 g.[38]

(NaOCl).
(CN) 700C
18 mg Ir/cm2 , (Na2CO3) 920C
1,32 mg/cm2 .
[38] .
2
+3 +4 . Ir2O3 IrO2[13] .
Ir O2.
, 500C IrO2[36] :
2Ir2O3 Ir + 3IrO2
IrO2 Ir 2. 1100C :
Ir + O2 IrO2
608

,
[36] :
240C (VI), IrF6 :
Ir + 3F2 IrF6
IrF6 Ir 1 15 Torr
(IV) :
Ir + 2IrF6 3IrF4
400C (), IrF3. 350-380C
(V), IrF5 :
2Ir + 5F2 2IrF5
Ir Cl2 600C -
() 750C -[36] :
2Ir + 3Cl2 2-IrCl3
-IrCl3 -IrCl3
Ir Br2 , 540C, 8-9 Atm
()[36] :
2Ir + 3Br2 IrBr3
, 191Ir 193Ir 37,3 % 62,7

%. 34 164 199 [39] .
192Ir,
.
191Ir Mssbauer.
1934 2001. 171Ir[40] .
- -

[41] . 20 (ppt)
[14] . , ,
[42] . ,
, , ,
[43] .
, ,
[14] .
95 % [44] .
192Ir
. ,
. Ir-192 ,
[44] . 192mIr 194mIr
.
, [45] .
609
, .
PGMs .
. ,
PGMs (International Platinum Group Metals
Association - IPA) .

[36]
IrF5
Cs3IrI6
KIrF6
Na2IrBr6
Na3IrBr6H2O
IrI3
K3IrCl6H2O
-1 +6 -2.
+3 +4.
(VI), IrF6[12] -, Sr2MgIrO6
-, Sr2CaIrO6.
IrS2, Ir2S3, Ir3S8, IrS3, IrSe2, Ir3Se8, IrAs3,
IrSb3, Ir2P IrP2 IrSi3.
( )

,
. ,
[37] .
Ir+3 Ir+4
, ""
:

() Ir2O3
()
IrCl3
()
IrI3
()
IrBr3
()
IrF3
()
Ir2S3
|+ Ir+3
610
(IV)
IrO2
(IV)
IrCl4
(V)
IrI4
(V)
IrBr4
(V)
IrF4
(IV)
IrS2
(IV)
IrSe2
(IV) IrTe2
|+ Ir+4
IrF6
IrCl3
IrO2
Ir4(CO)12
Ir

-3
[Ir(CO)3]3-
-1
[Ir(CO)3(PPh3)]0
Ir4(CO)12
+1
IrH(CO)(PPh3)3
+2
IrCl2
+3
IrCl3
+4
IrO2
+5
Ir4F20
+6
IrF6
, K2IrO3 KIrO3.
(), IrxHy,
IrH4-5 IrH3-6, +1 +3, [25] .
Mg6Ir2H11 IrH4-5 IrH5-4.
, IrX3 (X=F, Cl, Br, I),
- -[36] . +4, +5 +6
. (VI), IrF6, ,
.
(V), IrF4[36] . (V), IrF5, ,
611
Ir4F20 (IrF5)4, [36] .

-
. , ,
[46] , Ir4(CO)12, Ir 0[47] . ' ,
, .
, Ir2(CO)8.
Vaska
Ir+
,
[25]
"
Vaska"
(trans-
[46]
() ()
, IrCl(CO)[P(C6H5)3]2),
16e d8 ,
, O2
18e d6 '
[48] .
1991 Ir(n2-C60)Cl(CO)(PPh3)2
Vaska
C60
-C60
[49]
(buckminsterfullerene)
:
Ir(CO)(Cl)(PPh3)2
+
C60
2
Ir(n -C60)Cl(CO)(PPh3)2

Ir(n2-C60)Cl(CO)(PPh3)2
O " Crabtree"
.
d8 16
.
Ir+
column () - ..
[IrCl(CO)3]n[25] . [IrCl6]2-
Crabtree
[IrCl6]3 [25] . IrCl42-
, IrCl43-[25] .
612

(IV) , H2IrCl6
. ,

. IrCl3 Ir(III).
Ir2O3 .
() , (NH4)3IrCl6.
Ir+3 ( spin) [47] .
Cativa[50] ,
CH3COOH, , CH3OH. BP
- , [Ir(CO)2I2].
-
-
.
1834 [4] . 1944,
"Parker 51" - (
3,8 % ). ,
"",
[51] .
1889 90% 10%

[52]
,

Se`vres.[53]
1960,
.
-
.
" "
" " 1867,
1889
1960
Johnson Matthey
" Withworth
3000 , .
,
, ".
613
"
M". 39
mm
Ir
2006-2007 ( )
2006
2007
33.000
24.000
34.000
34.000
28.000
25.000
36.000
36.000
131.000 119.000
, " " ,

. , " ",
, .[54]
, 2006 2007 . ,
.
, ,
. 1908 Sir William Crookes
.[25]
,
rayon. -
[14] .

-
,
[14] .
.
Vickers 56 HV,
50 % ,
400 HV[55] .

.
,
Czochralski
( )

Ir
[56] . ,
, ,
2100C[4] .
[56]
. 0,6 mm
2,5 mm[57] .
Cativa [58] .

1996 " "[14] .
-192
- [59] .
614
615
192Ir ,
,
.
[60] .
, 2000C,
-238

, Voyager, Viking, Pioneer, Cassini, Galileo
New Horizons[4] .
-
-.
- Chandra, 60
nm ( ).
-
, .
, ,

[61] .
8.3 g 99,98 %

, .
,
.

,

[62] .
1982
- . C-H
, [63] .
[64] .

,
. . .
[1] WolframAlpha : iridium (http:/ / www. wolframalpha. com/ input/ ?i=iridium)

[2]
. , , , , , , , ,
, , ,
[3] McDonald, M. (959). "The Platinum of New Granada: Mining and Metallurgy in the Spanish Colonial Empire" (http:/ / www.
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[4] Hunt, L. B. (1987). "A History of Iridium" (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/ pmr-v31-i1-032-041).
Platinum Metals Review 31 (1): 3241. .
[5] Smithson Tennant (1761-1815) . 1796 , ,
. 1804
[7] Griffith, W. P. (2004). "Bicentenary of Four Platinum Group Metals. Part II: Osmium and iridium events surrounding their discoveries".
Platinum Metals Review 48 (4): 182189.
[8] : "appeared of a white colour, and was not capable of being melted, by any degree of heat I could
apply...I should incline to call this metal Iridium, from the striking variety of colours which it gives, while dissolving in marine acid..."
" , , ...
, ,
() ..."
[9] International Platinum Group Metals Association (IPA) (http:/ / www. ipa-news. com/ pgm/ mining-production/ index. htm)
[10] 1961 (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1961/ )
[11] Rudolf Ludwig Mssbauer. . Robert Hofstadter, 1961 "

"
[12] Greenwood N. N., Earnshaw, A. "Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.)", Oxford 1997
[13] webelements : iridium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ iridium/ )
[15] . " ", 1982
[16] ., . "P.G.M. ", 2006
[17] PLATINUM TODAY Production (http:/ / www. platinum. matthey. com/ production/ )
.
[19] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1968 Luis Alvarez (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1968/ )
[20] Alvarez L. W., Alvarez, W.; Asaro, F.; Michel, H. V. (1980). "Extraterrestrial cause for the CretaceousTertiary extinction". Science 208
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[21] Hildebrand, A. R. (1991). "Chicxulub Crater; a possible Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary impact crater on the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico"
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[25] .. " ", 2, 1981
[26] PLATINUM TODAY Price Charts (http:/ / www. platinum. matthey. com/ pgm-prices/ price-charts/ )
[27] (troy ounce) . 1 = 31,1035 g 1 g =
32,1507 troy oz
[28] Jollie D., "PLATINUM 2008" Published in May 2008 by Johnson Matthey, England
.
.
[30] .
[31]
[32]
[33] G. K. White and A. T. Pawlowicz, J. (1970). "Crystallographic Properties of Iridium" (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF00628279). Journal
of Low Temperature Physics 2 (2): 631-639. .
[34] Arblaster, J. W. (2010). "Crystallographic Properties of Iridium" (http:/ / http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/
54-2-93-102#B25). Platinum Metals Review 54 (2): 93-102. .
616

[35] Arblaster, J. W. (1995). "Osmium, the Densest Metal Known" (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/
[37] ... . .
[38] The PGM database. PGMs "Johnson Matthey" (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ jmpgm/
index. jsp)
[39] (http:/ / periodictable. com/ Elements/ 077/ data. html)
[40] Arblaster, J. W. (2003). "The discoverers of the iridium isotopes: the thirty-six known iridium isotopes found between 1934 and 2001"
(http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/ 47-4-167-174). Platinum Metals Review 47 (4): 167174. .
[41] Environmental Chemistry (http:/ / environmentalchemistry. com/ yogi/ periodic/ )
[42] SPI Supplies Division Structure Probe, Inc. "Material Safety Data Sheet : Iridium metal" (http:/ / www. 2spi. com/ catalog/ msds/
msds014167. html)
[43] IrCl3.6H2O MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET (http:/ / www. espi-metals. com/ msds's/ iridiumchloride. pdf)
[44] Mager Stellman, J. (1998). "Iridium" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=nDhpLa1rl44C& printsec=frontcover& hl=el&
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Labour Organization. .63.19. .
[45] (http:/ / www. food-info. net/ gr/ metal/ iridium. htm)
[46] .. " ", 1, 1981
[47] . " ", 1986
[48] Crabtree R.H., "The Organometallic Chemistry of the Transition Metals", Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 2005
[49] Andreas Hirsch,Michael Brettreich (2005). Fullerenes: chemistry and reactions (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=tH4tnKBi-3UC&
pg=PA238& lpg=PA238& dq=addition+ of+ Ir(CO)Cl(PPh3)2+ to+ c60& source=bl& ots=o5nSUUK-ob&
sig=MIo6bazVzvrwG_kq6VsjJVxy9rM& hl=el& ei=ZIfYS_uFLYmMOJX8gLAG& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4&
ved=0CBgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q=Ir(CO)Cl(PPh3)2& f=false). pp. page 237. .
[50] ( Cativa) (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ pdf/ pmr-v44-i3-094-105. pdf)
[51] Mottishaw, J. (1999). "Notes from the Nib WorksWhere's the Iridium?" (http:/ / www. nibs. com/ ArticleIndex. html). The PENnant XIII
(2). .
[52] Comptes Rendus de la 1e CGPM (1889), 1890, 34 (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ CGPM/ db/ 1/ 1/ )
[53]
[54] Andrew Ure, M.D. (1808). A Dictionary of Art, Manufactures and Mines (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=MAzLPjibkxkC&
pg=PA910& lpg=PA910& dq=pigment+ iridium+ black& source=bl& ots=zYculI4sx-& sig=qJY3yFKfrqlGB3OxO4zHeZ7V4VY& hl=el&
ei=_2vYS_89w5g4mezx2gY& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7& ved=0CDIQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q=pigment iridium
black& f=false). 2. pp. 910. .
[55] Darling, A. S. (1960). "Iridium Platinum Alloys" (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ pdf/ pmr-v4-i1-018-026. pdf) (PDF). Platinum
Metals Review 4 (l): 23 fig. 6. .
[56] Handley, J. R. (1986). "Increasing Applications for Iridium" (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/
[57] NGK Spark Plugs Technical Information (http:/ / www. ngkspark. com. au/ sparkplug_tech. php#)
[58] Cativa (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ pdf/
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[59] Halmshaw, R. (1954). "The use and scope of Iridium 192 for the radiography of steel". British Journal of Applied Physics 5: 238243. doi:
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eyelid." (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 15275716). Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 59 (5): 1326-9. .
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CA (http:/ / chandra. harvard. edu/ press/ bios/ johnston. html). Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics; Chandra X-ray Center (1995)
( 2008-09-24 )
[62] Mhl, D. (1997). "Production of low-energy antiprotons". Zeitschrift Hyperfine Interactions 109: 3341. doi: 10.1023/A:1012680728257
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1023/ A:1012680728257).
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PMID 16304642 (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 16304642).
617
618
4. Emsley, J. (2001). "Yttrium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press..
ISBN 198503407.
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978-0-632-02953-2.
7. Hirsch ., Michael . (2004). Fullerenes: chemistry and reactions. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527308202.
8. Jollie D. (2008). PLATINUM 2008. Johnson Matthey, England.
10. M .. (1994). . , . ISBN 9603432725.
11. M ... . .
12. M . (1982). . ..., .
13. Misra K.C. (2000). Understanding mineral deposits (14 ). Springer. ISBN 978-0-04-553009-0.
14. Oro L. A., Claver C., . (2008). Iridium Complexes in Organic Synthesis. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. ISBN
3-527-31996-4.
16. T . (2001). . , . ISBN 9789604317547.
17. Ure A. (1808). A DICTIONARY OF ART, MANUFACTURES, AND MINES. NeYork:D. Appleton&Company.
ISBN 114745213X.
Mining Glossary (http://www.platinum.matthey.com/production/mining-glossary/)

" -" (http://www.physics4u.gr/news/2004/scnews1476.
html)
Alvarez (http://www.enet.gr/?i=news.el.article&id=143140)
Iridium (http://periodictable.com/Elements/077/index.html)
Mineral Species containing Iridium (Ir ) (http://www.webmineral.com/chem/Chem-Ir.shtml)
Mssbauer Effect (http://www.mossbauer.org/mossbauer.html)
Processing of Iridium and Iridium Alloys (http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/matthey/pmr/2008/
00000052/00000003/
art00009?token=00481123a437a63736a6f2c47795d23663f4445746e6f644a467c79675d7c4e724770cbc)
"" (http://www.whatsnew.gr/wikilinks/2/1253096737_34.html)
Chemistry, Structures & 3D Molecules (http://www.3dchem.com/element.asp?selected=Ir)
619
Pt
(Pt)
()
78
, ,
10 ,6, d

(A )
195,084
[Xe] 4f14 5d9 6s1
EINECS
231-116-1
CAS
7440-06-4
139 pm
1365 pm
van der Waals
175 pm
2,28
+2, +4
620

1: 870 kJ/mol
2: 1791 J/mol

1768,3C (3215F) (2041,4 K)
3825C (6917F) (4098 K)
21,45 g/cm3
22,17 KJ/mol
469 KJ/mol
25,86 J/molK
103 nm
9,7 MS/m
(27C) 71,6 W/(mK)
Mohs
4 - 4,5
Vickers
549 MPa
Brinell
392 MPa

(Young's modulus)
168 GPa

(Shear modulus)
61 GPa

(Bulk modulus)
230 GPa
Poison
0,38
(20C) 2680 m/s
8 ( Pt )
11, 43
NFPA 704
(25C, 1
Atm)

( : , : platinum) , ,
, , 78
195,084 ( 1995 195,078[1] ). "Pt"
10 , 6 d-block.
1768,3C 3825C[2] .
, : " ",
PGM, Platinum Group Metals PGE, Platinum Group Elements.
621

H
Li
He
Be
Na Mg
Al
Si
Cl Ar
As
Se Br Kr
Ca Sc
Rb Sr
Ti
Cr Mn Fe
Co
Ni
Cu Zn Ga Ge
Zr Nb Mo Tc
Ru Rh
Pd Ag Cd In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hf Ta W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au Hg Tl
Pb
Bi
Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac **
Rf Db Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cs Ba La
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
** Th Pa
Ne
Xe

- (, ),
16 ,
18 . ,
.
.
, , , , ,
. [3] ,
. "" ,
, '
, . 2011 1800
/ 57.000 /[4] .
, PGM,
, ,
.
. ,
, ,
.
, ,
(, ), ,
. ,
.
: 192Pt, 194Pt, 195Pt, 196Pt 198Pt.
""
"",
(--),
( ) [5] . "witgoud"
"" . : .
"hakkin" (-) , "bijn" (-)
"baek.geum" (-) .[6] [7] . ""

platina del Pinto [8] .
platinum Pt. (Pt) (
/ - platinum) " "
(white gold) (Au) , (.. )
.
18
.
7 ..
,
PGM. , ,
[9] .
-
(, )
(Esmeraldas) ,
. 16 ,
18
.

.
, Choco () Pinto

() platina del Pinto.

85 %
8 %
PGM , [9] .
.
.
1557
(Julius Caesar Scaliger Giulio Cesare della Scala, 1484-1558),

(Darien) :
[9] .
622
18
1726 (Jose Sanchez de la Torre y
Armas), (Bogota),
, [10] [11] .
1735, ,
(Don Antonio de Ulloa, 1716 1795)
'
. 18

.
1745 , Ulloa
"platina del Pinto",
.
Ulloa .
, ,
Don Antonio de Ulloa (1716 1795).

Charles Wood,
1748. Ulloa, ,

. 1758
[12] .
, 1741, (Charles Wood, 1702 - 1774)
,
(William Brownrigg, 1711 1800) . 1750, Brownrigg
,
.
:
, , , ,
, , . 1752,
, " ",
.
,
[12] .
623
1772, (Karl
Heinrich Joseph) (Sickingen)
. ,
,
,

.
0,0052 ,
[13] .
1782, o (Antoine-Laurent de
Lavoisier), ,
,
[14] .
O Antoine-Laurent
25 '
Lavoisier (17431794), ""
. ,
,
,

1784, ,
(Franz Karl Achard) .
.
1786, -
(Pierre-Franois Chabaneau), ,
,
. Chabaneau 1799,
. - (Joseph-Louis Proust)
1786 . Chabaneau
, , , . ,
Chabaneau
PGM .
.
, .
. , Chabaneau
23 ,
. , ,
'
. [13] .
19
19 . 1802
1804, (William Hyde Wollaston) (Smithson Tennant)
, , 1844 (Karl Karlovich Klaus) .
(Sir Humphry Davy) 1807
1817
Pt
. , Davy
[15] .
624
625
1832 ,
" " ,
(Peregrine Phillips) SO2 SO3, 1837
(Charles Frdric Kuhlmann) Pt
, (1902)
" Ostwald"[16] .
Wollaston
1828 (Heinrich Gustav Magnus) "
Magnus", Pt - [17] .
(William Robert Grove),
, 1842 .
1838, (Percival Norton Johnson) (George
Matthey), PGM
. Matthey 1879
, 10 % 90 %
. , 0C, 1960
[18] .

20 ,
' .
Pt, .
H 1960,
1970, , , ..., . 1980
1990.
1974 PGM.
1980, 1990,
, ,
[18] .
2007, (Gerhard Ertl)

.
- -
,
PGM,
. Pt
,
.
Pt 37 ppb
1000 ppb [19] .
Pt
.
626
PG, ,
:
, 2,1 , Bushveld
.
[20] .

(Great Dyke) (Zimbabwe) 2,5
[21] .
, PGM
47 % Pt[22] .
,

Pt, Noril'sk-Talnakh
- (Noril'sk)

[22]
(Talnakh) . 25 % Pt
.
PGM (Monchegorsk)
[23] .
(Stillwater) ...,
2,7 . PGM, 22,3 ppm, .
[24] .
H (Sudbury)
[25] . Pt
. PGM (Hawk Ridge),
(Manitoba)[26] (Lac des Iles).
PGM (Choco)
, , ,
(Witswatersrand ) . (Khabarovsk)
. [27] .
, ,
, , , , [8] .
-
Pt .
.
( 31 ) 7 12 [28] .
PGM .
.
,
, ,
.
627
' ,
4 7 [28] .
,
" ",

PGMs,
,
.
100 1000
.

. -

,
,

Pt .
, .
: Johnson Matthey : Platinum Today's image library
,
1400 ,
. 1500C
,
.
. , Stillwater ... 850.000
, 15,5 PGM[29] .
, 100 /,
1600C
, , "" (matte) PGMs
. matte
, , , PGMs[28] .
-

,
.

,
. , Pt
,
. ,
,

, Pt
[30] .
1.000 cm3 (1 )
99,9 %. : 910.000 (
30/10/2009)

PGM -
. ,
, PGM
" ",
PGM[31] [32] . "" Sudbury 0,34 g Pt/ton
Bushveld 4,78 g Pt/ton. PGM ,
[33] .
PGM
[28] . ,
.
, , [34] [35] : (Au) / (Ag)
.
(Pd), Au Pt. , H2PtCl6,
[36] :
3Pt + 4HNO3 + 18HCl 3H2PtCl6 + 4 + 82
PGM Ag .
Au Fe2+, , NH4Cl,
Pd , Pt
, (NH4)2PtCl2 :
H2PtCl6 + 2NH4Cl (NH4)2PtCl6 + 2HCl
, :
(NH4)2PtCl6 Pt + 2NH3 + 2HCl + 2Cl2
-
(spot)[37] 28 2011 1.686
/ 54.206 / [38] .

, ,
. 2009,
184

76,5 %
13,2 %
10,3 %[39] .

. 2009
[39]
2009
(5.920.000 )

35 ,
310 17,5 . . 2009
53 Pt[39] .
628

. 2005 - 2009
Pt
70 , 41,
37 , 45
29.
Pt
.
,
,
[39] .

,
Pt . 2005-2009
.

5.000.000 , 82.000.000
547.000.000 . ,
.
(NYMEX)
, .
ISO 4217 XPT 962.

. , Pt
. ,
, .

[40] .
1965 2009
629
630
, 1880 2010,
9.00 , , 4 2008, 2280 /[23] .
Pt,
= 392,42 pm

,
.

.
(3
Os Ir),
.

.
.

: 2057C 10-5 Atm
1 Atm 3821C.
631
[41]
Pt 23 Vickers .
, :
1275 MPa (200C) 451 MPa (600C) 402 MPa (1000C)[42] .
168 GPa 172 GPa ( 20C 25C). H
: 46
60 .
Mohs 4 - 4,5, [43] . '
4[44] . 3,5[45] .
(Mohs),
[46] . 3,5 4 :

Cu-Sb

40 W/(m.K)
, 430 W/(mK) (Pu) (Np), 6 W/(m.).
, 71,6
W/(m.) 27C[47] , [34] .
0 - 950C[42]
0,5 % 73 W/(m.K).
[48] '
907C 1477C. 70,25 W/(m.) 71 W/(m.)
21,32 g/cm3 135 150 ppm.
, ,
99,999 % 99,9 % 927C
[49] .

(%) [50]
( . )
, , . 60 % (
400 nm) 73 % ( 760 nm).
( 520 nm)
, 97 % [51] .

5,3 MS/m (62
MS/m), , , 0,62
MS/m. , 9,7
MS/m 25C PGM[52] .
(21,45 g/cm3)
[34] : f
,

"".
6 . ,
, , , , .
' ( ) .
d
.
,
.
( KJ/mol) Pt+ Pt10+
Pt,
"" :
632
633
(KJ/mol)
Pt - Pt+
870
Pt+ - Pt2+
1791
Pt2+ - Pt3+
2800
Pt3+ - Pt4+
3900
Pt4+ - Pt5+
5300
Pt5+ - Pt6+
7200
Pt6+ - Pt7+
8900
Pt7+ - Pt8+
10500
Pt8+ - Pt9+
12300
Pt9+ - Pt10+
14100
|+
0 (V)
Pt2+ + 2e- Pt
+1,2
PtO2 + 2H+ + 2e- Pt(OH)2
+1,1
Pt(OH)2 + 2e- Pt + 2OH-
+0,15
Pt(OH)2 + 2H+ + 2e- Pt + 2H2O +0,98

PtCl62- + 2e- PtCl42- + 2Cl-
+0,68
PtCl42- + 2e- Pt + 4Cl-
+0,73
|+

()
|+ 10

28
2, 8, 16, 2
46
2, 8, 18, 18
78
2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1
110
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 17, 1
'
,
: Pt2+ + 2e Pt (+ 1,2 V)

,

(. )
.

.

Pt
,
, , ,
, [53] . Pt
. ,
[36] .
,
[54] .

.
.
d-block ( d diffuse
)[55] .
- -
20C 100C
[36] :
3Pt + 4HNO3 + 18HCl 3H2PtCl6 + 4NO + 8H2O
, HBr, 60 %. 100C
, HCl, 36 % , HI.
, [42] .
(350C) , NaOH,
, KOH, .

. (410C) NaOH 1
Pt 8 cm2
20 % 2, 350 mg .
25 % .
100 % 2,
450 mg. ,
Pt (99,95 %)
2, 25 % .

(410C) OH 1 Pt 8
cm2 25 % 20 % 2, 37 g [42] .
634

, KCN, 100C 700C,
280 mg /cm2 . , KHSO4, 440C
, Na2CO3 920C, 0,72 mg /cm2 [42] .

550C - 750C
280C - 450C,
500C, .
PtO2
[56] .

1 mg Pt/L. 1227C :
Pt + O2 PtO2

PtO2. , ,
.
PtO2
25C
134 KJ/mol</ref>, PtO[56] .

,
Pt(II) Pt(III)[35] :
Pt + Cl2 PtCl2 ( 500C)
2Pt + 3Cl2 2PtCl3 ( 400-600C )
(IV) Pt
350C :
Pt + 2SO2Cl2 PtCl4 + 2SO2
[19] :
Pt + 2Cl2 PtCl4
Pt 150C (IV)[35] :
Pt + 2Br2 PtBr4
PtBr2 PtBr3 .
(), (), (V)[35] .
525C - PtI2 :
Pt + I2 -PtI2
- , K2PtI6.
160C , ,
() :
2Pt + 3I2 2PtI3
(160C) - PtI4 :
Pt + 2I2 -PtI4
(VI), PtF6,
Pt[35] :
635

Pt + 3F2 PtF6
PtF4, PtF5 PtCl2
200C 350C .

, ,
.
. :
. (platinised platinum)

.

[57] .
. , ,
(William Hyde Wollaston)
. (platinum sponge)
[34] : (NH4)2PtCl6 Pt + 2NH3 + 2HCl + 2Cl2.
, Pt,
,
,
[57] .
. , Zn, , ,
(platinum black). ,

. 1928
(Roger Adams, 1889 - 1971) (V), PtO2. ,
: 24,4 29,2 m2/g[57] .

,
. , .
.
.

. [58] .

5d
.
. ,
..
, Pt . ,
[59] .
636
637

, ,
,
[60] . ,
,

,
().
, Pt
(CO)
. .
(
),
. 1981
(NOx)
, ' , Pt Pd, .
:
, .. ,
. Pt
, ,
[61] .
PGM

, ,
.. 1 g
15 g .
,
4 - 5 g [62] .
' ,

,
.
,
,
Tammann,
.
. Tamman
(600 - 700C) ,
. Pt 750C
(395C 345C )
[63] .
,

' . , ,
. ,
[61] .

(, ) ( )

. ,
Pt
.
Pt/C platinum on carbon.
Pt/C ,
(C)
(H2PtCl6)
Pt
(Li2CO3) Pt PtOx

.
.
Pt/C[64] .
Johnson Matthey : Platinum
, ,
Today's image library
(Al2O3)
. ' ,
0,6 % w/w. , Pt (Sn)
(Re) [65] .
, Pt . ,
, (IV) (SiO2),
, (IV) (IV)[66] .
, Pt, Rh Pd
.
: 190Pt, 192Pt, 194Pt, 195Pt, 196Pt 198Pt. '

195Pt 33,832 % .
, 0.014 %, 190Pt, 198Pt
6,501 1011 3,2 1014 . , ,
. 31
166 202. ' 166Pt 300 s 193Pt
50 . Pt -
-. 188Pt, 191Pt 193Pt .
638
- -

.
0,05 pg/m3 Pt (=510-20 g/cm3) [67] .

. , 12 ng Pt/Km 80
Km/h 90 ng Pt/Km 130 Km/h. 9 ng
Pt/Km 80 Km/h 18 ng Pt/Km 130 Km/h[20] . ,
,
, .
, ,
[67] .
-

' . 1997 0,31
g/Kg, 0,04 g/Kg 0,31 - 2,1 g/Kg[68] .

. ,
, , .

. ,
, [69] .

, ,
, .
19 (platinosis) [70] 1980
" ". 1951
60 % 100 % ,
(1996) 30 % ,
' 3 . 2001, ,

, latex , 12 % [68] .
,
gel ,
.
[71] [72] .
.
cisplatin ()
. ,
20 %[73]
[74] . , ,
[75] .
... [76] :
, Pt : NIOSH REL[77] : TWA[78] 1 mg/m3.
639
640
( Pt) : IDLH[79] : 4 mg/m3. NIOSH REL : TWA 0,002 mg/m3. OSHA

PEL[80] : TWA 0,002 mg/m3

, Pt ..
.
[36] .
+2 ( .. PtCl2, PtO ..) +4 ( .. PtO2,
PtF4 ..).
[35] [19]

Pt
PtCl2
PtCl4
PtO2
PtS2
PtF6
PtO3
PtBr3
PtBr2
'
,
. ,
[55] .
: +6 ..
PtF6, +5 . PtF5, +3 .. [Pt2(SO4)4(H2O)2]2, +1 .. Pt2[CH3CN]6, 0 .. Pt(PPh3).
PtF8(CO)2, , . . +8.
1960
F2CO[81] . 1971 [82] .
, Ba,
. , BaPt (. . Pt = 1), Ba2Pt (. . Pt = 2)
BaPtBa2Pt Pt 1,5[83] .
, Cs, Pt2[83] . .
. Pt [84] . . .,
, 6s [83] .

, H2[PtCl6],
H2[PtCl6]6H2O,
,
: Pt,
, ,
2 , , ,
PtCl6
, ..[85] [86] .
, (NH4)2[PtCl6] , 2[PtCl6], - .
,
,
[34] .

1962, (Neil Bartlett, 1932-2008)
(1165 KJ/mol) 2
(NH4)2PtCl6
2+ Xe Xe+ (1170 KJ/mol).
,
, O2[PtF6], PtF6
2, Xe. , 250C
: Xe + PtF6 Xe[PtF6],
18
[34] .

(VI), PtF6, ,
[87] . (), PtCl2,
PtCl2L2 L .
(), PtBr2, Pt
(IV), PtBr4, (), AuBr3,
[88] .

, PtO2.
, , , ..
(PtO2H2O), Adams, H2PtCl6
:
H2PtCl6 + 3 Na2CO3 Pt(CO3)2 + 6 NaCl + H2O + CO2
Pt(CO3)2 PtO2 + 2 CO2</ref>, Na2CO3
, NaNO3 [89]
H2PtCl6 + 6 NaNO3 Pt(NO3)4 + 6 NaCl (aq) + 2 HNO3
Pt(NO3)4 PtO2 + 4 NO2 + O2</ref>
(V. Voorhees) (Roger
Adams) 1922[90] . 650C, [87] .
PtO2 , (VI), PtO3,
HCl Cl2.
(), PtO, . PtO
PtOH2O,
(), Pt2O3.
Pt , (V), Pt3O4.
641
642

(Li, K, Na, Rb, Cs)
[60] . Li5Pt2H9, Na2PtH4, KPtH4, K2PtH6, K3PtH5, RbPtH4, Rb3PtH5, CsPtH4,
CsPtH5. 2, Pt ( =
) . PtH42
. PtH62.
, , , ,
. +2 (PtS), +3 (Pt2S3), +4 (PtS2).
(), PtS,
. PtS [86] .
(), PtSe, , Pt Se
1050 - 1100C. PtSe2 PtSe3
140C, [86] .
: Pt Te PtTe
Pt3Te4, Pt2Te3 PtTe2[86] .
(), PtSi,
.
PtSi2, Pt2Si [86] .
, PtC, ,
, ,
. ,
[91] .

, ,
, , .
, ligands
() (F)[34] .

, -.
Pt ,
.
Pt(CO)n [35]
Pt-C
, PPh3 ( Ph
C6H5 ) .. Pt(PPh3)3CO.
(n2-C60)Pt(PPh3)2
, (n2-C60)Pt(PPh3)2, Pt -C60
(CH2=CH2) (n2-C2H4)Pt(PPh3)2 C60.
643
Pt(0) Pt(I)
Pt(0) PPh3 Pt(PPh3)n (n =
3,4). Pt
PPh3 . ..
C2H4 P(PPh3)2(C2H4) .
Pt . +1 , Pt-Pt,
1970[35] .
Pt(I)
S- .. [(CH3CH2)4N]2Pt(SPh)4,
P- .. PPh3, O-
. Pt(acac)2 ( acac 2,5-,
CH3COCHCOCH3), -
Pt[(CH3)2SO]2(NO3)2.
Pt(II)
,
cis---(), cis-Pt(NH3)2Cl2
(, cisplatin, ..) , cis-(1,1-)()
(carboplatin), -1,1-(-)-- () (spiroplatin) ..
cis-Pt(NH3)2Cl2
Krogmann (Krogmann's salt). C-,

, K2[Pt(CN)4]Cl0,322,6H2O,
1960 (Klaus Krogmann)[92] .
Krogmann
.
Magnus (Magnus' green salt).
,
Pt
d
.
[34] ,

.
(
Magnus.
C-) -
Pt, Cl
. [Pt(NH3)4]n[PtCl4]m
3
n, m
-
[PtCl4]2 [Pt(NH3)4]2+
Pt 3,25 (3,25 10-10 m)[93] . 1828
(Heinrich Gustav Magnus, 1802 - 1870)[17] .
[PtL4]n[PtQ4]m L Q
[34] .
Zeise (Zeise's salt). 1827

(William Christopher Zeise, 1789 - 1847)

1830 [94] .

Zeise
, , ,
()()
K[PtCl3(C2H4)]H2O. Pt
ligand (CH2=CH2) -
[95] .
Pt(II) 5, [96]
[Pt(SnCl3)5]3, [34] .
Pt(II) Pt(IV)
, Pt(III)
1970. [Pt(ttcn)2]3+, Pt[(tacn)2]3+ ..
ligands 1,4,7--- (tacn) 1,4,7,--- (ttcn)[35]
. Pt2Cl6{NH=C(OH)(CH3)3C}4
Pt-Pt [Pt(C6Cl5)]4.
1980 Pt(IV)
. Pt(IV) , .
- Pt(NH3)nX4 = Cl, Br, I n = 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 S-
[Pt(S5)3]2 1903 .
Pt(IV) , Pt(QR3)2X4 =
Q = P, As R = , Q = Sb R = CH3[35] .
-
.
, ,
..
2005 - 2009 1.113
503 ( 45 %),
52 ( 5 %), 40 (4 %),
44 (4 %), , 41 (4
%), 336 (30 %), , 35
(3 %), 28 (2 %) ,
, 34 (3 %)[39] .
644
645

70 Pt

2005-2009, 51 ( 73 %)
.
37

18 ( 49 %)
.
39 % 9 %[39] .

1949, ,

. Pt
,
.
, [97] .

1904, .
(3)
2 ().
(Rh) Pt ,
Rh-Pt 300 mg
[60] .
, , , (Si),
.
,
.
3M's Post-itNotes [45] .

' '
.
.
() .
,

10 g [9] .

. 2 g
1 [98] . Pt
[54] .
, , ,
[16] , [99] ,
()[85] , , [68] .
(Gerhard Ertl)
Pt, Pd
Haber-Bosch
. Nobel 2007[100] .
K - - -
.

.

7 .. [9] .

19
Cartier Tiffany.

1930 '
, , ,
[97] .
Pt 1960. ,
,
,
. [101] .
, Pt 1970 ,
1980
1990[97] .
, . 2009,
85,3 Pt 58,9 ( 69 %).
2009 62,6
58,9 ( 94 %)[39] .
646
,

. Pt
,
. ,
""
,
[101] .
,

VI, .
.
90 % 95 % ( 85 %)

(Pd), (Ru), (Ir), (Cu), (Co), (W)
.
Pt-Pd, ... Pt-Co Pt-Ir, Pt-Ru
... Pt-Cu
Pt-W[102] .
. Vacheron Constantin
1820. ,
Patek Philippe, Vacheron Constantin, Tag Heuer,
IWC, Rolex, Breitling . 1987 1200
2004 13000 [97] . , Pt ""

. , ,
"" [103] .

.
[104] .
. .
, "" .
[105] .
1828
.
, " " , . 10 g 3
.
[106] . 3 1835 ,
1828.
. .
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647
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, ,
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, , ,
, , , . ,
[68] .
1968 (Barnett Rosenberg)
cis-() (), cis-[Pt(NH3)2Cl2]
Pt(), .
cis-[Pt(NH3)4Cl2], [Pt(en)Cl2], [Pt(en)2Cl2] en
, H2NCH2CH2NH2[107] .
Pt
1977
. carboplatin, nedaplatin,
oxaliplatin, picoplatin, spiroplatin .. Platinol, Eloxatin, Platamine ..
"" .
, ligands Cl. trans
, cis
.
.
[34] .

()[108] .
648
649

Pt ,
, 100 [109] ,
,
, ,
.[85] [54] .
,
, 25000
, Pt
[45] .
. , ,

Pt,
(), PtCl2
, (NH4)2PtCl4.
.
1930 1873

(William Willis)[110] .
1897
Sir Anthony Hope
Hawkins,
.
. ()
( ) [111] .

[54]
. , Pt
, 50 % 1997.
, 10 %
35 % , . 23,3 % 76,7
% [54] .
" "
1889
1960
. 1889 1960,
, ,
90 %
10 %
.
Pt 1799. 1960,
.
1879
[51] .
.

, (HF),
' , ,
, thermistors ( ),
pellistors ( ),
HF[112] .

.
, -
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, ,

, [97] .
.
1700C.
, .
,

[109] . (LCD)

[113] . , Pt-Rh
(CRT).
,
. .
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6. Gotthelf P. (2005). Precious metals trading: how to profit from major market moves. Wiley. ISBN
978-0-471-71151-3.
9780131755536.
10. Johanson P. (2009). Platinum: Understanding the Elements of the Periodic Table. The Rosen Publishing
Group.. ISBN 01404217835.
11. Kelland L. R., Farrell N. P., . (2000). Platinum-Based Drugs in Cancer Therapy. Springer. ISBN
978-0-89603-599-7.
12. Lippert . (1999). Cisplatin: chemistry and biochemistry of a leading anticancer drug. Wiley-VCH. ISBN
3-906390-20-9.
15. M .. (1994). . , . ISBN 9603432725.
16. M K, K. (1984). . .
17. Martienssen W., Warlimont H., . (2005). Springer handbook of condensed matter and materials data.
Classes of materials. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-44376-6.
18. M ... . .
654
655
ISBN 0521859042.
21. Rich J.C. (1974). The materials and methods of sculpture. ISBN 0486257428.
22. Schumann W. (2008). Minerals of the World. ISBN 140275339X.
23. T . (2001). . , . ISBN 9789604317547.
26. Wood I. (2004). The Elements: Platinum. Benchmark Books. ISBN 0761415505.

The Visual Elements Periodic Table : Alchemical symbols (http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelements/
pages/alchemist/alchemy.html)]
s9.html)
Pictures of Platinum, its minerals and applications (http://periodictable.com/Elements/078/pictures.pr.html)
Library of Inorganic Structures : Pt (http://www.3dchem.com/element.asp?selected=Pt)
New Application Development (http://www.platinum.matthey.com/applications/other-demand-sectors/
new-application-development/Scientific Development.html)
Information about Platinum as a commodity from New York Mercantile Exchange (http://www.nymex.com/
pla_pre_agree.aspx)
London Platinum and Palladium Market (http://www.lppm.org.uk/)
Making a Platinum Print (http://www.danesphoto.com/pt_printing.html)
An introduction to platinum (http://www.jmny.com/technical/platinumTechManual/An Introduction to
Platinum.pdf)
Carboplatin
Cisplatin
Picoplatin
Satraplatin
Nedaplatin
Oxaliplatin
656
657
Ag
Au
Rg
.
: ,
: ()

,
(Au)
()
79
, ,
11 ,6, d

(A )
196.966569 g/mol
658
[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s1
CAS
7440-57-5

144 pm
1366 pm
van der Waals
166 pm
2,54 ( Pauling)
-1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
1: 890,1 kJ / mol
2: 1980 kJ / mol

1064,18 C
2856 C
19,30 g/cm
(25 C) 25,418 J/mol
(20 C) 22,14 n/m
(300 K) 318 W/m
Mohs
2,5
Vickers
216 MPa
Brinell
25 HB MPa

(Bulk modulus)
180GPa
Poison
0.44
( ) 2030 m/s
(25C, 1
Atm)

( Aurum) 79
196,966569. 1064,43 C 2807 C. ,
, ( )
. ' ,
, .. () ,
. , .
.
[1] .
.
. (24 )
(1000 ). 14 (585
) 18 (750 ). 10%
.
, .
.
[1] . . , (http:/ / news. kathimerini. gr/ 4dcgi/ _w_articles_civ_2_02/ 05/ 2010_399305),

. , 2 2010.
659
660
Cd
Hg
Cn
(Hg)
()
80
, ,
12 ,6, d

(A )
200.59 g/mol
[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2
CAS
7439-97-6
151 pm
1325 pm
van der Waals
155 pm
2.00 ( Pauling)
661

4, 2
1: 1007,1 kJ/mol
2: 1810 kJ/mol
3: 3300 kJ/mol

-38,83C
356,73C
1477C, 172,00 MPa
( ) 13,534 g/cm3
(25C) 27,983 J/mol
(25C) 961n/m
(27C) 8,30 W/m
( 20C) 1451,4 m/s
(25C, 1
Atm)

80 200,59
-38,87C 356,58C
.:Hg ,
.
. .
. .
[1] .
, , , .
, .
, .
.
d-.

:

()
; [2]
[1] (http:/ / enimerwsi. wordpress. com/ 2009/ 02/ 26/ -- / )

[2] http:/ / www. polkarag. gr/ FILES/ chem/ Hg/ Hg_fils/ harmful. htm
662
663
IUPAC
238,59 g/mol
CAS
7783-39-3
SMILES
[F2-].[Hg+]

645 C (918 K)
8,95 g/m3,
(25C, 1 Atm)

HgF2. ,
. .
664

Hg2Cl2. ( ).
, .
( )
, ,
.
. ,
, 20 .

"
".
,
18 ,
,
.
Benjamin Rush ,

,

1793.
A
, ,
( :HgCl2.
1830
1860.
,
,
, , .
665
IUPAC
560,99g/mol
CAS
15385-58-7
SMILES
[Br2-].[Hg2+]

405 C ( 678K)
7,307 g/m3,
3.9 x 10-5 g/100 mL

R26/27/28, R33, R50/53
S13, S28, S45, S60, S61
(25C, 1
Atm)

Hg2Br2.
.

.
.
[1]
bromide Mercury(I) bromide
,
[2]
[1]
GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 . (bromide / ).
666
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Mercury(I)
()

.

: ,
,
, (
), ( ) (
).

" "
.

.
, , ..
. .
, :
.

, ,
- ( ), - (
).
" " .1, .571.
667
Tl
1 g

,
(Tl)
()
81
, ,
13 ,6, p

(A )
204,3833
[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p1
EINECS
231-138-1
CAS
7440-28-0
170 pm
155 pm
van der Waals
200 pm
1,62
[1]
[1]
668

+3, +1
1:589,4 KJ/mol
2:1971 KJ/mol
3:2878 J/mol

[1]
(-Tl)
304C (579F) (577 K)
1473C (2683F) (1746 K)
11,85 g/cm3
4,14 KJ/mol
165 KJ/mol
26,32 J/molK
(20C) 180 nm
(27C) 46,1 W/(mK)
Mohs
1,2
Vickers
Brinell
26,4 MPa

(Young's modulus)
7,89 GPa

(Shear modulus)
2,67 GPa
(Bulk modulus)
43 GPa
Poison
0,45
480 m/s ( )
[1]
1630 m/s ( )
[2]
[3]
[1]
26, 28, 33, 47
(25C, 1 Atm)

( : thallium) , , .
81 204,3833. "Tl"
13 , 6 p-block. 304C
1473C.

0,7 ppm[4] .
. .
, 7 170 [5] .
.
[6] , , .
, ,
[7] .
.
FYROM ' .
17000
630000 .
-
,
(), TlOH[8] .
().
1861
1862.
, ( ) , [9] .
T ,
[2] .
- - 230C[2] .
, -, [1] .
, +1 +3.

[10] .
.

[11] .
60 % 70 %
.
.
2009 5700 /Kg[4] .
, 203Tl 205Tl.
:
(Sir William Crookes, 1832 1919) 1861
- (Claude Auguste Lamy, 1820 1878)
1862.
1814 (Joseph von Fraunhofer).
, (Robert Bunsen)
(Gustav Kirchhoff)
. 1860 , ,
, 1861 [12] ,
Bunsen [13] .
669
670

Crookes Lamy .
Crookes, ,

Tilkerode Harz
. 10 ( 4,5 ) , ,
1850, (August Wilhelm von Hofmann). ,
Crookes [14] :
...suddenly a bright green line flashed into view and as quickly disappeared. An isolated green line in
this portion of the spectrum was new to me.
(... .
' .)
Crookes

30 1861.

[15]
( thallus)
.

1862[13] .
Lamy, ,
Crookes,

.
Sir William Crookes

(Fred Kuhlmann).
.
Lamy[16] ,
Crookes :
j' ignorais alors qu'un chimiste anglais, M.W. Crookes, avait non-seulement dcouvert la mme raie
verte dans des circonstances peu prs analogues, mais avait donn le nom de thallium l'lment
nouveau...
( , W. Crookes,
, ...)
Lamy, Crookes ,
[16] .
, , ,

.
[17] . ,
, ,
[18] . (Jean Baptiste Andr Dumas, 1800 1884)
[19] .

, Lamy, Crookes
. Lamy 1862
:
Crookes , : , .
1863 Crookes
, 1863[20] . Lamy
Crookes[21] .
0,7 ppm[4] (47o 65 ),

0,00386 ppb[22] .
0,000019 mg/L[23] .
, ,
. ,
[4] . , [24]
[2] .
1,3105 ppm.
Tl , ,

[25] .
, , ,
, ,
. [26] 20 - 80 ppm
3 - 6 ppm 8,8 ppm 27,8 ppm
.
Tl , :
73 ppm 15 ppm.
, 1 ppm ,
.
. ,
4,810-4 mg/L , 0,004 - 0,033 ppm, 0,002 ppm 0,07
ppm. 0,0015 mg,
70 Kg 0,5 mg[27] .
4,410-5 ppm,
0,00405 ppm[23] .

.
(, ) (, , )
0,05 ppm 0,4 ppm (, , , ) 0,5 ppm 2,3
ppm. (, , , )
0,01 ppm 2 ppm Tl[26] , 0,27 ppm 1,25
ppm[28] . 87 ppm 118 ppm,
671

23 ppm 226 ppm. .
0,1 ppm 1,5 ppm[28] .
.
.
, . Tl+
Rb+ Pb2+ , PbS.
, , Tl+,
[24] .
, ,
. ,
[26] .

.
. ,
Tl.
. 2005
(Xiangquan) (Yangtze) [29] .

(Yanshanian) .
120 - 400 m, 10 - 15 m 0,9 - 1,2 m.
250 .
TlAsS2, TlFeS2 .
Y Tl, ,
(Guizhou) ,
(Au), (Hg), (As) . Tl
100 ppm 35000 ppm 39 ppm 490 ppm
. , 0,22 ppm
16 ppm 46 ppm
Au-As-Hg-Tl[30] .
Carlin[31]
.
Yanshanian (140-75 )[32] .
F.Y.R.O.M.. (Allchar) FYROM Carlin,
, , .
. 1880 1908
, . 500
[33]
, .
,
[34] .

6900 ppm.
672
673
50 [6] ,
: Cu7(Tl,Ag)Se4 16,3 % Tl
, TlAsS2 59,51 % Tl
, Tl4Hg3Sb2As8S20 28,16 % Tl
(Pb,Tl)2As5S9 19 % Tl[2] .
Tl2O3 92,74 % Tl.
.
(K2Cu3FeS4) (24,31 % Tl)

Kedykverpakhk Kola 2006[35] .
(TlCu3FeS4)
(Tl2Cu3FeSe4)
1976 - Norilsk-Talnakh
, Cu3-xTl2Fe1+xS4[36] .
-
,
Crookes[37] :
. ,

, Na2CO3.
, .
,
, , Tl2S, CdS HgS . ,
, () .

, [37] : ,
(), Tl2O. , (Cu),
674
(Pb), (Bi), (As) (Fe),
.
CuS, As2S3, Bi2S3, PbS
Tl2S Fe2S3. :
, 3, Fe Fe(OH)3,
() : Tl2S + 2NH3 + 2H2O 2TlOH +
(NH4)2S[38] , . , , TlI : TlOH
+ KI TlI + KOH, ,
: 2TlI + H2SO4 Tl2SO4 + 2HI,
: Zn + Tl2SO4 ZnSO4 + 2Tl.
Cl- -, TlCl TlI,
FeCl3 . :
, Na2CO3 , KCN : 2TlX + Na2CO3 +
2KCN 2Tl + 2NaX + K2CO3 + (CN)2,
TlCl TlI Tl2SO4 : TlCl + H2SO4 Tl2SO4 +
HCl Zn .

, Lamy[37] :
, PbO
. , HCl
TlCl. () : TlCl + H2SO4
TlHSO4 + HCl[38] , ,
, , .
.
-

, [4] .
1980 2002, 15 . 2003
2009 10 . ... 1973 1977 1
, 1981
,
[4] . ,
,
. , .
(,
, ) .
Tl-0 Tl-1. Tl-1 99,99 %.

[39] .
stock ... (USGS) 380
, 32 ... .
17000
, ... .
.
, 630000 [4] .

9
. H

99,999 %
100 250 g 2009
5700
/Kg
[4] .

2005
40 , 1942
1980,
21
/Kg.
[40]
1988 2008

. 1981 1986, 86 /Kg
[40] .
1987 176 /Kg 1988 (
2008) 948 /Kg 1994, 1995 2005
1300 /Kg 4650 /Kg 2006 4900
/Kg 2008.
, ,
1980
.
,
[40] .
2009
-99 ,

. 99Tc ,
,
. 201Tl
... 25 % . Tc,
201Tl
[4] .
675
676

[1] :
-
.
. ,
.
- 229,85C,

= 387,9 pm .
- ,

.
.

-Tl,
= 345,63 pm
, . ,
c = 552,63 pm
.

. Mohs 1,2 [41] .
, .
, "" [37] .
Poisson[42] : 0,45.
11,85 g/cm3 11,22 g/cm3.
, 2,99105 C1 8 [41] .
. 33
80 . -270,77C[41] .

, , [Tl(H2O)6]3+
[43] :
[Tl(H2O)6]3+ [Tl(H2O)5(OH)]2+ + H+
, ClO4-,
, [44] . TlTl
, 349 pm[45] .
677

()
5
2, 3
13
2, 8, 3
31
2, 8, 18, 3
49
2, 8, 18, 18, 3
81
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 3
113
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 3
13
( )
p-block,
p-. p-block

,
,
[46] .
,
(poor
metals),
IUPAC.
Tl
14 -p

, , , ,
, , , , , 113, 114, 115
116. , '
.
[46] .
- .
, ,
, , ,
, .
() Bohr ,
. (relativistic
contraction) s , p d
f [47] .
,
, , s
.
(inert pair effect) , 6s2 6p1
Tl() Tl() [47] .
678

[48] ( KJ/mol) Tl+ Tl10+
[48] Tl,
"" :

(KJ/mol)
Tl - Tl+
589,3
Tl+ - Tl2+
1971
Tl2+ - Tl3+
2878
Tl3+ - Tl4+
4900
Tl4+ - Tl5+
6100
Tl5+ - Tl6+
8300
Tl6+ - Tl7+
9500
Tl7+ - Tl8+
11300
Tl8+ - Tl9+
14000
Tl9+ - Tl10+
16000
|+
0 (V)
Tl3+ + 2e- Tl+
+1,25
Tl+ + e- Tl(s)
-0,336
Tl2O3 + 3H2O + 4e- 2Tl+ + 6OH- +0,02

TlOH + e- Tl(s) + OH-
-0,344
TlCl(s) + e- Tl(s) + Cl-
-0,557
TlBr(s) + e- Tl(s) + Br-
-0,657
TlI(s) + e- Tl(s) + I-
-0,766
|+
[49]
() (s=, g=, l=,
aq= ) :
2Tl(s) + 2H2O(l) 2TlOH(aq) + H2(g)
679

()[45] :
2Tl(s) + O2(g) Tl2O(s)
Tl(I)
13 .
[49] :
2Tl(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2TlCl3(s)

[18] :
2Tl + 2Br2 Tl[TlBr4]
3Tl + 2I2 Tl3I4
[37] :
2Tl + H2SO4 Tl2SO4 + H2
2Tl + 2HNO3 2TlNO3 + H2
(), TlCl[45] :
2Tl + 2HCl 2TlCl + H2(g)
, , ,
[45] .
TlOH TlOR[45] (R = = CnH2n+1 n = 1,2,3 ...)
, , , ,
, , , , .

377,57 nm 535,05 nm.
-
4 mm. . ,
, 40 %

[50] .
276,78 nm,
.
4--2- 2-
--.
276,78 nm 20
ng/mL 377,57 nm 3 ng/mL
535,05 nm 1,5 ng/mL[50] .

,
()(TlI) () (Tl2CrO4)[37] .
(), ,
(), , , 80C : Tl+ + KI TlI + K+.
. , ,
170C [37] . 204,38
TlI 331,29 x g ,
m = 0,617x g[51] .
, SO2, Tl3+,
, Tl+. , ()
(), , 2CrO4, 10 %
80C : 2Tl+ + 2CrO4 Tl2CrO4 + 2K+. .
, 1 % 2CrO4 50 % . 120C
[37] . 204,38
Tl2CrO4 524,76 x g , m = 0,389x g[51]
.
25 184 210. 203Tl

29,52 % 205Tl 70,48 %[52] ,
204
Tl 3,78 .
202Tl ( 12,23 ) 204Tl
203Tl
-[53] .
201Tl ( 73 ), Hg -, ~ 70
80 KeV 135 167 KeV 10 %.
[54]
-
.
15-20 mg/kg ( 1 g 70 kg).
. ,
.
8 mg/kg. ,
28 mg/kg[55] .
. ,
[49] .
Tl+, ,

. , Tl+,
. ,
.
d-. ,
.
680
681
,
,
. .
.
,
" " " ",
( ).
,
Turnbull, Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3[56] .
. ,
10 .
, 20 g
.

.
[57] .
- (British
Anti-Lewisite, BAL), ClCHCHAsCl2,
' [47] .
,
. 1975 ...
[58] .
... ( Tl) [59]
:
IDLH[60] : 15 mg/m3.
NIOSH REL[61] : TWA[62] 0,1 mg/m3.
OSHA PEL[63] : TWA 0,1 mg/m3

+1 +3. Tl+
Tl3+ Tl+
: Tl3+ + 2e Tl+, E0 = + 1,25 V[37] .
Tl2+ -
Tl2SO4
Tl3+. Tl(II) Tl[TlX4] (X = Cl, Br)
Tl3[TlX6][2] .
()
Tl() , ,
[64] :
Tl+ K+ , 154 133 pm [43] .
(), TlOH, ,
[43] , , CO2, (),
Tl2CO3 (2TlOH + CO2 Tl2CO3 + H2O)
[45] ( ).
, , , , Tl()
.
(), TlF, , NaCl,
() , CsCl.
, [65]
Tl2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O.
() [43] :
Ag+ 126 pm, Tl+ (154 pm).
Tl2O Tl2S Ag2O
Ag2S .
(), TlCl, , AgCl,
(), TlBr, , AgBr.
Tl(I) , [45] .
. TlF . TlCl
[43] TlBr
. TlI , [18] ,
. Tl+
() ( TlBr0,4I0,6 KRS-5)[66]
() TlBr0,3Cl0,7 KRS-6)[67]
, .
O, S, N, P, As, Sb, Bi. Tl2O , Tl2CO3
[18] TlOH. Tl2S
H2S Tl(I). TlS2, Tl2S5, Tl2S9
Tl(I). Tl4S3 TlI3[TlIIIS3]. Tl(I)
Tl3N, TlN3, Tl(N3)2 TlI[TlIIIN3]4 Tl3P,
TlP3, TlP5. Tl3As, Tl3Sb, Tl3Bi, TlBi2[45] . TlOTeF5
TlF HOTeF5 ( C6H5-CH3)
(1,3,5-, C9H12)
[TlOTeF5(mes)2]2.mes[68] .
. TlOH , Tl(OH)3.
. (thallylene, TlH) Tl-H 187 pm

H2. TlH TlBH4
40C[45] .
Tl(I). (Cp- = C5H5-) ()
TlOH , CpH (C5H6) : TlOH + CpH TlCp + H2O
NaOH . TlCp
682
683
[45] .
()
] .

, .
TlCl3, TlBr3

Tl(I)[18] . TlF3
[45] ,
. TlI3
Tl3+ Tl+
I3-[2]
Tl+[I-I-I]-[18] .

, , , , .
(), TlI[I3
Tl2O3 .
NaOH Ba(OH)2, Tl2O3.xH2O Ba2[Tl(OH)6]OH[18] .
- TlO(OH), TlOX. Tl2S3, Tl2Se3, Tl2Te3 Tl(I)
Tl(III)[45] .
. Tl(OH)3
TlOH[64] .
. 13
. , (BH3)n, , (AlH3)n , (GaH3)n[45] ,
(InH3)n
(TlH3)n.
. Tl(III)
-, Li[TlH4] -25C -15C 0C
- TlCl(BH4)2 -110C
-95C. , Tl2H4 H2Tl-TlH2 [45] .
-. - Tl()
TlCl3, TlBr3 "" TlI3. ' [TlX4]- ( Tl, Td),
[TlX6]3- ( Tl, Oh) Tl2X93- [X3TlX3TlX3]3-[45] .
. Tl()
(, .).
. , (CH3)Tl 38,5C
147C, (CH3)2TlOH ,
(CH3)2Tl+(aq)[45] .

Tl() Tl() Tl(III)
[TlCl4]-.
TlCl2 TlITlIIICl4, Tl2Cl3 TlI3 TlIIICl6[69] , TlBr2
TlITlIIIBr4 ..
(Zintl)
Zintl
,
13, 14, 15 16.
(Eduard Zintl) 1930.
Zintl (Fritz Laves)
1941[70] . Zintl . ,
, .
Zintl Na+Tl (-Tl-)n
Na+[70] . NaTl
TlTl 324 pm, 343 pm[71] .
. ,
. 1975 ...
[58] .
.
,
[72] [73] .
. () (),
KRS-5[74] ,
. ()
.
,
125 150C.
, ,
[75] .
-,
[4] .
. , Tl2S,
[76] . (),
Tl2Se ,
, [77] .
"" ,
[76] . "" (doping)
(a) .
NaI
[78] . ,
[58] .
684

.

, , ,
. 1988
Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 ((TBCCO-2223)
146,15C[79] .
TBCCO ( "")
TlmBa2Can1CunO2n+m+2.
. -201 (201Tl) 73
-99m
(99mTc). 201Tl
, . Tl

, [80] .

99mTc[81] . -201 (201Pb), 9,33 ,
201Tl. 201Pb
(p, 3n) (d, 4n)[82] [83] .
. - 8,5 % Tl,
-60C, 20C .
[76] .
, Tl3+ () (),
, ,
.[84] . (), Tl2CO3, standard
, KIO3[37] .

[58] . (),
HCOOTl, (), TlOOC-CH2-COOTl, (Clerici).

. 1907
(Enrico Clerici)[85]
, 4,324 g/mL 20C. 5 g/mL
20 90C. 20
,
[86] [87] .
ISBN 978-3-540-44376-6. .
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s9.html)
Mineral Species containing Thallium (Tl) (http://www.webmineral.com/chem/Chem-Tl.shtml)
Library of Inorganic Structures : Tl (http://www.3dchem.com/element.asp?selected=Tl)
Pictures of Thallium, its minerals and applications (http://periodictable.com/Elements/081/pictures.pr.html)
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(Ar)
207.2 (g/mol)
327C (F) (K)
1740C (F) (K)
11.34 g/mL
(Pauling)
2.33
1: J/mol
2: J/mol
3: KJ/mol
1.81
1,47
Van der Waals
691

(W/cm*K
0,353
Mohs

(25C, 1 Atm)

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208,9804 g/mol
693
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CAS
7440-69-9

156 pm
1484 pm
van der Waals
207 pm
2,02 ( Pauling)
3, 5
1: 703 kJmol
2: 1610 kJmol
3: 2466 kJmol

271,5 C
1564 C
9,78 cm
(20 C) 1.29 /m
(300 K) 7.97 Wm
Mohs
2.25
Brinell
94.2MPa

(Bulk modulus)
31GPa
Poison
0.33
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695
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Po
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(Po)
()
84
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16 ,6, p

(Ar)
209 g/mol
[Xe] 6s 4f 5d 6p
CAS
7440-08-6
14
10
168 pm
1404 pm
van der Waals
197 pm
2 ( Pauling)
6, 4, 2, -2
1: 812,1 kJ/mol

254 C
962 C
696

(0 C) () 0,40 /m
(300K)20 W/m
(25C, 1
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84 (209) .
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().
.
, , , , .
: (
"") . ,
, AgAt, , ( AgAtJO3
AgJO3). , ,
.
.
.
(: Rn)
86
(222) . -71 C
-61,8 C.
.
-222 3,8
.

.
.
.
: ,
, .
.
1900 .
.

[1] -
[1] http:/ / 143. 233. 238. 6/ el/ topics/ radon/ index. html
698
699
Cs
Fr
Uue
(Fr)
()
87
, ,
1 (I ) ,7, s

(A )
223 amu
[ Rn ] 1s1
CAS
7440-73-5
260
van der Waals
348
0,7 (Pauling)
700

1: 380 kJmol-1

27C
677C
1.870 kg/m3
3 m
5 Wm1K1
(25C, 1
Atm)

Fr 87.
(eka-casium) [1] .
, , .
, .
(1) (7).
(Marguerite Perey) 1939,
, (France). (
) .
[2] .
, 223Fr .
20-30 g .
.
300.000 [3] .
(
22 ). (At), ,
8 30 .
(Rn) (Ra) .
105.

223
[1] , Fr
[2] , .. , , , .
[3] Luis A. Orozco (2003). "Francium". Chemical and Engineering News.
Francium (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Francium)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Francium)).
701
Ba
Ra
Ubn
-226

,
(Ra)
()
88
, ,
2 (II ) ,7, s

(A )
226 amu
702
[ Rn ] 1s2
CAS
7440-14-4

2212 pm
van der Waals
283 pm
0,9 (Pauling)
1: 509,3 kJmol-1
2: 979 kJmol-1

700C
1.737C
5.500 kg/m
8,5 kJmol
113 kJmol
1 m
18,6 Wm K
-1
-1
(25C, 1
Atm)

88
226,0254 amu.
,
.

, 226Ra, 1.601
.
,
.
, (RaCl2),
1898 .

, .
1910 .
, C2
226Ra.
1911 (
).

703
, 1/7
.
, ,
() .
(. radius, ray)
21 1898.

. : 509,3
979,0 kJmol-1 502,9 965,2 kJmol-1 .
.
''

222
218
214
C1
214
C2
210
210
210
210
Rn, -222
Po, -218
Bi, -214
Po, -214
Tl, -210
Pb, -210
Bi, -210
Po, -210

Radium (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Radium)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Radium)).
()
704
()
La
Ac
(Ac)
()
89
, ,
- ,7, f

(Ar)
227 g/mol
[Rn] 6d 7s
CAS
7440-34-8
215 pm
1,1 ( Pauling)
1: 499 kJ / mol
2: 1170 kJ / mol

() 1050 C
3198 C
10 g/cm3
(25 C) 27,2 J/mol
()
705

(300 K) 12 W/m
(25C, 1
Atm)

89 (227).
1050 C 3200300 C. 1899
- .
, 227Ac 21,8 . (
. (). 19
209 231. 227Ac 228Ac,
Ms ( 6,13 )
.

.
. .
, .
.
. ( )
.
(, , , , ). , Ac(OH)3
, La(OH)3.

( )
' ( 227Ac) 226Ra
.

1,6 Km 11.300 227Ac ,
(6,10 - 10%
).
706
( Th ) 90 232,0381 .
1750C 4790C. 1882.
.
.
.

.
-232 14,05 .
( 3 4
) .
707
Pr
Pa
(Uqu)
, ,

,
(Pa)
()
91
, ,
N/A ,7, f

(A )
231.03588
Rn] 7s2 6d1 5f2
1841 K, 1568 C, 2854 F
? 4300 K, ? 4027 C, ? 7280 F
(25C, 1
Atm)

91 231,0359.
1600 C. 1917
708
. .
, .
92
3
8
238,02891 g/mol
1132.0C
3818.0C
18.95 g/cm3
, 92
238,02891 g/mol. 1405.3 K (1132,2 C). , , ,
. . 235U
"" .
.
, , , (

).
(Martin Klaproth) 1789

. . 1841 Peligot,
.
.
,
. (UO2), o (Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2 .
10H2O) (K2(UO2)2(VO4)2.1-3H2O)[1] .
,
.
, . , ,
.
.

, .
, .
.
, .
. , , ,
.
,

.
: 238U (~99,2%), 235U
(~0,75%) 234U (~0,05%) (
).
, ,
[2] .

.
235U
(' "", , , )
, . ( )

. , ,
709

, .
,
[3] .
[1] Minerals Gallery (http:/ / mineral. galleries. com/ minerals/ by_name. htm. )
[2] Los Alamos ... (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 92. html)
[3] (http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/ tfacts150. html)

(http://www.armscontrol.info),
(http://143.233.238.6/el/topics/du/briefing/index-2.
html)
(http://13tee-thess.thess.sch.gr/uranio.HTM)
710
711
Pm
Np
Uqt
(Np)
()
93
, ,
N/A ,7, f

(A )
(237) gmol 1
[Rn] 7s2 6d1 5f4
CAS
7439-99-8
712

155 pm
1st: 604.5 kJmol 1

637 C
4000 C
1,36 ( Pauling)
(25C, 1
Atm)

93 237,0482.
. 640C 3902C.
92 .
.

.
713
Pu
(Pu)
()
94
, ,
- ,7, f

(A )
244 g/mol
[Rn] 5f6 7s2
EINECS
231-117-7
CAS
7440-07-5
159 pm
187 pm
1,28
+7, +6, +5, +4, +3
714

1: 584,7 kJ/mol

912,5 K, 639,4C, 1182,9F
3505 K, 3228C, 5842F
19,816 g/cm3
2,82 KJ/mol
333,5 KJ/mol
(25C) 35,5 J/(molK)
(0C) 1,460 m
666667 S/m
(27C) 6,74 W/(mK)

(Young's modulus)
96 GPa

(Shear modulus)
43 GPa
Poison
0,21
2260 m/s
[1]
(25C, 1
Atm)

(plutonium) , .
94 244[2] . "Pu"
7 f. 639,52C
323519C.
.
, 640C .
.
, 310C 480C
, .
. , , . ,
70%.
.
.
.
, 238Pu,

( ) 1940,
, 1941 , ,
. ,
, ,
.
.
.
,
94 1934.[3] . hesperium
1938[4] . ,
,
[5] .
( 238Pu)
14 1940
23 1941
(Glenn Theodore Seaborg, 1912 1999),
(Edwin Mattison McMillan, 1907 1991),
(Joseph William Kennedy, 1916 1957) (Arthur
C. Wahl, 1917 2006),
60 (152,4 cm)
[6] . 1940,
-238
- ,
94[7] .

Physical Review
.
1941[7] .

239
(
Pu)
.
' [8] .

94, ,
, [9] [10]
"plutium", "",
"plutonium", "".[11] . "Pu" ,
[12] .
(ultimium) (extremium)
[13] .
715
716

[7] .
. 18 1942, .
50 g -239
1 g [14] .
[15] [16]
1943
: [14]
[17] .
239Pu :
.
239Pu ' , ,
.
.[7]

'
... ,
.

,
,

.[18]
Hanford
-
.
-239
X-10. 1943

.[7] [19]
5 1944, (Emilio Gino Segr) (Los Alamos)
[20] . , o
-240
. -240 ,
.
"Thin Man, , ,
- .
Hanford,
, 1945.
' .[21]
, Hanford
.
2004,
Hanford. ,
717

.

X-10 1944.[22] [23] [24]
Fat Man
,
(Trinity) 16 1945,

.[14] Gadget,
-
,
Urchin,
( : (, n) ).[7] ,

. , , 4 ,
6,2 kg .[25]
20%
20.000
TNT.[26] [27]
-240
,

Fat Man
(. Trinity).

"Fat Man", () 9
1945, 70.000
100.000.[7] Little Boy , 3 ,
-235, . 15
.

,
(....) .
... Hanford (Savannah River Site)
103 ,[28] 170 .[29]
[30]
20
.[31] 1000
200 ,
[7] . SIPRI 2007 500 ,
.[32]
,
.
,

.[7] T
.[33]

4

[7]
. 2008,
Yucca.
...

Yucca, 100 (160 ) ,
.[34]
Yucca. 2010,
" Yucca predjudice"
, Yucca 25
.

,

.[35]
.[36] ,
()
,
.[35]
1945
.[36]
.

.[35]
.
, "

, , , .[37]
718
719

, ,
,
, ,
, .[38]
[39]

-
. -
, ,

. ,
,
.
(640C),
(3327C).[38]
Pu
, ,
.[40] 5 Kg 12,5 1024
. 24.100 , 11,5 1012
5,157 MeV - .
- , Pu .[9] [41]

.
, ,
.[42] 100 ,
.[42] , 20 K ,
.
, .[42]
, ,
.[43] ,

100 .[44]
, "" , 2,5 %,
[42] .
, [43] .

, , ,
.[45]
,
.

,

.[43]
16.00g/cm3 19.86g/cm3.[31]

,
. , -
.

,
(.
-
1 Atm): (), (), (),
[45]
[46] .
(), prime('), & ()
. -
, ,
[45] .
- 310C 452C
, .
[46] .
- , , [45] .
,
, -, -,

[47] . -, ,
- [43] .
720
99,96 %
,
. 5,3 Kg
11 cm
721
5f
.
.[48]
, 239Pu,
[8] ( -233 -235 )[49]
241
Pu .

,

.
-239 (k)
,
(.. ),
[50] . , ,
, ,
: -239,
20.000 TNT. -239
.
240Pu ,
(~ 440
1000 [51] ),
[52] . ,
-240 .
7 % -240. 7 % 19 %
-240 19 % -240.
-239 4 % -240,
,
.[53] 238Pu ,
-[9] .

. -244,
80,8 , -242 373.300 -239
24.110 . 7.000 .
,
.[40]
228 247.
, -244,
-, , ,
( 92 ) ( 93 ) (
).
-244, -,
( 95 ). -241
, -241,
- .[40] [9]
722
-238 239 .[9] -239

(U) (n), () (Np),
[54] :
-235 -238
-239: -
-239 ( 2,36 ) - -239.[55]
'
, 1940.
-238 -238 ( D
) :[56]
, -238
-238, -
-238.

, .
.
W/Kg mW/g. ( .
) ,
.
.
[57]

()
(W/kg)

(1/(gs))
Pu-238

U-234
87.74
560
2600
.

-.
.
Pu-239

U-235
24100
1.9
0.022
Pu-240

U-236,

6560
6.8
910
-239.

-240.
.
Pu-241

14.4
Am-241
4.2
0.049
-241:

.
Pu-242

U-238
0.1
1700
376000
-241, -241, 430 , 1,2

, 114 W/Kg.
723
,
-241 ,
.
,
.[31]

[31] :
Pu(III) Pu3+ (
)
Pu(IV) Pu4+ ( )
Pu(V) PuO2+ (?)[58]
Pu(VI) PuO22+ ( )
Pu(VII) PuO53 (
. Pu(VII) .

[59]
.

, ,
.
,
1200C.[60] , , .
, .[61] ,
.[46] 135C
.[7]
.
, ,
.[38]
,

.[38]
, '
.[61]

,
.
, ,
, ,
,
. .[38]
, ,
724
.[43] , PuO
( ) PuO2 ( )
: 40%
. ,
( X ) PuX3.
PuF4.
:PuOCl, PuOBr PuOI.
PuC ( ),
PuN ( ),
PuSi.[31] [7]

. [
[62]
.

.
, , , .

.[46]
,
.[63]
: 5f
.
6d 5f . 5f
,
.
.
5fn7s2 5fn-16d17s2,
. 5f
.[43]
.
, , , ,
, ,
.[61] , , ,
, ,
.[61] , , ,
(20C). , ,

. ,
.
.[43]
.
, ,

.
-
,
.[64]
-
, - - .
.[65]
- -.
- , ,
-
pits. .[66]
-- (PuCoGa5) ,
18,5,
, .[48] [67]
- .[68]
- --
.[69]
-, 15-30% mol ,
.

. , ,
.
, .
/ / .[70]
-- --
.
, ,
, . --
, ,
.[70]
--
.[70]
(-239 244)
. -239, ,
, ,[14]
, .[71] -239
Cigar Lake 2.4 1012 44 1012.[72]
-244
, 80 .[73] -239
: , U-238 , ,
.
U-238, U-239.
, U-239 -239 (Np-239) ,
725
726
Np-239 Pu-239.
Pu-240,
-244, 10.000 . , -238
-238
.[7]
550

. , Limited
Test Ban Treaty 1963, ,
, , .
1963 , , (
, 1964, 1967
) ( , 1980).
, -239
.[7]

.

1945
. -239
,
. s
( )

.

16 kg 10 kg,
10 (4 ).[74] A
-235.[9]

, 1945

"Fat n" -

,

. 6.2 kg
20 TNT.[26] [75] ( .) ,
4 kg - -
.[75]

,
-242, 240, 239 238.
, MOX.
-242 240
" " ,
, .
( ),
, .

.
, PUREX ( -)

" MOX fuel" .
. MOX
60 kg
, ( ).[7]

.
MOX '80 .[76]
2000,
34
.[77] 34
2019
MOX
.[77]
MOX .
, 3%
.[7]
[78] .
1%
.[79]

, - -240 -242.
.

. ' -grade' 92% -239,
-20Kt
85% -239, ' -grade'
.[80] ' ' LWR
60% PU-239, 30% PU-240/Pu-242, 10-15%
PU-241.[80]
,
. IAEA
" "
727
728
, ., "
".[80]
241Am
.[81]

-238 87.74 .[82]

/.[83] ,

.

-238

570 Watt .[9] [83]
238PuO2

.

Cassini, Voyager New Horizons.
Voyager 1977
500 Watt. 30 300 Watt
.[84]
ALSEP EASEP 14
Apollon.[7]
-238
, .[85] [86]
, 2003
50 100
.[87] -238
.[88] -238
.[7]
T
.

.[89] , ,

,
, .[90]

, : ,
, .
, .
, .
.[91] , ,
.
, , .
.
,
.[7] , , ,
, .[61]
, 0.04%
.[7] ,
200 .[92] ,
.[93] [94]
' .
400 mSv
.[95]
5.000 , 3 , 1%
... .[96]
.
,
.[80]
" "

.[93]
, , .
, , ,
.
.[97]
,
8 . ,
math 2
.
.[98]
(..
, ,
, " " Pu 1945-46
) .
-
. " 25 Los Alamos
1940,
, 99.5%
, ."[98] [99]
.[100]
729
730

,

,
,
-235.[9]
.[101]

, ,
.[31]

,

' .

1945.

6.2 kg
Los Alamos 21 1945, Harry K. Daghlian ( .
), , 5.1 Sievert (510 rems) 28
.[102] , Los Alamos, Louis Slotin ( ),

( " ")
Daghlian.[103] " Fat Man "
" Little Boy " 1989.
1958, Los Alamos,
, Cecil
Kelley.[104] , ,
.[104]
, .
, ,
. 70%
.[105]
.
.
, , .

.[105] [106] [107]

.....................................................................................................................................................................

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/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Plutonium)).
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,
. ,
[1955]] , , 17
.

.
, +3,
+2,
.

,
(Albert Einstein).
1 .
3% .
,
[1] .
1952 (Albert Ghiorso)

(University of California, Berkeley)
([Argonne National Laboratory)
(Los Alamos National Laboratory)
[2] . 1 1952 (Enewetak Atoll),
[2] .

, 244Pu,
(6) 238U (2) :
, ,
244Pu
\, [2] .
Ghiorso
( 244Pu)[3] .

[2] .
( ) (pH 3,5),
.
200 [4] . , 253Es
6,6 MeV.[2] .
(15) 238U, (7) -,
20,5 .
,
.

- [2] :
, 238U, (2) (
17), 255Es, (255Fm)[5] .
'
[[1955],
[2] [6] [7] .
, Berkeley Argonne,
14N 238U[8] ,
:
1954
' [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] . Berkeley
.[14] [15] .
Ivy Mike ( )
1955[6] .
,
, .
1953 1954,
, 250Fm, .
1954[16] . ,
Berkeley, , ,
. ,
Berkeley , ,
, ( 18
751

1955) ( 28 1954)[17] .
: 99
(Einsteinium, E),
100, (fermium, Fm) ,
.[] .
(Albert Ghiorso), ,
8-20 1995[2] . (E),
(Es).[18] [19] .

[1] Hammond C. R. "The elements" in Lide, D. R., ed. (2005), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.), Boca Raton (FL):
CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-0486-5

[2] Ghiorso, Albert (2003). "Einsteinium and Fermium" (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ einsteiniumfermium. html). Chemical and
Engineering News 81 (36). .

[3] Seaborg, p. 39
[4] John Emsley Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&
pg=PA133), Oxford University Press, 2003, ISBN 0198503407 pp. 133135
254
254
253
254
253
[5] Es, Fm Fm , - Cf Es
[6] Ghiorso, A.; Thompson, S.; Higgins, G.; Seaborg, G.; Studier, M.; Fields, P.; Fried, S.; Diamond, H. . (1955). "New
Elements Einsteinium and Fermium, Atomic Numbers 99 and 100" (http://escholarship.org/uc/item/70q401ct). Phys. Rev. 99 (3):
10481049. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.99.1048 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.99.1048). . Google Books (http://books.google.
com/ books?id=e53sNAOXrdMC& pg=PA91)
[7] Fields, P.; Studier, M.; Diamond, H.; Mech, J.; Inghram, M.; Pyle, G.; Stevens, C.; Fried, S. . (1956). "Transplutonium
Elements in Thermonuclear Test Debris". Physical Review 102: 180182. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.102.180 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/
PhysRev. 102. 180). Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=e53sNAOXrdMC& pg=PA93)
[8] Albert Ghiorso, G. Bernard Rossi, Bernard G. Harvey, Stanley G. Thompson (1954). "Reactions of U-238 with Cyclotron-Produced
Nitrogen Ions". Physical Review 93 (1): 257. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.93.257 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.93.257).
[9] Thompson, S. G. and Ghiorso, A.; Harvey, B. G.; Choppin, G. R. (1954). "Transcurium Isotopes Produced in the Neutron Irradiation
of Plutonium". Physical Review 93 (4): 908. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.93.908 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.93.908).
[10] Harvey, Bernard; Thompson, Stanley; Ghiorso, Albert; Choppin, Gregory (1954). "Further Production of Transcurium Nuclides by
Neutron Irradiation". Physical Review 93 (5): 1129. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.93.1129 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.93.1129).
[11] Studier, M.; Fields, P.; Diamond, H.; Mech, J.; Friedman, A.; Sellers, P.; Pyle, G.; Stevens, C. . (1954). "Elements 99 and
100 from Pile-Irradiated Plutonium". Physical Review 93 (6): 1428. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.93.1428 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/
PhysRev. 93. 1428).
[12] Choppin, G. R.; Thompson, S. G.; Ghiorso, A.; Harvey, B. G. (1954). "Nuclear Properties of Some Isotopes of Californium,
Elements 99 and 100". Physical Review 94 (4): 10801081. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.94.1080 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.94.
1080).
[13] Fields, P.; Studier, M.; Mech, J.; Diamond, H.; Friedman, A.; Magnusson, L.; Huizenga, J. (1954). "Additional Properties of
Isotopes of Elements 99 and 100". Physical Review 94: 209. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.94.209 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.94.
209).
[14] G. T. Seaborg, S.G. Thompson, B.G. Harvey, G.R. Choppin, "Chemical Properties of Elements 99 and 100" (http:/ / www. osti. gov/
accomplishments/ documents/ fullText/ ACC0047. pdf) (July 23, 1954), Radiation Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley,
UCRL-2591
[15] Thompson, S. G.; Harvey, B. G.; Choppin, G. R.; Seaborg, G. T. (1954). Journal of the American Chemical Society 76 (24): 6229.
doi: 10.1021/ja01653a004 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja01653a004).
[16] Atterling, Hugo; Forsling, Wilhelm; Holm, Lennart; Melander, Lars; strm, Bjrn (1954). "Element 100 Produced by Means of
Cyclotron-Accelerated Oxygen Ions". Physical Review 95 (2): 585. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.95.585.2 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/
PhysRev. 95. 585. 2).
[17] The names were proposed before their deaths, but announced after.
[18] Haire, p. 1577
[19] Seaborg, G.T. (1994) Modern alchemy: selected papers of Glenn T. Seaborg (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=e53sNAOXrdMC&
pg=PA6), World Scientific, ISBN 9810214405, p. 6
Einsteinium (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Einsteinium)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Einsteinium)).
752
753
Er
Fm
Upn
(Fm)
()
100
, ,
/ ,7, f

(A )
257 g/mol
[Rn]5f12 7s2
CAS
7440-72-4
1,3 ( Pauling)
2,3
754

1: 627 kJ/mol

1527C, 2781F
(25C, 1
Atm)

100 257 .
Fm.
755
Tm
Md
Uqu
(Md)
()
101
, ,
N/A ,7, f

(A )
258 g/mol
[Rn]5f13 7s2
CAS
7440-11-1
1.3 ( Pauling)
2,3
1: 635 kJmol
756

827C
(25C, 1
Atm)

101
(258) . Md.
.
757
Yb
No
Upb
(No)
()
102
, ,
N/A ,7, f

(A )
259 g/mol
[Rn]5f14 7s2
CAS
10028-14-5
2, 3
1: 641,6 kJ mol
2: 1254.3 kJmol 1 2: 1254,3 kJ mol
3: 2605.1 kJmol 1 3: 2605,1 kJ mol
758

(25C, 1 Atm)

102 (259).
No.
759
Lu
Lr
Upt
(Lr)
()
103
, ,
N/A ,7, d

(A )
262 g/mol
[Rn] 5f14 7s2 7p1
CAS
22537-19-5
1: 443,8 kJ/mol
2: 1428.0 kJ/mol
3: 2219.1 kJ/mol
760

(25C, 1
Atm)

103 262.

.
.
-103 1961 . .
,
103, , .
. 256Lr
1965
. 256Lr -243 (243Am)
18O. 256Lr -
35 . , 255Lr
, , 1969. 1971, ,
, 257 260.
260
Lr , 3 .
.

, +3.
() .
761
Hf
Rf
Upq
(Rf)
()
104
, ,
4 ,7, d

(A )
267 g/mol
[Rn] 5f14 6d2 7s2
CAS
53850-36-5
()
762
(25C, 1
Atm)

104 (260).
, .
, Ku
Kw.
, , (
), ,
' .
,
.
(IUPAC - International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry), 104,
unnilquadium Unq
1, 0 4. 1997
Rf.
, Rutherfordium [1]
[1] http:/ / www. hellenica. de/ Physik/ Rutherfordium. html
763
Ta
Db
Upp
(Db)
()
105
, ,
5 ,7, d

(A )
268 g/mol
[Rn] 5f14 6d3 7s2
CAS
53850-35-4
764

(25C, 1
Atm)

105 (260).
Db.
,
(Unnilpentium)
Unp.
765
Sg
Uph
(Sg)
()
106
, ,
6 ,7, d

(A )
271 g/mol
[Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d4
CAS
54038-81-2
()
766
(25C, 1
Atm)

(. Seaborgium) 106
(263). Sg. Glenn T. Seaborg,
, . IUPAC
Seaborgium 106 1999
Glenn T. Seaborg .
.
.
767
Re
Bh
Ups
(Bh)
()
107
, ,
7 ,7, d

(A )
270 g/mol
[Rn] 5f14 6d5 7s2
CAS
54037-14-8
768
(25C, 1
Atm)

107 264 .
, Bh-267 22 sec. To Bh.

1976 Y. Oganessian
, 261Bh 1-2 msec (
10 msec).
-204 -54.
1981 Peter Armbruster Gottfried Munzenberg
Gesellschaft fur Schwerionenforschung ( )
,
, Bh-262.
(nielsbohrium) Ns
(Niels Bohr). 105 ().

101 109. IUPAC , ,
unnilseptium (: /junlsptim/, Uns). 1994 IUPAC
107 Bohrium, ,
.
(Boron). , 1997, Bohrium[1]
( ) 107.
[1] "Names and symbols of transfermium elements (IUPAC Recommendations 1997)". Pure and Applied Chemistry 69 (12): 2471. 1997. doi:
10.1351/pac199769122471 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1351/ pac199769122471).
769
Os
Hs
Upo
(Hs)
()
108
, ,
8 ,7, d

(A )
269 g/mol
[Rn] 5f14 6d6 7s2
CAS
54037-57-9
N/A
770

N/A
(25C, 1
Atm)

108 (269).
.
1984 (GSI, Gesellschaft fr Schwerionenforschung)
Unniloctium IUPAC. 1997 (Hassium),
Hs.
[1]
[1] http:/ / translate. google. gr/ translate?hl=el& sl=en& u=http:/ / www. chemicalelements. com/ elements/ hs. html&
ei=6-gpTP3gFs3Fsga5va37BA& sa=X& oi=translate& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CDEQ7gEwAw& prev=/
search%3Fq%3DHassium%26hl%3Del%26safe%3Dactive%26rlz%3D1T4ADBR_enCY325CY353%26prmd%3Di
771
Ir
Mt
Upe
(Mt)
()
109
, ,
9 ,7, d

(A )
278 g\/mol
[Rn] 7s2/sup> 5f14sup> 6d7sup>
CAS
54038-01-6

(25C, 1
Atm)

109 (267) .
N/A C N/A C. ,
Mt-276 720 msec.
29 1982
Peter Armbruster Gottfried Mnzenberg Institute for Heavy Ion Research
(Gesellschaft fr Schwerionenforschung) .
-58 -209. H
, .
Lise Meitner.
101 109
IUPAC unnilennium. 1997
.
772
773
Pt
Ds
Uhn
(Ds)
()
110
, ,
10 ,7, d

(A )
281 g/mol
[Rn]7s1 5f14 6d9
CAS
54083-77-1

(25C, 1
Atm)

(Darmstadtium)
110 (281) g/mol.
1994 .
2001 IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), 6
S.Hofman ,
110. 7
10 .
IUPAC,
. Hofman Darmstadium (Ds)
. Ds
.
Ds
, .
, , .
774
775
Au
Rg
Uhu
(Rg)
()
111
, ,
11 ,7, d

(A )
281 g/mol
[Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s1
CAS
54386-24-2
()

(25C, 1
Atm)

776
Rg. 111.
3,6 .
Hg
Cn
Uhb
(Cn)
()
112
, ,
12 ,7, d

(A )
285 g/mol
[Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2
CAS
54084-26-3
777
(25C, 1
Atm)

(Copernicium, Cn, Ununbium -

IUPAC )
112. 2010 Uub =112.
.
:
1.
2.
-
9 1996 Gesellschaft fr
Schwerionenforschung Sigurd Hofmann, Victor Ninov.
-70
-208 . Uub ( )
277.
208
Pb + 7030Zn 278112Cn 277112Cn + 10n
82
(Copernicium) 'Cn 537

, 19 2010.[1] [2]
277
1996
278
279
280
281
282
2004
238
283
2002
244
284
2002
244
285
1999
244
Cn
Cn
Cn
Cn
Cn
Cn
Cn
Cn
Cn
208
Pb(70Zn,n)
U(48Ca,4n)
Pu(48Ca,5n)
Pu(48Ca,4n)
Pu(48Ca,3n)
778
[1] [http://en.rian.ru/science/20100219/157944944.html RiaNovosti

[2] Spiegel (http:/ / www. spiegel. de/ wissenschaft/ natur/ 0,1518,679078,00. html)
TI
Uut
Uht
(Uut)
()
113
, ,
13 ,7,

(A )
[286] g/mol
N/AC
N/AC
(25C, 1
Atm)

Ununtrium IUPAC
113.
Uut =113. .

.
779
,
. RIKEN
2004, ,
Ununpentium Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
.
.
780
Pb
Uuq
Uhq
(Uuq)
()
114
, ,
14 ,7,

(Ar)
289

van der Waals
N/AC
N/AC
781
(25C, 1
Atm)

Ununquandium
1998 Joint Institute for Nuclear Research.
(Pu-244) (Ca-48).
.
, 14 g/cm3,
67C 147C.
,
. Ununquandium 17
3 .
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 4 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d10
4p65s24d105p66s24f145d10 6p67s25f146d107p2.
Atlantisium, (An, ), Lazarevium, (Lz,
) Oganessium, (Og, ,
).
782
Bi
Uup
Uhp
(Uup)
()
115
, ,
15 ,7,

N/AC
N/AC
(25C, 1
Atm)

Ununpentium o
Uup 115.
783
Po
Uuh
Uhh
(Uuh)
()
116
, ,
16 ,7, p

(A )
293 g/mol
[Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p4
CAS
54100-71-9
N/A
N/A
784
(25C, 1
Atm)

Ununhexium o
Uuh 116.
785
Uus
Uhs
(Uus)
()
117
, ,
17 ,7, p

(A )
294 g/mol
CAS
54101-14-3

(25C, 1
Atm)

Ununseptium 117.
IUPAC Uus.
, [1] . 6 Ununseptium

(294-Uus & 293-Uus), - -
.
[1] Recommendations, 31st meeting, PAC for Nuclear Physics () (http:/ / www. jinr. ru/ img_sections/ PAC/ NP/ 31/
PAK_NP_31_recom_eng. pdf). Joint Institute for Nuclear Research ( 11-4-2010 )
786
787
Rn
Uuo
Uho
(Uuo)
()
118
, ,
18 ,7, p

(A )
294 g/mol
[Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p6
CAS
54144-19-3
()
152 pm
0, 2, 4

80 30C
788
(25C, 1
Atm)

, 118 ,
(Ununoctium). .
118, , (293). Uuo.

(2009). .
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[1] Periodic-Table UK (http:/ / www. periodic-table. org. uk/ element-francium. htm)
[2] Web elements (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ francium/ )
, .
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, 1010m 100.000fm.
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[3] Clinton S. Nash (2005). "Atomic and Molecular Properties of Elements 112, 114, and 118". J. Phys. Chem. A 109 (15): 34933500.
doi:10.1021/jp050736o.
[4] Flerov laboratory of nuclear reactions". JINR. http:/ / www1. jinr. ru/ Reports/ 2008/ english/ 06_flnr_e. pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
[5] . , . ,
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[1] http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Divisions/ Div846/ Gp3/ FunPhys/ lifetime. html
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CH4
16,0425 amu
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CAS
74-82-8
SMILES
PubChemCID
297
ChemSpiderID
291
0D
108,7 pm
(1s-2sp3)
3%
10928'
-182,5C (90,65 K)
-161,6C (111,55 K)
82,6C (190,55 K)
45,3984703 atm
0,717 kg/m3
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809 kJ/mole
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(F+)

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(25C, 1 Atm)

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.
826

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1. (CH3X) (|H|), [29] + [30]
[31]
:
2. (LiAlH4) (NaBH4) [32] :
3. (CH3I) ()[33] :
4 , ,
:
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[35]
2. (Mg)[36] :
[37]
827

(HCHO): Wlf-Kishner, (NH2NH2)[38] :
:
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1. :

[40] :
3-D CH4
,
C-H[41] (=)[42]
O2:
2. :
3. :
4. [43] [44] [45] :
828
[46]
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.

CH4:
1. : .
(UV) ().
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3. : ,
.
CH3X.
CH4 2 CH3X, CH2X2, CHX3,
CX4.
CH4, CH3X ,
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829

o [:CH2] C-H, . .. [48] :
HNO3 , [49] :
1. , , , .
2. :
(CO + H2)
(CH3OH)
(CH3NO2)
[ .. (CHCl3), (CCl4), (CF2Cl2)],
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..
3. .

.
. ,
. ,
.
.
,
[1] ,
.
[2] ,
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
( )
.
. . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1.. v = 1
kJ.
, , -240C.
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf).
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ozonowanie. com/ o-ozonie/ ozon-wplyw-na-zycie-czlowieka)
[7] Twenty Questions And Answers About The Ozone Layer, UNEP/D.W. Fahey 2002 (http:/ / www. unep. org/ ozone/ pdf/ qa. pdf), pp.
12, 34, 38
[8] Carbon Dioxide, Methane Rise Sharply in 2007 (http:/ / www. noaanews. noaa. gov/ stories2008/ 20080423_methane. html)
[9] Methane seen as growing climate risk (http:/ / news. yahoo. com/ s/ ap/ 20100304/ ap_on_sc/ us_sci_climate_methane)
[10]
[11] Stern, S.A. (1999). "The Lunar atmosphere: History, status, current problems, and context". Rev. Geophys. 37: 453491.
[12] H. B. Niemann, et al. (2005). "The abundances of constituents of Titans atmosphere from the GCMS instrument on the Huygens
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sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 311/ 5766/ 1419), Science, Vol. 311, No. 5766, pp. 14191422
[14] A L Broadfoot, S K Bertaux, J E Dessler et al. (December 15 1989). "Ultraviolet Spectrometer Observations of Neptune and Triton"
(http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1989Sci. . . 246. 1459B). Science 246: 14591466. ISSN 0036-8075 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/
0036-8075). . 2008-01-15.
[15] Ron Miller; William K. Hartmann (May 2005). The Grand Tour: A Traveler's Guide to the Solar System (3rd ). Thailand:
Workman Publishing. .17273. ISBN 0-7611-3547-2.

[16] Tobias C. Owen, Ted L. Roush et al. (6 August 1993). "Surface Ices and the Atmospheric Composition of Pluto" (http:/ / www.
sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 261/ 5122/ 745). Science 261 (5122): 745748. doi: 10.1126/science.261.5122.745 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1126/ science. 261. 5122. 745). . 2007-03-29.
[17] Pluto (http:/ / www. solstation. com/ stars/ pluto. htm). SolStation (2006) ( 2007-03-28 )
[18] B. Sicardy et al (2006). "Charons size and an upper limit on its atmosphere from a stellar occultation" (http:/ / www. nature. com/
nature/ journal/ v439/ n7072/ abs/ nature04351. html). Nature 439: 52. doi: 10.1038/nature04351 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/
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[19] Mumma, M.J. (1996). "Detection of Abundant Ethane and Methane, Along with Carbon Monoxide and Water, in Comet C/1996 B2
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science. 272. 5266. 1310).
[20] Stephen Battersby (2008-02-11). Organic molecules found on alien world for first time (http:/ / space. newscientist. com/ article/
dn13303-organic-molecules-found-on-alien-world-for-first-time. html) ( 2008-02-12 )
[21] J. H. Lacy, J. S. Carr, N. J. Evans, II, F. Baas, J. M. Achtermann, J. F. Arens (1991). "Discovery of interstellar methane
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. . 376. . 556L). Astrophysical Journal 376: 556560. doi: 10.1086/170304 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1086/ 170304). .
. . 1982, . 34.
[23] Miller, G. Tyler. Sustaining the Earth: An Integrated Approach. U.S.A.: Thomson Advantage Books, 2007. 160.
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( 2009-10-27 )
[25] California Cows Fail Latest Emissions Test (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2005/ 08/ 0816_050816_cowpollution_2.
html)
830
831
[26] New Zealand Tries to Cap Gaseous Sheep Burps (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2002/ 05/ 0509_020509_belch. html)
[27] Research on use of bacteria from the stomach lining of kangaroos (who don't emit methane) to reduce methane in cattle (http:/ /
www. alternet. org/ story/ 72339/ )
[28] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4.
[29] .
[30] '
. ,
, .
[31] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.1., R = CH
3
[32] . . 1982, 6.7.1., R = CH
3
[33] . , , , 1991, .14, 1.1
[34] . , , , 1991, .80-82, 5.1-5.2
[35] |t | :
2
[36] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.4., R = CH
3
[37] Grignard
[38] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6.
[39] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3., R = CH
3
[40] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1, v = 1
kJ.
[41] H
= +415 kJ/mol
C-H
[42] H =+146 kJ/mol
O-O
[43] Zhang, Q. (2003). "Recent Progress in Direct Partial Oxidation of Methane to Methanol". J. Natural Gas Chem. 12: 8189.
[44] Olah, G., Molnar, A. Hydrocarbon Chemistry John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2003. ISBN 9780471417828.
[45] Lunsford, J.H. (1995). "The catalytic coupling of methane". Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 34: 970980. doi:
10.1002/anie.199509701 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/anie.199509701).
[46] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.2, R = CH .
3
[47]
[48] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3.
[49] . . 1982, . 244 , 10.3.2
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
. . 1982
- : : , -, 2008 (http://
www.chem.uoa.gr/chemicals/chem_CH4.htm)
.
.
Methane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Methane)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Methane)).
reaction Sabatier reaction (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Sabatier)

by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( reaction / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Sabatier)).
coupling of methane Oxidative coupling of methane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/

wiki/ Oxidative) , GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ /
creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( coupling of methane / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oxidative)).
832
( ) [1]
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.

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(atm)
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72,149
36,06
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196,50
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837
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) .

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:
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720 750 cm-1.
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-
840
841
.

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[1] ( Wikipedia) .
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> 0.
[2] ,
.
[3] R .
[4] . . 1982: . 152, 6.2.2
[5] SCHAUM'S OUTLINE SERIES, , . . , 1999, .42, 4.3.
[6] . . 1982: . 152, 6.2.4
[7] . . 1982: . 152, 6.2.3
[8] . . 1982: . 155, 6.7.3
[9] SCHAUM'S OUTLINE SERIES, , . . , 1999, . 42, 4.3.
[11] . , , , 1991, . 14, 1.1.
[14] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1.
[15] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3.
[16] . . 1982, . 244 , 10.3.2

.., : , ,
1986.
. , , , 1991
. . 1982
Coates J., Interpretation of Infrared Spectra, A Practical Approach, Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, R.A.
Meyers (Ed.), pp. 10815-10837, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester (2000).
.. . (http://ecb.jrc.it/
classification-labelling/)
842
843
IUPAC
C2H6
30,07 amu
CH3CH3
EtH, Me2
CAS
74-84-0
SMILES
CC
InChI
1/C2H6/c1-2/h1-2H3
EINECS
200-814-8
RTECS
KH3800000
844
UN
1035
PubChemCID
6324
ChemSpiderID
6084
0D
C-H: 108,7 pm
C-C: 153,51 pm
C-H:
(1s-2sp3)
C-C:
(2sp3-2sp3)
C-H: 3%
HCC: 111,17
-181,76 C
-88,6 C
32,2 C
48,3592401 atm
1,283 kg/m3
47 g/m3 (17C)
40 atm (23,6 C)
pKa
50
1.561 kJ/mole
-135 C
472 C
(F+)

R12
(S2), S9, S16, S33
NFPA 704
845
(25C, 1 Atm)

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, C2H6 CH3CH3. ,
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1996 [3] .

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.
2006 Dale Cruikshank NASA
. [4]
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,
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(2) [8] (6) . ,

(3)
. C-H (~3%)
(2sp3-1s), 108,7 pm. C-C (2sp3-2sp3),
154 pm.
109 28Q
[9]

C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
C-C
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm
-0,09
+0,03
3% C- H+
847

1. (5-15%).
2. .
3.
.
1. , : (CH3-).
Wrtz, (CH3X) ()[10] :
: F, Cl, Br, I.
To K .
: ~60%.
2. (CH3X) - (CH3Li)
[11] :
3. ([:CH2]) (CH4)[12] :

1. Wrtz CN , (CH3CN)
(CH3X)[13] :
2. (CH3CH2X):
1. , + [14] :
2. LiAlH4 NaBH4[15] :
3. HI[16] :
4. :
1. Li:
[17]
2. Mg[18] :
848
[19]
3. (CH2=CH2)[20] :
4. (HC CH) [21] :
5. (CH3COOH) - Kolb[22] :
6. (CH3CHO): Wlf-Kishner, (NH2NH2)[23] :
M (CH3CH2COOH) [24] :
1. : (O2)
[25] :
,
C-C[26] ,
C-H[27] (=)[28] O2:
2. (CO + H2):
3. (CH3CHO):
849
[29]
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.

CH3CH3:
1. : .
(UV) ().
2. : , .
[30]
3. : ,
.
CH3CH2X.
CH3CH3 2
X- CH3CH3
CH3CH3, CH3CH2X ,
CH3CH3 X.
CH3CH2X X., X-.

o [:CH2] C-H, . .. [31] :
HNO3 , [32] :
850
1. , .
2. ,
.
3. 2 C.
4. .
5. , .. CH3COOH, .
6. .
A
[1] Trace gases (http:/ / www. atmosphere. mpg. de/ enid/ 3tg. html)
[2] http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v454/ n7204/ abs/ nature07100. html
[4] A. Stern (November 1, 2006). Making Old Horizons New (http:/ / pluto. jhuapl. edu/ overview/ piPerspectives/ piPerspective_11_1_2006.
php). The PI's Perspective. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory ( 2007-02-12 )
[8] C (1) C.
. . 1982, . 34.
[10] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH
. . 1982, . 187, 7.3.5

. . 1982, . 152, 6.6.3, R = CH3
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH3, X = CN
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.1., R = CH3CH2
. . 1982, 6.2.1., R = CH3CH2
. , , , 1991, .14, 1.1
|t2| :
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4., R = CH3CH2
Grignard
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.5.
. . 1982, . 158, 6.9.4.
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3b, R = CH3.
. . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6.
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3., R = CH3CH2
. . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1, v = 2
kJ.
[26] H = +347 kJ/mol
C-C
[27] H
= +415 kJ/mol
C-H
[28] H =+146 kJ/mol
O-O
[29] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.1., R = CH CH
3
2
[30]
[31] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3.
[32] . . 1982, . 244 , 10.3.2
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
. . 1982
.
.
851
Ethane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Ethane)

/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Ethane)).
IUPAC
C3H8
44,1 amu
CH3CH2CH3
PrH, EtMe
CAS
74-98-6
SMILES
CCC
InChI
1/C3H8/c1-3-2/h3H2,1-2H3
RTECS
TX2275000
UN
1978
PubChemCID
6334
ChemSpiderID
6094
852
C-H: 108,7 pm
C-C: 153,51 pm
C-H:
(1s-2sp3)
C-C:
(2sp3-2sp3)
C-H: 3%
HCC: 111,17
187,6C
42,09C
96,672C
41,9367382 atm
2,0098 kg/m3 ( 0 C, 1013 mbar

)
581,2 kg/m3 ( ).
70 g/m3 (20C)
10 atm (25,6C)
2.200 kJ/mole
-135C
472C
(F+)

R12
(S2), S9, S16, S33
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

,
, C3H8 CH3CH2CH3.
.
( , )
, ( 5%) .

'
, ( )
.
IUPAC. , -
(3) , --
-
, .
. .
(U.S. Bureau of Mines) 1910.
(wild),
. , 31 1910 New York Times
. () (
): ... ()
.[1] .
. , ,
, .
American Gasol Co, . .
1911 25 1913 #1,056,845[2] .

1912.
, 223.000 1922, 1.000.000 1927
56.000.000 1935. 1930,
, ,
. 1945
1.000.000.000 . 1947 62%
[3] .
1950 1.000 Chicago Transit Authority 1958
() 7.000.000.000 . 2004
15.000.000.000 ,
8-10 [4] .
- , ,
IUPAC , ,
( ,
)[5] .
(3) ( (2) [6] (1) [7] )

(8) . ,
(3) . ,
(2) (2) C-H
(~3%) (2sp3-1s), 108,7 pm.
853
854
C-C (2sp3-2sp3), 154 pm.
109 28.
[8]

C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
C-C
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm
3% C- H+

C#1,#3
-0,09
C#2
-0,06
+0,03

(3) :
1. , 5% .
, , ,
( ),
.
2. , .
3. , - .
, .
90% , 7% ,
3% .
, ()
Fort Saskatchewan , Mont Belvieu Conway .
1940[9]
80.000.000 . ,
.
(
1. (CH3CH2Li) (CH3X) (CH3CH2)
(CH3Li)
[10]
[10]
2. Wrtz, [11] :
3. ([:CH2]) (CH3CH3)[12] :
855

1. (CH3CH2CH2X) (CH3CHXCH3):
1. ,
+ [13] :
2. - LiAlH4 NaBH4[14] :
3 (CH3CH2CH2I) (CH3CHICH3)
(HI)[15] :
4 :
1. (Li):
[10]
2. (Mg)[16] :
[17]
2. 3 :
1. (CH3CH=CH2)[18]
2. (CH3C CH) [19] :
3. (CH2=C=CH2)[18] :
4. (
)[20] :
3. (CH3CH2CHO) - Wlf-Kishner[21]
856
4. (CH3COCH3)- Clemmensen [22]
M (CH3CH2CH2COOH)
[CH3CH(CH3)COOH) [23] :
:
[24] :
,
C-C[25] ,
C-H[26] (=)[27] O2.
, ( 1,5
). , , ,
. () ()
.
, 50 MJ/kg 91 MJ/m3[28] .
, ( )
46,44 MJ/kg[29] . , ()
:
( )
, . C-C,
( ),
,
. ' () '
.
1,55 kg CO2/GJ
.
857

() :
[30]
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.

0<x<1 :
F Cl .
H.
:
: 61 = 6
: 23,8=7,6
: 44% 56% [31] .
Br I .
. :
: 61 = 6
: 282=164
: 3,5% 96,5% [31] .
CH3CH2CH3:
1. : .
(UV) ().
2. : , .
[32]
3. : ,
.
CH3CH2CH2X
CH3CHXCH3.
CH3CH2CH3 2
X- CH3CH2CH3
858
CH3CH2CH3,
, CH3CH2CH3 X.
X.,
X-.

(.. [:CH2]) C-H. .. [33] :
;
1. (6) CH2-H. .
2. (2) CH-H: 2. .
~75% ~25%.
HNO3 [34] . 1- 2-.

0<a,b<1, a + b = 1.
1. , .
2. .

, , , ,
() . , ( )
, ( ). ,
,
.
A
[1] "GAS PLANT IN STEEL BOTTLE.; Dr. Snelling's Process Gives Month's Supply in Liquid Form." (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/
abstract. html?res=9C04E3DB1F31E233A25752C0A9629C946396D6CF). The New York Times: .9. April 1, 1912. .
2007-12-22.
[2] National Propane Gas Association. The History of Propane (http:/ / www. npga. org/ i4a/ pages/ index. cfm?pageid=634) (
2007-12-22 )
[3] npga.org (http:/ / www. npga. org/ i4a/ pages/ index. cfm?pageid=634). npga.org ( 2010-10-29 )
[4] Propane Education and Research Council. Fact Sheet - The History of Propane (http:/ / www. propanecouncil. org/ newsroom/
fact_sheetsDetail. cfv?id=5) ( 2007-12-22 )
[5] Online Etymology Dictionary entry for propane (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=propane). Etymonline.com
( 2010-10-29 )
[6] C (1) C.
[7] C (2) C.
. . 1982, . 34.
[9] Argonne National Laborator (1999). Salt Cavern Information Center (http:/ / web. ead. anl. gov/ saltcaverns/ uses/ hcstorage/ index. htm)
( 2007-12-22 )
|t2| :
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH3, R' = CH3CH2
. . 1982, . 152, 6.6.3, R = CH3CH2
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.1., R = CH3CH2CH2 (CH3)2CH
[14] . . 1982, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH (CH ) CH
3
2
2
3 2
[15] . , , , 1991, .14, 1.1
[16] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4., R = CH CH CH (CH ) CH
3
2
2
3 2
[17] Grignard
[18] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.5.
[19] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.4.
[20] . . 1982, . 160, 6.11.1
[21] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6.
[22] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6, R = R' = CH
3
[23] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3., R = CH CH CH (CH ) CH
3
2
2
3 2
[24] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1, v = 3
kJ.
[25] H = +347 kJ/mol
C-C
[26] H
= +415 kJ/mol
C-H
[27] H =+146 kJ/mol
O-O
[28] Ulf Bossel: Well-to-Wheel Studies, Heating Values, and the Energy Conservation Principle (http:/ / www. efcf. com/ reports/ E10.
pdf), Proceedings of Fuel Cell Forum 2003
[29] Energy Density of Propane (http:/ / hypertextbook. com/ facts/ 2002/ EricLeung. shtml). Hypertextbook.com (2001-01-18)
( 2010-10-29 )
[30] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.1., R = CH CH CH (CH ) CH
3
2
2
3 2
[31] .
[32]
[33] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3, R = CH CH CH (CH ) CH.
3
2
2
3 2
[34] . . 1982, . 244 , 10.3.2, R = CH CH CH (CH ) CH.
3
2
2
3 2
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
.
.
propane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ propane)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ propane)).
859
860
IUPAC
C4H10
58,12 g/mol
CH3CH2CH2CH3
BuH, Et2
CAS
106-97-8
SMILES
CCCC
InChI
1/C4H10/c1-3-4-2/h3-4H2,1-2H3
UN
1011
PubChemCID
7843
ChemSpiderID
7555
861

-138,2C (134,95 K)
-0,5C (272,65 K)
2,48 kg/m3 (15C)
61 g/m3

[1]
113
-60C (213,15 K)
287C (560,15 K)
12
2,9,16
MSDS
MSDS
[2]
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

() [3] ,
, C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3.
E .
( )
.
, ( 5%) .
'
, ( )
.
862
IUPAC. , -
(4) , --
-
, .
(3) ( (2) [4] , (2) [5] )

(10) . ,
(3) . (2)
, (2) (2)
C-H (~3%) (2sp3-1s), 108,7
pm. C-C (2sp3-2sp3), 154 pm.

109 28.
[6]

C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
C-C
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm
3% C- H+

C#1,#4
-0,09
C#2,#3
-0,06
+0,03

1. (-5%).
2. .
3.
.
1. ,
(CH3CH2). Wurtz, (CH3CH2X) Na[7] :
: Cl, Br, I.
To K .
: ~60%.
2. CH3CH2COONa[8] :
863
3. - :
:
1. - - :
2. 1,2- - 1,2- - :
4. , (CH3CH2CN)[9] :

1. (CH3CH2CH2CH2X) -2 (CH3CH2CHXCH3)[10] :
1. -2 ,
+ :
2. -1 -2 LiAlH4 NaBH4[11] :
3 -1 HI:
4 :
1. Li:
864
[12]
2. Mg[13] :
[14]
2. 4 [15]
1. -1 -2[16] :
2. -1 -2[17] :
3. -1,2 -1,3[15] :
4. [15] :
5. [15] [17] :
6. [17] :
3. - Wolf-Kishner[18]
4. - Clemmensen[19] :
865
M (CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH) 2-
[CH3CH2CH(CH3)COOH][20] :

n- . ,
. , ,
.[21]
: ()
n- (CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3)
, -
(CH3-CH-(CH3)-CH3).
,
.
IUPAC
( )
(C, 1 atm)
58,12
-0,5
2-
58,12
-11,7
1. : [22] :
,
C-C[23] ,
C-H[24] (=)[25] O2:
2. :
866
3. :
,
.
4. , :
[26]
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.

0<x<1 :
F Cl .
H.
:
-1: 61 = 6
-2: 43,8=15,2
: 28% -1 72% -2.
Br I .
-2. :
-1: 61 = 6
-2: 482=328
: 2% -1 98% -2.
CH3CH2CH2CH3:
1. : .
(UV) ().
2. : , .
[27]
3. : ,
.
867
CH3CH2CH2CH2X
CH3CH2CHXCH3.
CH3CH2CH2CH3 2
X- CH3CH2CH2CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH3,
, CH3CH2CH2CH3 X.
X.,
X-.

(.. [:CH2]) C-H. .. [28] :
;
1. (6) CH2-H: .
2. (4) CH-H: 4. .
~60% ~40%.
HNO3 [29] :
0<a,b<1, a + b = 1.

n- :[30]

-2:
n-
(LPG). ,
, , ,
, .
,
(~20%) ,
() (),
(, ,
). ,
.[31]

, ,
,
943.
, n-
, , , ,
.[32]
-
n-
.[33]
A
[1] [www.elmhurst.edu/.../515gasolinecpd.html]
[2] http:/ / www. intox. org/ databank/ documents/ chemical/ butane/ cie69. htm
[3] - n- ,
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
. ,
, .
C (1) C.
C (2) C.
Table of periodic properties of thw Ellements, Sagrent-Welch Scientidic Company
. . 1982, . 34.
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH3CH2
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3b, R = CH3CH2.
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH3CH2, X = CN
868
869
[10] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH CH

3
CH3CH2CHCH3
[11] . . 1982, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH CH CH CH CHCH
3
2
2
2
3
2
3
[12] |t | :
2
[13] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4., R = CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
CH3CH2CHCH3
[14] Grignard
[15] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.5.
[16] cis- trans[17] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.4.
[18] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6.
[19] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6, R = CH CH , R' = CH
3
2
3
[20] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3., R = CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
CH3CH2CHCH3
[21] The Molecule of the Month - October, 2004. (http:/ / www. it. swin. edu. au/ personal/ fwang/ Mom/ Mom_butane. html)
[22] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1, v = 4
kJ.
[23] H = +347 kJ/mol
C-C
[24] H
= +415 kJ/mol
C-H
[25] H =+146 kJ/mol
O-O
[26] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.1., R = CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
CH3CH2CHCH3
[27]
[28] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3, R = CH CH CH CH CH CH CHCH .
3
2
2
2
3
2
3
[29] . . 1982, . 244 , 10.3.2, R = CH CH CH CH CH CH CHCH .
3
2
2
2
3
2
3
[30]
.
n-. Enterprise Products Partners - Butane isomerization. (http://
www. eprod. com/ bs_ps_bi. html)
[31] Shell. (http:/ / www. shellgas. gr/ site. html?page=10& lang=gr)
[32] 1. .., : , , 1986.
[33] .. . (http:/ / ecb. jrc. it/ classification-labelling/ )
(http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/chemical/pim945.htm).
Hazard Summary on Butane (http://www.state.nj.us/health/eoh/rtkweb/0273.pdf).
Energy Density of Butane (http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/NicoleWeathers.shtml).
(http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtTxtJml/sterisom.
htm).
.. (http://ecb.jrc.it/
classification-labelling/).
Enterprise Products Partners - Butane isomerization (http://www.epplp.com/operations/butaneisomerization.
htm).
Shell (http://www.shellgas.gr/site.html?page=10&lang=gr).
The Molecule of the Month - October, 2004 (http://www.it.swin.edu.au/personal/fwang/Mom/
Mom_butane.html).
.., : , ,
1986.
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
.
.
butane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ butane)

/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ butane)).
1. M
870
871
IUPAC
C5H12
72,15 amu
C(C3)4
NpH, tBuMe, CMe4
CAS
463-82-1
SMILES
CC(C)(C)C
872
EINECS
207-343-7
16,6C
9,5C
627 kg/m3 ( 9,5C)

[1]
100
-7C
168 kJ/mol
(F+), (Xn), (N)

12, 51/53, 65, 66, 67
2, 9, 16, 29, 33, 61, 62
MSDS
MSDS
[2]
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

[3] ,
, C5H12 (CH3)4C.
.
IUPAC. ,
-[4] (2) (-) (1)
(--), - (3)
, --
- ,
.
873
(4) (4 [5] [6] ))

(10) . ,
(3) .
, (1) (3)
C-H (~3%) (2sp3-1s), 108,7
pm. C-C (2sp3-2sp3), 154 pm.

109 28.
[7]
C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
C-C
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm
3% C- H+

C#1,#3,#1',#1''
-0,09
C#2
-0,00
+0,03

1. .
2.
.

1. : . ((CH3)3C-) (CH3-). ,
. . - :
X , Br.
2. Wurtz [8] :
. .
, :
() ..: 9,5 C ..: -88,6 C.

1. (CH3)3CCH2X):
1. , + [9] :
3 :
4 :
1. Li:
2. Mg[11] :
2. - Wolf-Kishner[12] :
1. :
M 3,3- [(CH3)3CCH2COO] [13] :

9,5C.

.
874
875
(
2,5) '

.
:
() n- (CH3-(CH2)3-CH3)
- (CH-(CH3)2-CH2-CH3)
- (C-(CH3)4).
,
.
,
.
IUPAC
( )
(C, 1 atm)
(atm)
(C)
72,149
36,06
33,25
196,50
2-
72,149
27,84
33,37
187,24
2,2-
72,149
9,50
31,57
160,60
1. ,
[14] :
,
C-C[15] ,
C-H[16] (=)[17] O2:
2. :
876
3.
[18]
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.

(CH3)4C:
1. : .
(UV) ().
2. : , .
[19]
3. : ,
.
.
(CH3)4C 2
(CH3)4C.
(CH3)4C, ,
(CH3)4C X.
X.,
X-.

(.. [:CH2]) C-H, (1) .
.., [:CH2] 2,2-[20] :
HNO3 [21] :

To :

.
.
-

.
.
A
[1] Compounds in Gasoline (http:/ / www. elmhurst. edu/ ~chm/ vchembook/ 515gasolinecpd. html)
[2] http:/ / www. airliquidesante. int. airliquide. com/ safety/ msds/ en/ 087_AL_EN. pdf
2,2-, 2,2- , .
(2,2-) , .
C C.
C C.
. . 1982, . 34.
[8] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH , R' = (CH ) CH
3
3 3
[9] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.1., R = (CH ) CCH
3 3
2
[10] . . 1982, 6.2.1., R = (CH ) CCH
3 3
2
[11] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4., R = (CH ) CCH
3 3
2
[12] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6.
[13] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3., R = (CH ) CCH
3 3
2
[14] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1, v = 5
kJ.
[15] H = +347 kJ/mol
C-C
[16] H
= +415 kJ/mol
C-H
[17] H =+146 kJ/mol
O-O
[18] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.1., R = (CH ) CCH
3 3
2
[19]
[20] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3, R = (CH ) CCH .
3 3
2
[21] . . 1982, . 244 , 10.3.2, R = (CH ) CCH
3 3
2
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
877
(http://www.organictech.com/products/techsheets/
2,2-Dimethylpropane.pdf)
.., : , ,
1986.
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
.: .
.
Neopentane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Neopentane)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Neopentane)).
878
879
IUPAC
C5H12
72,15 amu
C3(CH2)3C3
BuMe, PrEt
CAS
109-66-0
SMILES
CCCCC
InChI
1/C5H12/c1-3-5-4-2/h3-5H2,1-2H3
RTECS
RZ9450000
PubChemCID
8003
880
ChemSpiderID
7712
-129,7C (134,95 K)
36,1C (272,65 K)
626 kg/m3 (20C, 1 atm)
40 g/m3 (20C)
0,240 cP (20C)
,
nD
1,3575
pKa
~45
62
-49C
296C
[1]
(F+), (Xn), (N)

12, 51/53, 65, 66, 67
2, 9, 16, 29, 33, 61, 62
MSDS
MSDS
[2]
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

() [3] ,
, CH3(CH2)3CH3. , C5H12,
(2) :
1. , CH3CH2CH(CH3)2.
2. , (CH3)4C .
.
'
. 2-
881
,
. [4]
[5] .
IUPAC. , -
(5) , --
-
, .
(5) ( (2) [6] (3) [7] )

(12) . ,
(3) . (3)
, (2) (2)
C-H (~3%) (2sp3-1s),
108,7 pm. C-C (2sp3-2sp3), 154 pm.
109 28.
[8]

C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
C-C
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm
3% C- H+

C#1,#5
-0,09
C#2-#4
-0,06
+0,03

1. .
2.
.
1. - :
1. - - :
882
2. - - :
2. Wurtz [9] :
T : , (..: 125,52C)
[10] () , (36,1C)
(..: -88,6C).

1. -1 (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2X) -2 (CH3CH2CH2CHXCH3)
-3 (CH3CH2CHXCH2CH3)[11] :
1. -2 -3
, + :
2. -2 -3 LiAlH4 NaBH4[12]
:
3 -1 -2 -3 HI:
4 :
1. Li:
[13]
883
2. Mg[14] :
[15]
2. 5 :
1. -1 -2[16] [17]
2. -1 -2[18] :
3. -1,2 -1,3 -1,4 -2,3[17] :
4. -1,2,3 -1,2,4[17] :
5. -1--3 -1--4 -2--4[17] [18] :
6. -1,3 -1,4[18] :
7. [17] :
884
4. -2 -3 - Clemmensen[20] :
M (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH)
2- [CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)COOH] 2-
[CH3CH2CH(CH2CH3)COOH]
[21]

n- .
.
:
() n- (CH3-(CH2)3-CH3)
- (CH-(CH3)2-CH2-CH3)
- (C-(CH3)4).
,
.
885
IUPAC
( )
(C, 1 atm)
(atm)
(C)
72,149
36,06
33,25
196,50
2-
72,149
27,84
33,37
187,24
2,2-
72,149
9,50
31,57
160,60
: 62[22]
1. , n-
[23] :
,
C-C[24] ,
C-H[25] (=)[26] O2:
2. :
3. -2 -3:
,
.
4. , :
886
[27]
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.

0<a,b,c<1, a + b + c = 0, :
F Cl .
H.
:
-1: 61 = 6.
-2: 43,8 = 15,2.
-3: 23,8 = 7,6.
: 20,8% -1, 52,8% -2
26,4% -3.
Br I .
(
C, C 2 C) . :
-1: 61 = 6.
-2: 482 = 328.
-3: 282 = 162.
: 1,2% -1, 66,1% -2
32,7% -3.
CH3(CH2)3CH3:
1. : .
(UV) ().
2. : , .
[28]
3. : ,
.
.
CH3(CH2)3CH3 2
X- CH3(CH2)3CH3
887
CH3(CH2)3CH3,
, CH3(CH2)3CH3 X.
X.,
X-.

(.. [:CH2]) C-H. .. [29] :
;
1. (6) CH2-H: .
2. (4) 2-C#2,#4H-H: 2-.
3. (2) 3-C#3H-H: 3-.
~50%, 2- ~33% 3- ~16,7%.
HNO3 [30] :
0<a,b,c<1, a + b + c = 1.

To :
n-
.
,
.
,
.
,
.
-
n-
.
.
, ,
.
A
[2] http:/ / www. jtbaker. com/ msds/ englishhtml/ p0737. htm
[3] - n- ,
. ,
, .
[4] .
[5] .
[6] C (1) C.
[7] C (2) C.
. . 1982, . 34.
[9] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH , R' = CH CH CH
3
3
2
2
[10] : P = 1 atm, = 25C.
[11] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
CH3CH2CH2CHCH3 CH3CH2CHCH2CH3
[12] . . 1982, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
[13] |t | :
2
[14] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4., R = CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
CH3CH2CHCH3 CH3CHCH2CH3
[15] Grignard
[16] cis- trans[17] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.5.
[18] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.4.
[19] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6.
[20] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6, R = CH CH CH , R' = CH R = R' =
3
2
2
3
CH3CH2
[21] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3., R = CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
[23] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1, v = 5
kJ.
[24] H = +347 kJ/mol
C-C
[25] H
= +415 kJ/mol
C-H
[26] H =+146 kJ/mol
O-O
[27] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.1., R = CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
[28]
[29] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3.
[30] . . 1982, . 244 , 10.3.2, R = CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
CH3CH2CH2CHCH3 CH3CH2CHCH2CH3.
Chemfinder: (http://chemfinder.cambridgesoft.com/)
.., : , ,
1986.
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
.
.
888
889
Pentane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Pentane)

/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Pentane)).
IUPAC
C5H12
72,15 amu
C3CH2CH(C3)2
sBuMe, iBuMe, iPrEt
CAS
78-78-4
SMILES
CCC(C)C
RTECS
EK4430000
-159,9C
27,7C (272,65 K)
616 kg/m3
890

[1]
99
<-51C
420C
(F+), (Xn), (N)

12, 51/53, 65, 66, 67
2, 9, 16, 29, 33, 61, 62
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

,
, C5H12 CH3CH2CH(CH3)2.
,
.
IUPAC. ,
-[2] (1) , -
(4) , --
-
, .
(4) ( (3) [3] , (1) [4] ),

(1) [5] ) (10) . ,
(3) .
, (1) (3)
C-H (~3%)
(2sp3-1s), 108,7 pm. C-C (2sp3-2sp3), 154 pm.
109 28.
891
[6]

C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
C-C
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm
3% C- H+

C#1,#4,#1'
-0,09
C#3
-0,06
C#2
-0,03
+0,03

1. .
2.
.
1. : (CH3CHCH3) (CH3CH2).
,
- - :
2. Wrtz [7] :
,
: , 2,5- (..: 108C) [8] ()
, (..: 28C)
(..: -0,5 C).
892

1. 2--1 (CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2X) 2--2
(CH3CH2CX(CH3)2) 3--2 ((CH3)2CHCHXCH3) 3--1
((CH3)2CHCH2CH2X):
1. , + [9] :
3 2--1 2--2 3--2

3--1 HI:
4 :
1. Li:
2. Mg[11] :
893
2. 4
:
1. 2--1[12] :
2. 3--1[12] :
3. -2[12] :
4. -1[13] :
5. -1,2[12] :
6. -1,3[12] :
7. [12] [13] :
1. 2-:
2. 3-:
894
M 3- [CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2COOH]
[2,2- [CH3CH2C(CH3)2COOH] 2,3-
[CH3CH(CH3)C(CH3)COOH] 4- [CH3CH(CH3)C2C2COOH][16] :

.

.
:
() n- (CH3-(CH2)3-CH3)
- (CH-(CH3)2-CH2-CH3)
- (C-(CH3)4).
,
.
,
.
IUPAC
( )
(C, 1 atm)
(atm)
(C)
72,149
36,06
33,25
196,50
2-
72,149
27,84
33,37
187,24
895
2,2-
72,149
9,50
31,57
160,60
1. ,
[17] :
,
C-C[18] ,
C-H[19] (=)[20] O2:
2. :
3. 2--2
4. 2--2:
[21]
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.
0<a,b,c,d<1, a + b + c + d = 0, :
F Cl .
H.
:
3--1: 31 = 3.
3--2: 23,8 = 7,6.
2--2: 15 = 5.
2--1: 61 = 6.

3--2,
23,1%
2--1.
: 13,9% 3--1,
2--2
35,2%
27,8%
Br I .
( C,
C 3 C) 2--2.
:
3--1: 31 = 3.
896
3--2: 282 = 164.

2--2: 11600 = 1600.
2--1: 61 = 6.

3--2,
2--1.
90,2%
: 0,2% 3--1,
2--2
9,2%
0,3%
CH3CH2CH(CH3)2:
1. : .
(UV) ().
2. : , .
[22]
3. : ,
.
[23]
.
CH3CH2CH(CH3)2 2
CH3CH2CH(CH3)2.
CH3CH2CH(CH3)2,
, CH3CH2CH(CH3)2 X.
X.,
X-.
897

(.. [:CH2]) C-H. .. [24] :
;
1.
2.
3.
4.
() (3) C#1H2-H: 2-.

(2) CH-H: 2,3-.
C-H: 2,2-.
(6) C#1,#1'H2-H: 3-.
2-
(~25%),
2,2- (~8,3%) 3- (-50%).
2,3-
(~16,7%),
HNO3 [25] :
0<a,b,c,d<1, a + b + c + d = 1.

To :
.
n- ,
.
R-11 R-141b
-.
-

.
.
, ,
.
A
Compounds in Gasoline (http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/515gasolinecpd.html)
(2-) , .
C (1) C .
C (3) C.
C (3) C.
. . 1982, . 34.
[7] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH CH , R' = CH CHCH
3
2
3
3
[8] : P = 1 atm, = 25C.
[9] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH(CH )CH
3
2
3
2
CH3CH2C(CH3)2 (CH3)2CHCHCH3 CH2CH2CH(CH3)2
[10] . . 1982, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH(CH )CH CH CH C(CH )
3
2
3
2
3
2
3 2
(CH3)2CHCHCH3 CH2CH2CH(CH3)2
[11] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4., R = CH CH CH(CH )CH
3
2
3
2
CH3CH2C(CH3)2 (CH3)2CHCHCH3 CH2CH2CH(CH3)2
[12] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.5.
[13] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.4.
[14] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6.
[15] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6, R = CH , R' = CH CHCH
3
3
3
[16] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3., R = CH CH(CH )CHCH
3
3
3
CH3CH2C(CH3)2 CH3CH(CH3)CHCH3 CH3CH(CH3)CH2CH2
[17] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1, v = 5
kJ.
[18] H = +347 kJ/mol
C-C
[19] H
= +415 kJ/mol
C-H
[20] H =+146 kJ/mol
O-O
[21] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.1., R = CH CH(CH )CHCH
3
3
3
CH3CH2C(CH3)2 CH3CH(CH3)CHCH3 CH3CH(CH3)CH2CH2
[22]
[23] .
[24] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3.
[25] . . 1982, . 244 , 10.3.2, R = CH CH CH CH(CH )CH
3
2
2
3
2
CH3CH2CH2C(CH3)2 CH3CH2CHCH(CH3)2 CH3CHCH2CH(CH3)2 CH2CH2CH2CH(CH3)2.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
. (http://s-ohe.com/isopentane.html)
Shell Chemicals (http://www.scdynamiccontent.shell.com/
Files/paraffins_isopentane_europe.pdf)
.., : , ,
1986.
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
.: .
.
Isopentane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Isopentane)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Isopentane)).
898
899
IUPAC
C6H14
58,12 g/mol
CH3(CH2)4CH3
BuEt, Pr2
CAS
110-54-3
SMILES
CCCCCC
900
InChI
1/C6H14/c1-3-5-6-4-2/h3-6H2,1-2H3
RTECS
MN9275000
PubChemCID
8058
ChemSpiderID
7767
4
2-
3-
2,2-
2,3-

95C
69C
654,8 kg/m3
13 g/m3 (20C)

[1]
19
-23.3C
233.9C
E (F), (Xn), (N)

11, 38, 48/20, 62, 65, 67, 51/53
2, 9, 16, 29, 33, 36/37, 61, 62
MSDS
MSDS
[2]
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

[2] , , C6H14
CH3(CH2)4CH3. (6) ( (2)
[3] (4) [4] ) (14) .
. ,
. 16[5] .
( [6] ) ,
.
.
901
,
[7] .
IUPAC. , -
(6) , --
-
, .

1. .
2.
.
1. ,
(CH3CH2CH2). Wutz, (CH3CH2CH2X)
Na[8] :
: Cl, Br, I.
To K .
: ~60%.
2. - :
3. (CH3CH2CH2COONa)[9] :
4. , (CH3CH2CH2CN)[10] :
902

1. -1 (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2X) -2 (CH3CH2CH2CH2CHXCH3)
-3 (CH3CH2CH2CHXCH2CH3)[11] :
1. -2 ,
+ :
2. -2 -3 LiAlH4 NaBH4[12] :
3 -1 -2 -3 HI:
4 :
1. Li:
[13]
2. Mg[14] :
[15]
2. 6 :
1. -1 -2[16] -3[17] :
903
2. -1 -2 -3[18] :
>
3. -1,2 -1,3 -1,4 -1,5 -2,3 -2,4[17]

:
4. -1,2,3 -1,2,4 -1,2,3 -1,2,5 -1,3,4

-1,3,5 -2,3,4[17] ::
5. -1--3 -1--4 -1--5 -2--4 -5--4 -1--1

-3--5[17] [18] :
904
6. -1,2,3,4 -1,2,3,5 -1,2,4,5[17] ::
7. -1,2--4
-3,4--1[17] [18] :
-1,2--5
-1,3--5
8. -1,3 -1,4 -1,5 -2,4[18] ::
9. [17] ::
10. [17] [18] ::
11. [18] :
4. -2 -3 - Clemmensen[20] :
-1,2--5
905
M (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH)
2- [CH3CH2CH2CH2CH(CH3)COOH] 2-
[CH3CH2CH2CH(CH2CH3)COOH]
[21]

n- . .
1 atm
:
[22]
(C)
(mmHg)
-40
3,36
-30
7,12
-20
14,01
-10
25,91
45,37
10
75,74
20
121,26
25
151,28
30
187,11
40
279,42
50
405,31
60
572,76
(4)
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
2- (): CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)2
3-: CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH3
2,2- (): CH3CH2C(CH3)3
2,3-: (CH3)2CHCH(CH3)2
906
IUPAC
( )
(C, 1 atm)
86,18
69
2-
58,12
60
3-
58,12
64
2,2-
58,12
49,73
2,3-
58,12
57,9
[23]
1. ,
,
[24]
[25]
[26]
2:
C-C
, C-H
(=)
O
2. :
3. -2 -3:
,
.
[27]
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.
0<a,b,c<1, a + b + c = 0, :
F Cl .
H.
:
-1: 61 = 6.
-2: 43,8 = 15,2.
-3: 43,8 = 15,2.
907
: 16,5% -1, 41,8% -2 41,8%
-3.
Br I .
( C,
C 2 C) . :
-1: 61 = 6.
-2: 482 = 328.
-3: 482 = 328.
: 0,9% -1, 49,5% -2 49,5%
-3.
CH3(CH2)4CH3:
1. : .
(UV) ().
2. : , .
[28]
3. : ,
.
.
CH3(CH2)4CH3 2
X- CH3(CH2)4CH3.
CH3(CH2)4CH3,
, CH3(CH2)4CH3 X.
X.,
X-.
908

(.. [:CH2]) C-H. .. [29] :
;
1. (6) CH2-H: 6
2. (4) 2-CH-H: 4
3. (4) 3-CH-H: 4
~43%, 2- ~29% 3- ~29%.
HNO3 [30] :
0<a,b,c<1, a + b + c = 1.

To , 3-,
2,3-:
, .
, ,
() .

, ,
.
, .
( )
.
[31] .

400-600 ppm, 2.500 ppm.
.
, .
, ,
-2,5. ,

.
. 1994
Toxic Release Inventory (TRI).[32] .
. 2001 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
, .[33]
909
-
[2] n- - .
[3] C (1) C.
[4] C (2) C.
[6] .
[7] Use of ozone depleting substances in laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516. http:/ / www. norden. org/ pub/ ebook/ 2003-516. pdf
[8] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH CH CH
3
2
2
[9] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3b, R = CH CH CH .
3
2
2
[10] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH CH CH , X = CN
3
2
2
[11] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH CH CH
3
[12] . . 1982, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
[13] |t | :
2
[14] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4., R = CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
[15] Grignard
[16] cis- trans[17] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.5.
[18] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.4.
[19] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6.
[20] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6, R = CH CH CH CH , R' = CH R =
3
2
2
2
3
CH3CH2CH2, R' = CH3CH2
[21] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3., R = CH CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
2
CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCH3 CH3CH2CH2CHCH2CH3
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
http:/ / www. xydatasource. com/ xy-showdatasetpage. php?datasetcode=84114& dsid=63
. . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1, v = 6 kJ.

HC-C= +347 kJ/mol
HC-H = +415 kJ/mol
HO-O=+146 kJ/mol
[27] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.1., R = CH CH CH CH CH CH

3
CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCH3 CH3CH2CH2CHCH2CH3
[28]
[29] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3, R = CH CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
2
CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCH3 CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCH2CH3.
[30] . . 1982, . 244 , 10.3.2, R = CH CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
2
CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCH3 CH3CH2CH2CHCH2CH3.
[31] Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, Hughes JP, and Fischman M (1991). Proctor and Hughes' chemical hazards of the workplace. 3rd ed.
New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
[32] N-Hexane Chemical Backgrounder (http:/ / www. nsc. org/ ehc/ chemical/ N-Hexane. htm). National Safety Council ( 25
May 2007 )
[33] Anuradee Witthayapanyanon and Linh Do. Nanostructured Microemulsions as Alternative Solvents to VOCs in Cleaning
Technologies and Vegetable Oil Extraction (http://es.epa.gov/ncer/publications/meetings/10_26_05/abstracts/do.html). National
Center For Environmental Research ( 25 May 2007 )
910
(http://chemfinder.cambridgesoft.com/)
n- Shell Chemicals (http://www.scdynamiccontent.shell.com/
Files/paraffins_nhexane_europe.pdf)
.., : , ,
1986.
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
.
.
Hexane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Hexane)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Hexane)).
2-
911
2-
2-
IUPAC
2-
C6H14
86,18 amu
C3CH2CH2CH(C3)2
iBu, iPrPr
CAS
73513-42-5
SMILES
CCCC(C)C
PubChemCID
7892
3-
2,2-
2,3-

-153C
60C
2-
912

-32C
264C
(F+), (Xn), (N)

12, 51/53, 65, 66, 67
2, 9, 16, 29, 33, 61, 62
(25C, 1 Atm)

2- , ,
C6H14 CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)2.
2- IUPAC. ,
- (1)
#2, , - (5)
, --
-
, .
(6) ( (3) [1] , (2) [2] ), (1)

[3] ) (14) .
[4]

C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
C-C
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm

C#1,#5,#1'
-0,09
C#3,#4
-0,06
C#2
-0,03
+0,03
3% C- H+
2-
913

1. .
2.
.
: (CH3CHCH3) (CH3CH2CH2).
,
- - :

1. 2--1 (CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)CH2X) 4--1
((CH3)2CHCH2CH2CH2X)
2--2
(CH3CH2CH2CX(CH3)2))
4--2
((CH32CHCH2CHXCH3)
2--3
(CH3CH2CHXCH(CH3)2)[5] :
1. , + :
3 HI:
2-
914
4 :
1. Li:
2. Mg[7] :
2. 5
:
1. 2--1[8] :
2-
2. 2--2[8] :
3. 4--2[8] :
4. 4--1[8] :
5. 4--1,2[8] :
6. 2--1,3[8] :
7. 4--1,3[8] :
8. 2--1,4[8] :
9. 4--1[9] :
10. 4--2[9] :
11. -1,2,3[8] :
12. 4--1,2,4[8] :
13. 2--2--4[8] [9] :
14. 2--1--4[8] [9] :
15. 2--1--3[8] [9] :
1. 2-:
2. 4-:
1. 2-:
915
2-
916
2. 4-:
M 3- [CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)CH2COOH]
[2,2- [CH3CH2CH2C(CH3)2COOH] 2--3-
[(CH3)2CHC(CH2CH3)COOH] [2,4- [(CH3)2CHCH2C(CH3)COOH]
5- [(CH3)2CHCH2CH2CH2COOH][12] :

.

.
(4)
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
: CH3(CH2)4CH3
2,2- (): CH3CH2C(CH3)3
2,3-: (CH3)2CHCH(CH3)2

IUPAC
( )
(C, 1 atm)
86,18
69
2-
86,18
60
3-
86,18
64
2,2-
86,18
49,73
2,3-
86,18
57,9
2-
917
[13]
1. ,
::
,
[14]
[15]
[16]
2:
C-C
, C-H
(=)
O
2. :
3. 2--2:
4. 2--2:
[17]
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.
0<a,b,c,d,e<1, a + b + c + d + e = 0, :
F Cl .
H.
:
2--1-: 61 = 6.
2--2-: 15 = 5.
2--3-: 23,8 = 7,6.
4--2-: 23,8 = 7,6.
4--1-: 31 = 3.
: 20,5% 2--2-, 17,1%
2--2-, 26% 2--3-, 26% 4--2-
10,3% 4--1-.
Br I .
( C,
C 3 C) 2--2.
:
1--2-: 61 = 6.
2--2-: 11600 = 1600.
3--2-: 282 = 164.
2--4-: 282 = 164.
1--4-: 31 = 3.
: 0,3% 1--2-, 82,6%
2--2-, 8,5% 3--2-, 8,5% 2--4-
0,2% 1--4-.
CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)2:
1. : .
2-
918
(UV) ().
2. : , .
[18]
3. : ,
.
[19]
.
CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)2 2
CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)2.
CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)2,
, CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)2
X. X.,
X-.
HNO3 [20] :
0<a,b,c,d,e<1, a + b + c + d + e = 1.

(.. [:CH2]) C-H. .. [21] :
;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(6) 1-CH2-H: 6
C-H: 1.
(2) 3-CH-H: 2.
(2) 4-CH-H: 2.
(3) 5-CH2-H: 3
|3- (~43%), 2,2- (~7%), 2,3-

(~14%), 2,4- (~14%) |2- (-21%).
2-

To 2- , 3-,
2,3-:
A
C (1) C.
C (2) C.
C (3) C.
. . 1982, . 34.
[5] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH CH(CH )CH
3
2
2
3
2
CH3CH2CH2C(CH3)2 (CH3)2CHCHCH2CH3 CH2CH2CH2CH(CH3)2
[6] . . 1982, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH CH(CH )CH
3
2
2
3
2
[7] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4., R = CH CH CH CH(CH )CH
3
2
2
3
2
[8] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.5.
[9] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.4.
[10] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6.
[11] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6, R = CH CH , R' = CH CHCH R =
3
2
3
3
CH3, R' = CH3CH2CH(CH3)2
[12] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3., R = CH CH CH(CH )CH
3
2
3
2
CH3CH2CH2C(CH3)2 CH3CH2CHCH(CH3)2 CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH2CH(CH3)2
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[13]
. . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1, v = 6 kJ.
[14]
HC-C= +347 kJ/mol
[15]
HC-H = +415 kJ/mol
[16]
HO-O=+146 kJ/mol
. . 1982, . 152, 6.7.1.

.
. . 1982, . 244 , 10.3.2.
. . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3, R = CH3CH(CH3)CHCH3
CH3CH2C(CH3)2 CH3CH(CH3)CHCH3 CH3CH(CH3)CH2CH2.
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
.., : , ,
1986.
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
.
.
2-Methylpentane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ 2-Methylpentane)
by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ 2-Methylpentane)).
919
2-
920
2-Methylpentane (http:/ / fr. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ 2-Methylpentane)

, GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3.
0/ ). ( / (http:/ / fr. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ 2-Methylpentane)).
3-
3-
IUPAC
3-

C6H14
86,18 amu
CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH3
sBu
CAS
96-14-0
SMILES
CCC(C)CC
2-
2,2-
2,3-
3-
921

-118C
64C
(F+), (Xn), (N)

12, 51/53, 65, 66, 67
2, 9, 16, 29, 33, 61, 62
(25C, 1 Atm)

3- ,
C6H14 CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH3.
3- IUPAC. ,
- (1)
#3, , - (5)
, --
-
, .
(6) ( (3) [1] , (2) [2] )

(1) [3] )) (14) . ,
(3) .
, (1) (3)
C-H (~3%)
(2sp3-1s), 108,7 pm. C-C (2sp3-2sp3), 154 pm.
109 28.
3-
922
[4]

C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
C-C
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm
3% C- H+

C#1,#5,#1'
-0,09
C#2,#4
-0,06
C#3
-0,03
+0,03

1. .
2.
.
1. 3- : (CH3CH2CHCH3)
(CH3CH2). , 3-
- :
2. Wurtz [5] :
,
: , 3,4- (..: 164C)[6] [7] ()
3- , (..: 64C)
(..: -0,5C).
3-
923

1. 3--1 (CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH2X) 3--2
(CH3CH2CH(CH3)CHXCH3)
3--3
(CH3CH2CX(CH3)CH2CH3)
[8]
2--1 [(CH3CH2)2CCH2X] :
1. , + :
3 HI:
4 :
1. Li:
2. Mg[10] :
3-
924
2.
5 :
1. 3--1[11] :
2. 3--2[11] :
3. 2--1[11] :
4. 3--1,2[11] :
5. 3--1,3[11] :
6. 3--1,4[11] :
7. 3--1[12] :
8. 3--1,2,4[11] :
9. 3--2--4[11] [12] :
10. 3--1--4[11] [12] :
11. [11] [12] :
12. [12] :
1. 3-:
3-
925
2. :
4. - Clemmensen[14] ::
1. 3-:
M 4- [CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH2COOH]
[2,3- [CH3CH2C(C3)C(C3)COOH] 2--2-
[CH3CH2C(CH3)(CH2CH3)COOH] [3- [(CH3)2CHCH2CH2COOH][15] :

3- .
. (C6H12) (4)
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
: CH3(CH2)4CH3
2- (): CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)2
2,2- (): CH3CH2C(CH3)3
2,3-: (CH3)2CHCH(CH3)2

IUPAC
( )
(C, 1 atm)
86,18
69
2-
58,12
60
3-
58,12
64
2,2-
58,12
49,73
2,3-
58,12
57,9
3-
926
[16]
1. : , 3-
,
[17]
[18]
[19]
2:
C-C
, C-H
(=)
O
2. :
3. 3--3:
4. 3--3:
[20]
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.
0<a,b,c,d<1, a + b + c + d = 0, :
F Cl .
H.
:
3--1: 61 = 6.
3--2: 43,8 = 15,2.
3--3: 15 = 5.
2--1: 31 = 3.

3--2,
2--1.
17,1%
: 20,5% 3--1,
3--3
52,1%
10,3%
Br I .
( C,
C 3 C) 2--2.
:
3--1: 61 = 6.
3--2: 482 = 328.
3--3: 11600 = 1600.
2--1: 31 = 3.

3--2,
2--1.
82,6%
: 0,3% 3--1,
3--3
CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH3:
1. : .
16,9%
0,1%
3-
927
(UV) ().
2. : , .
[21]
3. : ,
.
[22]
.
CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH3 2
CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH3.
CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH3,
,
CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH3(CH3)2 X.
X., X-.

(.. [:CH2]) C-H. .. [23] :
;
1.
2.
3.
4.
(6) 1,5-CH2-H: 6
(4) 2,4-CH-H: 4.
C-H: 1.
(3) 1'-CH2-H): 4.
|3- (~43%), 2,3- (~29%), 3,3-

(~7%) | (-29%).
3-
928
HNO3 [24] :
0<a,b,c,d<1, a + b + c + d = 1.

To 2- , 2-,
2,3-:
A
C (1) C.
C (2) C.
C (3) C.
. . 1982, . 34.
[5] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH CH , R' = CH CH CH CHCH
3
2
3
2
2
3
[6] (http:/ / books. google. gr):Google :Chemical properties handbook: physical, thermodynamic, environmental ... Carl L.
Yaws
[7] : P = 1 atm, = 25C.
[8] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH(CH )CH CH
3
2
3
2
2
CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)CHCH3 CH3CH2C(CH3)CH2CH3 (CH3CH2)2CCH2
[9] . . 1982, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH(CH )CH CH
3
2
3
2
2
[10] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4., R = CH CH CH(CH )CH CH
3
2
3
2
2
[11] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.5.
[12] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.4.
[13] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6.
[14] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6, R = CH , R' = CH CH CH CH(CH )
3
3
2
2
3 2
[15] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3., R = CH CH(CH )CH CH
3
3
2
2
CH3CH2CH(CH3)CHCH3 CH3CH2C(CH3)CH2CH3 (CH3CH2)2CHCH3
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[16]
. . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1, v = 6 kJ.
[17]
HC-C= +347 kJ/mol
[18]
HC-H = +415 kJ/mol
[19]
HO-O=+146 kJ/mol
[20] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.1., R = CH CH CH(CH )CH CH

3
CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)CHCH3 CH3CH2C(CH3)CH2CH3 (CH3CH2)2CHCH2

[21] }
[22] .
[23] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3, R = CH CH CH(CH )CH CH
3
2
3
2
2
CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)CHCH3 CH3CH2C(CH3)CH2CH3 (CH3CH2)2CHCH2.
[24] . . 1982, . 244 , 10.3.2, R = CH CH CH(CH )CH CH
3
2
3
2
2
CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)CHCH3 CH3CH2C(CH3)CH2CH3 (CH3CH2)2CHCH2.
3-
.., : , ,
1986.
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
.
.
3-Methylpentane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ 3-Methylpentane)
by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ 3-Methylpentane)).
929
2,2-
930
2,2-
2,2-
IUPAC
2,2-
C6H14
86,18 amu
(C3)3C
NpMe, tBuEt
CAS
75-83-2
SMILES
CC(C)(C)CC
2-
3-
2,3-

-98,8C
49,73C
791 kg/m3

[1]
89
-29C
-44,5 kJ/mole
(F+), (Xn), (N)
2,2-
931
12, 51/53, 65, 66, 67
2, 9, 16, 29, 33, 61, 62
MSDS
MSDS
[2]
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

2,2- , ,
C6H14 (CH3)3CCH2CH3.
.
IUPAC. ,
- (2) (-) (1)
(--) #2,
(2,2-), - (4)
, --
-
.
(6) ( (4) [2] , (1) [3]

(1) [4] ) (14) .
[5]
C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
C-C
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm

C#1,#4,#1',#1"
-0,09
C#3
-0,06
C#2
0,00
+0,03
3% C- H+
2,2-
932

1. .
2.
.

1. 2,2- : ) ((CH3)3C-) )
(CH3CH2-). , 2,2-
-. :
X , (Br).
2. Wurtz [6] :
[7] .
,
: () ..: 49,73C ..:
-0,5C.

1. [8] :
1. , + :
3 :
4 :
1. Li:
2,2-
933
2. Mg[10] :
2. :
1. 3,3-[11] :
2. [12] :
3. - Wolf-Kishner[13] ::
1. 2,2-:
2. 3,3-:
1. :
M 3,3- [CH3CH2(CH3)CH2COO]
4,4- [CH3(CH3)CH2CH2COO] 2,3,3-
[(CH3)3CCH(CH3COO][15] :
2,2-
934

.

.
(4)
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
: CH3(CH2)4CH3
2- ():(CH3)2CHCH2CH2CH3
2,3-: (CH3)2CHCH(CH3)2

IUPAC
( )
(C, 1 atm)
86,18
69
2-
58,12
60
3-
58,12
64
2,2-
58,12
49,73
2,3-
58,12
57,9
[16]
1. : ,
,
[17]
[18]
[19]
2:
C-C
, C-H
(=)
O
2. :
3. :
2,2-
935
[20]
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.

0<a,b,c<1, a+b+c = 1, :
F Cl .
H.
:
2,2-: 91 = 9
3,3--2-: 23,8=7,6
3,3--1-: 91 = 6
:
2,2-
3,3--2- 33,6%, 3,3--1- 26,5%.
39,8%,
Br I .
2--3,3- X C ( C
2 C).
:
-2,2-: 91 = 9
2--3,3-: 282=164
1--3,3-: 61 = 6
:
-2,2-
2--3,3- 91,6%, 1--3,3- 3,3%.
5%,
CH3CH2C(CH3)3:
1. : .
(UV) ().
2. : , .
[21]
3. : ,
.
2,2-
936
CH3CH2C(CH3)3 2
CH3CH2C(CH3)3.
CH3CH2C(CH3)3,
, CH3CH2C(CH3)3 X.
X.,
X-.

C-H. .. [22] :
;
1. (3) C#4H2-H : 3
2. (2) CH-H: 2
3. (9) C#1,#1',#1"H2-H: 9: 9

(-14%).
3,3-
(~64%),
2,2-
(~21%)
HNO3 [23] :
0<a,b,c<1, a + b + c = 1.

To 2,3- , 2-,
2- 2,3-:
.
.
A
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[www.elmhurst.edu/.../515gasolinecpd.html]
C (1) C.
C (2) C.
C (4) C.
. . 1982, . 34.
. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH3CH2, R' = (CH3)3CH
,

. . 1982, . 152, 6.2.1., R = (CH3)3CCH2CH2
(CH3)3CCHCH3 CH2C(CH3)2CH2CH3
. . 1982, 6.2.1., R = (CH3)3CCH2CH2 (CH3)3CCHCH3
CH2C(CH3)2CH2CH3
2,2-
937
[10] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.4., R = (CH ) CCH CH

3 3
(CH3)3CCHCH3 CH2C(CH3)2CH2CH3
[11] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.5.
[12] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.4.
[13] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6.
[14] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6, R = CH , R' = (CH ) C
3
3 3
[15] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3., R = CH CH (CH )CH
3
2
3
2
CH3(CH3)CH2CH2 (CH3)3CCH(CH3)
[16]
. . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1, v = 6 kJ.
[17]
HC-C= +347 kJ/mol
[18]
HC-H = +415 kJ/mol
[19]
HO-O=+146 kJ/mol
[20] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.1., R = (CH ) CCH CH

3 3
CH2C(CH3)2H2CH3 (CH3)3CCHCH3
[21]
[22] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3, R = (CH ) CCH CH
3 3
2
2
CH2C(CH3)2H2CH3 (CH3)3CCHCH3.
[23] . . 1982, . 244 , 10.3.2, R = (CH ) CCH CH
3 3
2
2
CH2C(CH3)2H2CH3 (CH3)3CCHCH3
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
. . 1982
2,2-Dimethylbutane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ 2,2-Dimethylbutane)
by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ 2,2-Dimethylbutane)).
2,3-
938
2,3-
2,3-
IUPAC
2,3-

C6H14
86,18 amu
(C3)2CHCH(C3)2
iPr2
CAS
79-29-8
SMILES
CC(C)C(C)C
2-
3-
2,2-

-128C
57,9C
660 kg/m3
-44,5 kJ/mole
(25C, 1
Atm)

2,3-
939
2,3- , ,
C6H14 (CH3)2CHCH(CH3)2.
.
IUPAC. ,
- (2) (-) (1)
(--) #2 #3,
(2,3-), - (4)
, --
-
.
(6) ( (4) [1] (2) [2] )

(12) .
[3]
C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
C-C
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm
3% C- H+

C#1,#4,#1',#1"
-0,09
C#2,#3
-0,03
+0,03

1. 2,3- ((CH3)2CH-). ,
2,3- Wltz
. :
X , Br.
2. - :
:
3. (CH3)2CHCOONa[4] :
2,3-
940

1. ::
1. , + :
2. LiAlH4 NaBH4:
3 :
4 :
1. Li:
2. Mg:
2. :
1. 2,3-:
2. [2,3-:
3. - Wolf-Kishner:
1. 2,3-:
2,3-
1. M (CH3)2CC(CH3)CH2COONa :
NaHCO3 NaOH CO2
:
2. M (CH3)2CHC(CH3)2COONa :
NaHCO3 NaOH CO2
:

1. (). :
2. CN - :
3. :
4. :
5. :
6. :
7. Wltz:

2,3- .
(4)
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
: CH3(CH2)4CH3
2- ():(CH3)2CHCH2CH2CH3
2,2- (): (CH3)3CCH2CH3
941
2,3-
942
IUPAC
( )
(C, 1 atm)
86,18
69
2-
58,12
60
3-
58,12
64
2,2-
58,12
49,73
2,3-
58,12
57,9
1. : , 2,3-
:
,
C-C[5] ,
C-H[6] (=)[7] O2:
2. :
3. 2,3--2:
4. 2,3--2:
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.

0<a,b<1, a+b = 1, :
F Cl .
H. :
2,3--1: 121 = 12
2,3--2: 25=10.
2,3-
943
: 2,3-=1 54,5%, 2,3--2

45,5%.
Br I .
2,3--2 X C.
:
2,3--1: 121 = 12
3,3--2: 21600 = 3200
: 2,3--1 0,4%, 2,3--2
99,6%.
CH3CH2C(CH3)3:
1. : .
(UV) ().
2. : , .
[8]
3. : ,
.
.
.
(CH3)2CHCH(CH3)2 2
CH3CH2C(CH3)3.
(CH3)2CHCH(CH3)2, ,
3) CHCH(CH3)2 X.
(CH 2
.
X , X-.

(.. [:CH2]) C-H C-C. .. :
;
1. (12) CH2-H (4) C-C (1-2, 1'-2, 3-4 1"-3): 16.
2. (2) CH-H: 2.
3. C-C (2-3): 1.

2,4- (-5%).
[2,3-
(~84%),
2,2,3-
(~11%)
2,3-
HNO3 :
0<a,b<1, a + b = 1.
.
.
A
[1] C (1) C.
[2] C (3) C.
. . 1982, . 34.
[4] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.3b, R = (CH ) CH.
3 2
[5] H = +347 kJ/mol
C-C
[6] H
= +415 kJ/mol
C-H
[7] H =+146 kJ/mol

O-O
[8]
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
. . 1982
2,2-Dimethylbutane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ 2,2-Dimethylbutane)
by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ 2,2-Dimethylbutane)).
944
945
IUPAC
C7H16
100,21 amu
C3(CH2)5C3
BuPr
CAS
142-82-5
SMILES
CCCCCCC
InChI
1/C7H16/c1-3-5-7-6-4-2/h3-7H2,1-2H3
RTECS
MI7700000
PubChemCID
8900
ChemSpiderID
8560
8
2-
3-
2,2-
2,3-
2,4-
3,3-
,
90,61C
98,42C
946
684 kg/m3
0,386 cP (20C)

[1]
-4C
285C
(F+), (Xn), (N)

12, 51/53, 65, 66, 67
2, 9, 16, 29, 33, 61, 62
MSDS
MSDS
[2]
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

[2] , , C7H16
CH3(CH2)5CH3. ' (0).
IUPAC. , -
(7) , --
-
, .
(7) ( (2) [3] (5) [4] )

(16) .
947
[5]

C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
C-C
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm
3% C- H+

C#1,#7
-0,09
C#2-#6
-0,06
+0,03

1. .
2.
.
1. - :
1. - - :
2. - - :
3. - - :
2. Wurtz .
..:[6] :
T : , (..: 216,2C
948
C) [7] () , (98,42&degC)
(..: -88,6C).

1. :
1. , + [8] :
3 HI:
4 :
1. Li:
[10]
2. Mg[11] :
949
[12]
2. [13] [14] :
1. :
2. :
3. :
4. :
950
5. :
6.:
951
7.:
8. :
9. :
952
10. :
11. :
12. :
13. :
5. -2 -3 -4 - Clemmensen[16] :
953
M (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH)
2- [CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH(CH3)COOH] 2-
[CH3CH2CH2CH2CH(CH2CH3)COOH] 2-
[CH3CH2CH2CH(CH2CH2CH3)COOH]
[17]

(8) [ (10) ] :
1. CH3(CH2)3CH(CH3)2: 2- .
2. CH3(CH2)2*CH(CH3)CH2CH3: R,S-3-.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
(CH3)3C(CH2)2CH3: 2,2- .
(CH3)2C*CH(CH3)CH2CH3: R,S-2,3-.
(CH3)2CCH2C(CH3)2: 2,4-.
(CH3CH2)2C(CH3)2: 3,3-.
(CH3CH2)3CH: .
(CH3)3CCH(CH3)2: .
,
.
IUPAC
( )
(C, 1 atm)
100,21
98,42
2-
100,21
90
3-
100,21
90,7
2,2-
100,21
77,9
2,3-
100,21
89,4
2,4-
100,21
80,5
3,3-
100,21
85,7
100,21
93,5
100,21
81,7
954
1. , n-
[18] :
,
C-C[19] ,
C-H[20] (=)[21] O2:
2. :
3. -2, -3 -4:
,
.
[22]
X2: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > 2.
0<a,b,c,d<1, a + b + c + d = 0, :
F Cl .
H.
:
1-: 61 = 6.
2-: 43,8 = 15,2.
3-: 43,8 = 15,2.
4-: 23,8 = 7,6.
: 13,7% 1-, 34,5% 2-, 34,5%
3- 17,3% 4-.
Br I .
(
C, C 2 C) . :
1-: 61 = 6.
2-: 482 = 328.
3-: 482 = 328.
4-: 282 = 162.
: 0,7% 1-, 39,8% 2-, 39,8%
3- 32,7% 4-.
CH3(CH2)5CH3:
1. : .
(UV) ().
955
2. : , .
[23]
3. : ,
.
.
CH3(CH2)5CH3 2
X- CH3(CH2)5CH3
CH3(CH2)5CH3,
, CH3(CH2)5CH3 X.
X.,
X-.

(.. [:CH2]) C-H. .. [24] :
;
1.
2.
3.
4.
(6) CH2-H: 6
(4) 2-CH-H: 4
(4) 3-CH-H: 4
(2) 4-CH-H: 2
~37,5%, 2- ~25%, 3- ~25%

4- 12,5%.

To :
956
A
' : 0 2,2,4- 100.
n- - .
C (1) C.
C (2) C.
. . 1982, . 34.
[6] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.2, R = CH , R' = CH CH CH CH
3
3
2
2
2
[7] : P = 1 atm, = 25C.
[8] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CHCH3 CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2CHCH2CH2CH3
[9] . . 1982, 6.2.1., R = CH CH CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
[10] |t | :
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
[12] Grignard
[13] . . 1982, . 152, 6.2.5.
[14] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.4.
[15] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6.
[16] . . 1982, . 152, 6.7.6, R = CH CH CH CH , R' = CH R =
3
2
2
2
3
CH3CH2CH2CH2, R' = CH3CH2 R = R' = CH3CH2CH2
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
[18] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1, v = 7
kJ.
[19] H = +347 kJ/mol
C-C
[20] H
= +415 kJ/mol
C-H
[21] H =+146 kJ/mol
O-O
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
[23]
[24] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.3, R = CH CH CH CH CH CH CH
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
(http://chemfinder.cambridgesoft.com/)
n- Shell Chemicals (http://www.scdynamiccontent.shell.com/
Files/paraffins_nhexane_europe.pdf)
.., : , ,
1986.
. . 1982
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
.
.
Heptane (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Heptane)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Heptane)).
957
IUPAC
C2H4
28,05 amu
CH2=CH2
ViH
CAS
74-85-1
SMILES
C=C
InChI
1/C2H4/c1-2/h1-2H2
EINECS
200-815-3
RTECS
KH3800000
ChemSpiderID
6085
0D
C-H: 108,7 pm
C-C: 133,9 pm
958
C-H:
(1s-2sp2)
C-C:
(2sp2-2sp2)
(2p-2p)
C-H: 3%
HCC: 121,3
(D2h)

-169,2C
-88,6C
9,4C
49,9383173 atm
1,178 kg/m3 (15C)
2,9 g/m3
40 atm (-1,5C)
pKa
44
1314 kJ/mole
-136C
542,8C
(F+)
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

(then, Ethen) (thylen, Ethylen) (C2H4, CH2=CH2) ,

, .

() ' . ,
. , ,
CaCO3 CaC2 CCH.
,
[1] . : 2005
959
107 [2] .
'
, .
IUPAC. , -
(2) , --
(1) -
, .
1795 (olefiant gas), ,

1,2- (ClCH2CH2Cl), (oil of the Dutch)
(Cl2) ( #2.4, Cl X).
1795 .
19 - (
. ,
C2H4 (C2H5-), , ,
1852.
1866,
-, -, -, -, -
0, 2, 4, 6, 8 . '
.
IUPAC, .
.
(4)
. (6)
.
119, 120 sp2
, . C=C
() , () -.
- .
() ,
.
, * .
960
[3]

C-H
2sp2-1s
108,7 pm
C=C
2sp2-2sp2
133,9 pm
C=C
2p-2p
133,9 pm
3% C- H+
-0,06
+0,03

. ..:

, :

[4] [5] [6] :

[7] .
( ) ( )
( , (7) )
750950 C, ,
, () .
( -)
, ,
. ' .

, . ,

. ,
[8] .
:
1. .

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
961
.
.
(3) .
[9] .
(1) (2) .
.
: (2) :
1. C1 : 162 C.
,
. ,
#1 ( #2.1.3)
2. C2 : ' C2 ( ,
.
200 kPa).[10]
, C2
( ),
( 2.2.3).
C2,
#1 ( ).
3. C3 : C2 C3,
C3, (3) , ,
, , .
, ( ) (
) #1.
4. C4 : C4, (4)
, , C5, (5) , .
#1[8] .
,
,
.

.
. , 3
34 MW,
22 MW 11 MW.

.
, >150C. ,
o (CH3CH2OSO3H),
.[11] :

(HX) [12] :
1,2-
(X2) 1,2- [13] :

[14]

( Hoffmann) . ..[15] :

( Wittig) . ..[16] :
1. (). [17] :
2. .
[18] :
.
3. [19] :
4. Prins
. .. -2--1:
962

() (HOX) 2-[20] :
HOX :

. ..[21] :
(X2) () .
1,2-. ..[22] :
(HX) () [23] :
(HCN) () :

1. (NH3). . ..[24] [25] [26] [27] [28] .:

.
2. . . ..
N-:
3. . . ..
N,N-:
963

(CO + H2) . ..[8] :
Prins
,
. .. 1,3-:
, H2O2 -1,2[29] :
1. . ..:
2. :
3. Sharpless[30] [31] [32] :
4. Woodward[33] [34] :
5. 1,3- ,
. Prins. .. -1,3:
() ,
[35] :

(KMnO4)
[36] :
, :
964
965

. ..[37] :
DielsAdler
() ()
( DielsAdler) . ..
-1,3 [38] :
Pauson-Khand

Pauson-Khand . ..
-2-[39] [40] [41] [42] :

[43] :
:
1. (4) CH-H: 4.
2. ( ) : 1.
~80% ~20%.
(CH2I2) (Zn) , :
, [44] :
1. . ..:
2.. . ..:
v .

. ..[45] :

( PaternoBchi). .. [46] [47] :
(ArH) ArCH2CH3. .. ,
, [8] :
(PhH) Ph--H+.
: , : ,
-1,2, , ,
, 1,2- .
966
967

[48] .
( ),
. ,
, .
500 - 2.000 [[ppm], 24 - 48 .
, , ()
(20C) CO2 10% 24 [49] .

,
(
, , ).
( , )
. 1864 (
, ]]) ,
[48] . 1901
[50] . Doubt
, 1917[51] . 1934 Gane
[52] . 1935 Crocker ,
, .[53] .

.
,
, , ,
.

,

, .

,
.[54]
( )
S- ( SAM, S-Adenosyl Methionine, Adomet, Adenosyl
methionine) . , SAM

1-
(ACC,
1-Amino-1CarboxylCyclopropane,
1--1-,
1- (ACS, AC(C) Synthetase).

'
.
(ACO AC(C) Oxidase),
(EFE, Ethylene Forming Enzyme).
. ACS ,
(IAA, Indole Acetic Acid) . ACS
.

.
Arabidopsis thaliana .
Arabidopsis .
(5) Arabidopsis (6)
, () . DNA

[48] .
( ) (
)
( )
. , , ,
. () (..), ( )
, ACC ( ). ACC
( ). () ,
. ( )
(
)[55] . ,
()
, .

() , .
( ).
,
. ,
( )
.
968

1. : ,
. ,
, .
2. , ,
1- (ACC),
CC.
3. .
4. .
5. ( )
, .
6. .
7. , .
8. ,
( ) .
9. .
10. .
11. .
12. ,
, . -
.
13. , .
14. .
15. .
16. .
17. .
18. , .
19. ().

. ,
. ,
.
, .
, .. ,
. ( )
: , , [56]
, , ,
.
.
(AVG,
AminoethoxyVinylGlycine), , (AOA, AminoOxyAcetic acid),
(Ag+)[57] [58] .
(' ), , . ,

, ,
969

.
. () ,
, .
(
), .
1- (1-MCP, 1-MethylCycloPropene).
, , ,

. ,
, , .

()
[59] .
80%
, 1,2- .
( 85% 15% ) .
6 50%
.
. ,
.
, ( )
( ).
,
, .
.
.
,
.

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[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
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htm#controlledatmosphereripening)
[50] Neljubov D. (1901). "Uber die horizontale Nutation der Stengel von Pisum sativum und einiger anderen Pflanzen". Beih Bot
Zentralbl 10: 128139.
971
972
[51] Doubt, Sarah L. (1917). "The Response of Plants to Illuminating Gas" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 2469142). Botanical Gazette 63
(3): 209224. doi: 10.1086/332006 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/332006). .
[52] Gane R. (1934 id =). "Production of ethylene by some fruits". Nature 134: 1008. doi: 10.1038/1341008a0 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1038/ 1341008a0).
[53] Crocker W, Hitchcock AE, Zimmerman PW. 1935 Similarities in the effects of ethlyene and the plant auxins. Contrib. Boyce
Thompson Inst. 7. 231-48. Auxins Cytokinins IAA Growth substances, Ethylene

[54] Yang, S. F., and Hoffman N. E. (1984). "Ethylene biosynthesis and its regulation in higher plants". Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. 35:
15589. doi: 10.1146/annurev.pp.35.060184.001103 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pp.35.060184.001103).
[55] planthormones.info (http:/ / www. planthormones. info/ epinasty. htm|)
[56] Van Doorn, W. G. (2002). "Effect of ethylene on flower abscission: a survey". Annals of Botany 89 (6): 689693. doi:
10.1093/aob/mcf124 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcf124). PMID 12102524 : 12102524 (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/ :).
[57] Cassells, A. C.; Peter B. Gahan (2006). Dictionary of plant tissue culture (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=cR5y5_vahAUC). Haworth
Press. .77. ISBN 1560229195, 9781560229193. .

[58] Constabel, Friedrich; Jerry P. Shyluk (1994). "1: Initiation, Nutrition, and Maintenance of Plant Cell and Tissue Cultures". Plant
Cell and Tissue Culture. Springer. .5. ISBN 0792324935.

[59] John Roach (2001-08-14). "Delphic Oracle's Lips May Have Been Loosened by Gas Vapors" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/
news/ 2001/ 08/ 0814_delphioracle. html). National Geographic. . March 8, 2007.
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
. . 1982
Ethylene (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Ethylene)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Ethylene)).
reaction Oxymercuration reaction (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/

Oxymercuration) , GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ /
creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( reaction / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oxymercuration)).
reaction Prins reaction (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Prins)

by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( reaction / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Prins)).
ydroamination (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ ydroamination)

by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ ydroamination)).
asymmetric dihydroxylation Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation (http:/ / en.

wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Sharpless) , GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ /
creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( asymmetric dihydroxylation / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/
Sharpless)).
cis-hydroxylation Woodward cis-hydroxylation (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/

Woodward) , GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ / creativecommons.
org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( cis-hydroxylation / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Woodward)).
973
reaction PausonKhand reaction (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/

PausonKhand) , GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ /
creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( reaction / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ PausonKhand)).
reaction PaternBchi reaction (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/

PaternBchi) , GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ /
creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( reaction / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ PaternBchi)).
epoxide (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ epoxide)

/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ epoxide)).
[1] ( ) (C=C)[2] .
1. .
CnH2n (n=2,3..)[3] . ,
, , .
()

. (CH2=CH2).
IUPAC , ,
-- --.[4] . , :
1.
, , , .. .
2. ()
1. .
2. (.. ).
3. ( )
.
4. .
3.
.
4.
. :
974

(C=C).
,
.

.

,
.
,
,
.
611 kJ/mol 347
kJ/mol . 134 pm
154 pm [5] .
.
-.
(3)
sp2 (3) (3) . 2p
.
C-C , .
,
264 kJ/mol ( ).
.
() . ,
cis- - trans- - - -
. trans- - .
.
,
, ,
.
VSEPR ,
120 (3 , 3 360/3 = 120).
,
. ..
123,9.
975

( ) . ..:

.
, >150C[6] :

-
[7] :

1,2- [8] :

, ..
, [9] :
. cis- E-:
. trans- Z-:

, :

( Hoffmann) . ..[10] :

, ( ) ( Wittig)
. ..[11] :
976

' .
. ,
. [12] .

IUPAC
(
)
(C, 1 atm)
(C, 1 atm)
28,05 amu
169,2C
103.7C
42,08 amu
185,2C
47.6C
-1
56,11 amu
-185C
-6.3C
cis--2
56,11 amu
-139C
4C
trans--2
56,11 amu
-105C
1C
56,11 amu
-140.3C
-6,9C
-1
70,13545 amu
-138C
30-31C
v .
1. Markownikow. ().
[13] :
2. Markownikow. .
[14] :
.
3. Markownikow. :

4. Prins
. ..:

() (HOX) [15] :
HOX :

. ..[16] :<
(X2) () [17] :
1. . . ..:
2. , . :
..:
(HX) () [18] : 1.
. Markownikow, ()
. ..:
2. . -Markownikow,
() .
..:
977
978

1. (NH3). . ..:

.
2. . . ..:
3. . . ..:

(CO + H2) . ..:
. .
Prins
,
. ..:
, H2O2 [19] :
1. . ..:
2. . H2O2
. ..:
3. Sharpless:
4. Woodward:
5. 1,3- ,
. Prins. ..:
() ,
. ..[20] :

. ..:
R3 R2.
DielsAdler
() () (
DielsAdler) . ..[21] :
Pauson-Khand

Pauson-Khand . ..:

. ..[22] :
C-H C-C.
.
979

. ..:
[23] :
1. . ..:
2.. . ..:

1,3-. ..[24] :

( PaternoBchi). ..::

[1] ( ) ,
, . ,
, , ,
( ) .
> 1. ,
, ( ) ,
IUPAC (
) .
[2] Wade, L.G. (Sixth Ed., 2006). Organic Chemistry. Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 279.
[3] Moss, G. P.; Smith, P. A. S. (1995). "Glossary of Class Names of Organic Compounds and Reactive Intermediates Based on Structure
(IUPAC Recommendations 1995)". Pure and Applied Chemistry 67: 13071375. doi:10.1351/pac199567081307.
[4] .
[5] Wade, L.G. (Sixth Ed., 2006). Organic Chemistry. Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 279.
[6] . . 1982, .153, 6.3.3.
[7] . . 1982, .153, 6.3.1.
[8] . . 1982, .153, 6.3.1.
[9] . . 1982, .158, 6.9.4.
[10] . . 1982, .153, 6.3.3.
[11] . . 1982, .153, 6.3.4.
980

[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
981
. .
. . 1982, . 156, 6.8.3.
. . 1982, . 156, 6.8.5.
. . 1982, . 156, 6.8.4.
. . 1982, . 156, 6.8.6.
. . 1982, . 156, 6.8.2.
. . 1982, . 156, 6.8.1.
. . 1982, . 157, 6.8.9.
. . 1982, . 157, 6.8.10.
. . 1982, . 160, 6.10.2.
. . 1982, . 157, 6.8.7.
. . 1982, . 157, 6.8.11.
. . 1982, . 157, 6.8.12.
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
. . , , 1982
Safety Information from Intergovernmental Organizations (http://www.inchem.org|Inchem:Chemical)

Alkene (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Alkene)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Alkene)).
982
IUPAC
C2H2
26,04 amu
HCCH
CAS
74-86-2
SMILES
C#C
InChI
1/C2H2/c1-2/h1-2H
UN
1001
[2]
3138
ChemSpiderID
6086
[1]
C-H: 106 pm
CC: 120,6 pm
C-H: (2sp-1s)
CC: (2sp-2sp)
(2py-2py)
(2pz-2pz)
C--H+: 3%
84C
983
-80,8C
1,097 kg/m3
pKa
25
1.067 kJ
(F+)
NFPA 704
(25C, 1
Atm)

,
, . : C2H2,
: HCCH. (
) .
' . .
(2) sp ,
(1) (2) .
1836 .

(CaC2) [3] :
(CaCO3), :

1,1- 1,2- ,
(NaOH), [4] :

1,1,2,2-, (Zn),
[5] :

. -84oC
-81oC. .
, , , ,
.
(
):
3000C
. .
() ,
(Hg), (CH3CHO) [6] :
( ) .

() (HOX) [7] :
HOX :
( ) .
984

i ( )
.[8] :
(X2) () .
1,2- ( ) 1,1,2,2-.[9] :
(HX) ()
( ) 1,1-.[10] :
(HCN) () :

1. (CO) (H2O), -2- :
2. (CO) (ROH), -2-
:
, H2O2 [11] :
1. (KMnO4). ..:
2. :
-1,2 ( )
.
985

(ROH) [12] :

(RCOOH) [13] :
() ,
[14] :

(KMnO4) [15] :

(RCOR') .[16] :
R,R' .
(RCHO)
, :

1. [17] :
,
(RX):
2. (Ag+) (NH3) ,
[18] :
3. (Cu+) (NH3)
, [19] :
2 3 -C CH.
986
987
,
( ) :
1. (Cu2Cl2)[20] :
2. -1,4 ,
(Cu2+). [21] :
3. [22] :
4. [Ni(CN)2],
(CaC2) (THF), 60C 15 bar[23] :

[24] :
:
1. (2) C-H: , .
2. (1) : , .
~67% ~33%.
(CH2I2) (Zn) , :
,
: ( ,
), (.. ), . ,
, , (
3300C). ,
(' ).
988
,
[1]
[2]
[3] . . 1982, .153, 6.4.3.
[4] . . 1982, .153, 6.4.3.
[5] . . 1982, .153, 6.3.1.
[6] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.3.
[7] . . 1982, . 156, 6.8.4.
[8] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.4.
[9] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.2.
[10] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.1.
[11] . . 1982, . 157, 6.8.9.
[12] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.5.
[13] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.6.
[14] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.7.
[15] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.8.
[16] . . 1982, . 159, 6.9.9.
[17] . . 1982, . 159, 6.9.10.
[18] . . 1982, . 159, 6.9.10.
[19] . . 1982, . 159, 6.9.10.
[20] . . 1982, . 159, 6.9.11.
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
. . 1982, . 159, 6.9.11.

. . 1982, . 159, 6.9.11.
. . 1982, . 159, 6.9.11.
. . 1982, . 157, 6.8.7., . 155, 6.7.3, R = CH2=CH

. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
. . 1982
University College of Cork (http://www.ucc.ie/academic/chem/dolchem/html/dict/alkynes.html)
Acetylene (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Acetylene)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Acetylene)).
,
.
,
.
CnH2n-2 (n>1).
2 ,
.
IUPAC, --, ..
3D model ,
.

. :
, (
H-CC...) , (
...C-CC-C...).
, CC 180. ' ,
. .. . CC 120
pm, C=C (.. ), 134 pm
C-C () 154 pm.
839 kJ/mol. , (2sp-2sp) 369 kJ/mol,
(2py-2py 2pz-2pz) 268 kJ/mol 202 kJ/mol, ,
, .
, (1s - 2sp), C-H (106 pm),
(2sp3-2sp), C-C (147 pm) . . 1982, .34,
2.6.-2.7..

,
(NaOH), [1] :

, (Zn), [2] :
. , ,
.
R . R .
989
990

:
R . R .
X , , , , ,
.
(
)[3] :
3000C
. .
() ,
(Hg), ( ) ( )[4] :
.
, . RC CH, , . RCOCH3.
+H-OH-.

() (HOX) ( )
( )[5] :
HOX :
.
, . RC CH, (), . RCOCH2X,
, RCHFCHO.
+X-OH-, -F-OH+.

(
) .[6] :
(X2) () .
( ) .[7] :
(HX) ()
( ) .[8] :
, . RC CH, RCX=CH2
RCX2CH3. +H-X-.
(HCN) () :
+H-CN-.

1. (CO) (H2O), :
+H-COOH-.
2. (CO) (ROH), :
, H2O2 [9] :
1. (KMnO4). ..:
2. :
991
992

(ROH) [10] :
-RO-H+.

(RCOOH) [11] :
-RCOO-H+.
() ,
(), ( ) ( )[12] :

(KMnO4) (),
( ) ( ) [13] :
,
[1] . . 1982, .153, 6.4.3.
[2] . . 1982, .153, 6.3.1.
[3] . . 1982, . 155, 6.7.1.
[4] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.3.
[5] . . 1982, . 156, 6.8.4.
[6] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.4.
[7] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.2.
[8] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.1.
[9] . . 1982, . 157, 6.8.9.
[10] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.5.
[11] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.6.
[12] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.7.
[13] . . 1982, . 158, 6.9.8.
993

. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
. . 1982
University College of Cork| (http://www.ucc.ie/
academic/chem/dolchem/html/dict/alkynes.html)
Alkyne (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Alkyne)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Alkyne)).

. CnH2n-2 (n>2).
, .
, ,
. ,
:
1. : , , ,
sp .
. ..
.
2. : .
:
1. 1,4-, 1,2-. .. -1,3 .
2. DielsAdler
, . .. (
) .
H
(International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry, IUPAC)
1919
.
.

,
,
( IUPAC).
CSU.
, IUPAC
IUPAC

. IUPAC
. Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry,
" " .
Recommendations for nomenclature and tables in biochemical thermodynamics, 1994
[1] .
[1] Biochemical Thermodynamics (http:/ / www. chem. qmul. ac. uk/ iubmb/ thermod/ )
994
995
(International
Organization for Standardization, : ISO),

. 23
1947
, ISO.
T ,

,
. ISO,
.
T
(International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC),
.

ISO (
, , --
. ).
, ISO,
International Standards Organization, . ISO ,

iso- .. . isotherm, . isotherme, . isotherme, . isotermo,
. isotermo.
25 ISO .
International Organization for Standardization ,
, , :
Organisation internationale de normalisation ( , ,
). ISO ,
(.. IOS , OIN , , ...),
ISO .

ISO ISO[/IEC] [IS]
[:]: , ,
. IEC
JTC1. IS
( )
.
ISO
, , .
996
TR IS .
:
ISO/IEC TR 17799:2000 (Code of Practice for
Information Security Management)
ISO TR 15443-1/3 - -
, 1-3 (Information Technology - Security Techniques
- A Framework for IT Security Assurance parts 1-3)
ISO ).
, ,
. ,

.
ISO
ISO
. , ISO (draft)
. ,
,
.
ISO . , : Freely Available Standards
Free Standards2 [2]
[1]
1990
1990, ISO ,

. : Open
Systems Iterconnect ( ),
, 1996
.
, (open process)
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF),
Internet. IETF ,
, W3C,
, Tim Berners-Lee,
World Wide Web. ISO
.
ISO
.
,
.

. ,
.
ISO
ISO ,
ISO .
:
(CD image) .iso
ISO 9660 (
). ISO (. ISOs).
CD-ROM CD .
DVD-ROM ISO 9660.
, ,
ISO ISO .
ASA DIN .
ISO/IEC 1

, ISO (IEC)
ISO/IEC 1 (ISO/IEC Joint
Technical Committee 1 - ISO/IEC JTC1).
.
, , , ,
() ()
:

(user interfaces)
18 :
SC 02 - (Coded Character Sets)
SC 06 - (Telecommunications and
Information Exchange Between Systems)
SC 07 - (Software and System Engineering)
SC 17 - (Cards and Personal Identification)
SC 22 - ,
(Programming Languages, their Environments and Systems Software Interfaces)
SC 23 - /
(Removable Digital Storage Media Utilizing Optical and/or Magnetic
Recording Technology for Digital Information Exchange)
SC 24 - (Computer Graphics and Image Processing)
SC 25 - (Interconnection of Information
Technology Equipment)
SC 27 - (IT Security Techniques)
997
998
SC 28 - (Office Equipment)
SC 29 - , (Coding of Audio,
Picture, and Multimedia and Hypermedia Information)
SC 31 - (Automatic Identification and Data
Capture Techniques)
SC 32 - (Data Management and Interchange)
SC 34 - (Document Description and Processing Languages)
SC 35 - (User Interfaces)
SC 36 - , (Information Technology for
Learning, Education, and Training)
SC 37 - (Biometrics)
ISO/IEC 17799 JTC
. (p - participating) (O - observing)
.
.
, - (
SC 37 2005) -
.
ISO [3] ( , )
[1] ( )
ISO [4]
ISO/IEC JTC1 [5]
ISO
[2]
[6]
FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 . (/ ).
[6]
, GNU
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
http:/ / isotc. iso. org/ livelink/ livelink/ fetch/ 2000/ 2489/ Ittf_Home/ PubliclyAvailableStandards. htm
http:/ / webstore. ansi. org/ ansidocstore/ free_standards. asp
http:/ / www. iso. org/
http:/ / www. standardsglossary. com/
http:/ / www. jtc1. org/
http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ ISO
ISO 4217
999
ISO 4217
ISO 4217

. ISO 4217

,
,
,
.

ISO 4217 .
[1]
AED
784
AFN
971
ALL
008
AMD
051
ANG
532
AOA
973
ARS
032
AUD
036
, ,
, , ,
, , ,
AWG
533
AZN
944
BAM
977
BBD
052
BDT
050
BGN
975
BHD
048
BIF
108
BMD
060
BND
096
BOB
068
BOV
984
Bolivian Mvdol (funds code)
BRL
986
ISO 4217
1000
BSD
044
BTN
064
BWP
072
BYR
974
BZD
084
CAD
124
CDF
976
CHE
947
WIR Bank (complementary

currency)
CHF
756
CHW
948
WIR Bank (complementary

currency)
CLF
990
Unidad de Fomento (funds

code)
CLP
152
CNY
156
()
COP
170
COU
970
Unidad de Valor Real
CRC
188
CUC
931
CUP
192
CVE
132
CZK
203
DJF
262
DKK
208
, ,
DOP
214
DZD
012
EGP
818
ERN
232
ETB
230
EUR
978
, , , ,
, , .
FJD
242
FKP
238
GBP
826
, (
),
( ,

)
GEL
981
ISO 4217
1001
GHS
936
GIP
292
GMD
270
GNF
324
GTQ
320
GYD
328
HKD
344
HNL
340
HRK
191
HTG
332
HUF
348
IDR
360
ILS
376
INR
356
IQD
368
IRR
364
ISK
352
JMD
388
JOD
400
JPY
392
KES
404
KGS
417
KHR
116
KMF
174
KPW
408
KRW
410
KWD
414
KYD
136
KZT
398
LAK
418
LBP
422
LKR
144
LRD
430
LSL
426
LTL
440
LVL
428
LYD
434
MAD
504
MDL
498
( )
ISO 4217
1002
[2]
MGA
969
0.69897...
MKD
807
MMK
104
MNT
496
MOP
446
,
.
MRO
478
0.69897...
MUR
480
MVR
462
MWK
454
MXN
484
MXV
979
Mexican Unidad de Inversion

(UDI) (funds code)
MYR
458
MZN
943
NAD
516
NGN
566
NIO
558
NOK
578
, , , ,
, '
NPR
524
NZD
554
, , , ,
OMR
512
PAB
590
PEN
604
PGK
598
PHP
608
PKR
586
PLN
985
PYG
600
QAR
634
RON
946
RSD
941
RUB
643
, ,
RWF
646
SAR
682
SBD
090
SCR
690
SDG
938
[2]
ISO 4217
1003
SEK
752
SGD
702
SHP
654
SLL
694
SOS
706
( )
SRD
968
STD
678
SYP
760
SZL
748
THB
764
TJS
972
TMT
934
TND
788
TOP
776
TRY
949
TTD
780
TWD
901
TZS
834
UAH
980
UGX
800
USD
840
, ,
Caribbean Netherlands, , , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, ,
( )
USN
997
(next day)
(funds code)
USS
998
(same day)
(funds code)
UYU
858
UZS
860
VEF
937
VND
704
VUV
548
WST
882
XAF
950
CFA
, ,
, , ,
XAG
961
(
=31,1034768 gr)
ISO 4217
1004
XAU
959
(
=31,1034768 gr
XBA
955
European Composite Unit

(EURCO) ((

)
XBB
956

(E.M.U.-6) (

)
XBC
957

9 (E.U.A.-9)
(

)
XBD
958

17 (E.U.A.-17)
(

)
XCD
951
, , , ,
, , ,

XDR
960
Special Drawing Rights
XFU
Nil
UIC (
)
XOF
952
CFA
, , ,
-, , , ,
XPD
964
(
=31,1034768 gr)
XPF
953
CFP
XPT
962
()
(
=31,1034768 gr)
XTS
963
XXX
999
YER
886
ZAR
710
ZMK
894
ZWL
932
, ,
ISO 4217
1005

ISO 4217 .
[1]
ADF
...
1999-01-01 EUR
ADP
020
1999-01-01 EUR
ATS
040
1945
1999-01-01 EUR
AHK
040
1892
1921
BEF
056
1832
1999-01-01 EUR
CYP
196
1879
2008-01-01 EUR
DEM
276
1948
1999-01-01 EUR
EEK
223
1992
2011-01-01 EUR
ESP
724
1869
1999-01-01 EUR
FIM
246
1860
1999-01-01 EUR
FRF
250
1960
1999-01-01 EUR
GRD
300
1954
2001-01-01 EUR
GGK
300
1873
1922
GPM
GPM
300
1922
1923
GRM
IEP
372
1938
1999-01-01 EUR
ITL
380
1861
1999-01-01 EUR
LUF
442
1944
1999-01-01 EUR
MCF
...
1960
1999-01-01 EUR
MAF
...
1921
19601976 MAD
MTL
470
1968
2008-01-01 EUR
NLG
528
1810s
1999-01-01 EUR
PTE
620
1911-05-22
1999-01-01 EUR
SIT
705
1991-10-08
2007-01-01 EUR
SKK
703
1993-02-08
2009-01-01 EUR
SML
...
1864
1999-01-01 EUR
VAL
...
1929
1999-01-01 EUR
XEU
954
European Currency Unit (1 XEU = 1 EUR)
1999-01-01 EUR
AFA
004
1925
2003
AFN
AON
024
1990
1995
AOR
AOR
982
readjustado
1995
1999
AOA
ARL
...
Argentine peso ley
1970-01-01
1983-05-05 ARP
ARP
...
1983-06-06
1985-06-14 ARA
ARA
...
1985-06-15
1991-12-31 ARS
AZM
031
1992-08-15
2006-01-01 AZN
[3]
CSK
ISO 4217
1006
BDT
February
1972
Still in use
BGL
100
A/99
1962
1999-07-05 BGN
BOP
...
1963-01-01
1987-01-01 BOB
BRB
...
1967
1986
BRC
BRC
...
1986
1989
BRN
BRE
...
1990
1993
BRR
BRN
...
1989-01-15
1990-03-15 BRE
BRR
...
1993-08-01
1994
BRL
CLE
...
1960-01-01
1975
CLP
CSD
891
2003-07-03
2006
RSD
CSK
200
1993-02-08 CZK and SKK
DDM
278
1948-06-21
1990-07-01 DEM
ECS
218
2000
USD
GQE
...
1975
1985
XAF
GNE
...
1971
1985
GNF
GHC
288
1967
2007-07-01 GHS
GWP
624
1975
1997
XOF
ILP
...
3, 2
1948
1980
ILR
ILR
...
Israeli shekel
1980-02-24
1985-12-31 ILS
ISJ
...
1981
ISK
LAJ
...
1979
LAK
MGF
450
1963-07-01
2005-01-01 MGA
MKN
...

A/93
1993
MKD
MLF
...
1962
1984
XOF
MVQ
...
1981
MVR
MXP
...
1993
MXN
MZM
508
1980
2006-06-30 MZN
NFD
...
Newfoundland dollar
1865
1949
PEH
...
1863
1985-02-01 PEI
PEI
...
1985-02-01
1991-10-01 PEN
PLZ
616
A/94
1950
1995
PLN
ROL
642
A/05
1952-01-28
2005
RON
RUR
810
A/97
1992
1997-12-31 RUB
SDD
736
1992-06-08
2007-01-10 SDG
SDP
736
1956
1992-06-08 SDD
SRG
740
2004
SRD
SUR
...
1961
1991
RUR
SVC
222
1892
2001
USD
CAD
ISO 4217
1007
TJR
762
1995-05-10
2000-10-30 TJS
TMM
795
1993-11-01
2008-12-31 TMT
TRL
792
A/05
2005
UAK
804
1996-09-02 UAH
UGS
...
A/87
1987
UYN
...
1993-03-01 UYU
VEB
862
2008-01-01 VEF
YDD
720
1996-06-11 YER
YUD
...
1966-01-01
1989-12-31 YUN
YUN
...
1990-01-01
1992-06-30 YUR
YUR
...
1992-07-01
1993-09-30 YUO
YUO
...
1993-10-01
1993-12-31 YUG
YUG
...
1994-01-01
1994-01-23 YUM
YUM
891
1994-01-24
2003-07-02 CSD
ZRN
180
1993
1997
CDF
ZRZ
...
1967
1993
ZRN
ZWC
...
1970-02-17
1980
ZWD
ZWD
716
A/06
1980-04-18
2006-07-31 ZWN
ZWN
942
A/08
2006-08-01
2008-07-31 ZWR
ZWR
935
A/09
2008-08-01
2009-02-02 ZWL
TRY
UGX

[4]
[1] .
[2]
.
[3] Fate of Paper Money (http:/ / news. goldseek. com/ GoldSeek/ 1214842037. php). News.goldseek.com (2008-06-30) (
2010-09-01 )
[4] http:/ / www. iso. org/ iso/ en/ prods-services/ popstds/ currencycodeslist. html
nso:ISO 4217
1008

.
,
, , , ,
. , ,
"" , , .
, .
1961 ,
"International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry" (IUPAC).
IUPAC ,
. ,
.
.
IUPAC ,
, , ,
.

1. .

-COOH
-SO3H
-COOM
- -
-COOR
- -
-COX
- -
-CONH2
-NHCOR
-C(NH)NH2
-CN
-CHO
>CO
-SH
-NH2)
-OR
-SR
-CC-
>C=C<
1009
Ph-
(CH2CH)n- (n < 3)
-2
=2
R-
, ,
, .
2. ( )
. 3.
, :
1. .
2. .
3. 1.
4.
(, , ,...)
, (2, 3, 4,...).
3.

( ) .
, ,
.
C-C, (.. N), ,
, , N-,
... ,
:
1. . .. - < 2. . .. 1-- < 2-3. . .. - < 2
(,) -, -, ...
. .. 2,2--.
4. :
1. 1 () :
1010

C
1
...
...
2. 2 :

C=C CC
0
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
...
...
...
( ) ( )
, ,
. .. -2--1 -1

.
3. 3 () (
). ,
. .. -1 ( 1
-2), ( 1 , -2) .
-,
-,... . .. ( -1,2 -1,1
, ).
1011

1. (.
) .
, -
. ..: .
2. (.
) ,
- . .. .
3. (-CHO -COOH)
, , - (
-CHO) - ( -C). ,. .

1. :

IUPAC
PhH
-1,3,5
PhCH3
-1,3,5
PhCH(CH3)2
-1,3,5
--1,3,5
1,3,5--1,3,5
- -
--1,3,5
PhCH=CH2
PhOH
-1,3,5-
PhOCH3
()
PhCHO
PhCOCH3
PhCOOH
PhNH2
-1,3,5-
PhCH2OH
2. . .. PhNO2
. 3. : ,
- ( ), - (
) - ( ). 4.
, . 5.
:
1012
IUPAC
()
-[4.4.0]---1,3,5,7,9
-[8.4.0.03,8]--1,3,5,7,9,11,13
-[8.4.0.04,9]--1,3,5,7,9,11,13
-[4.3.0]--1,3,5,7
-[7.2.1.05,12]--1,3,6,8,10,5,12
-[6.4.0.02,7]--2,4,6,8,10,1,12
-[7.4.0.03,8]--3,5,7,9,11,1,13
-[3.3.0]--1,3,5,7
-[5.3.0]---1,3,5,7,9
. . , , 1991.
. . , , 1982.
' , .
, ' , .

, , Tm (
Temperature melting),
( ), ,
.
. ,
" " .
, ' .
,
.
,
( ). " ",
,
. ' ,
. , ,
, "" - .
, ,
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,
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:
.
, .
.
.
.
.
, , .
.
.
, (
) , (
).
, ,
( ) .
() ,
.
() 0 C ( 32 F).
,
( ).
, , (
). ,
, ,
.
, ,
,
, [1] .
. ()
, -
.
( ,
).

, .. , ..
1013
1014
[1] : - 00- 9 (http:/ / www. materials. uoc. gr/ el/ undergrad/ courses/ ETY454/ notes/
CHAPTER-00B-INTRODUCTION_GR. pdf)
, ,

.
( ).

,

.

.

' .

(..), .

(..).
, ( ) .
100 C ( 212 F) . ,

. 0,35
. 80C.

(
). ..
.
" "
""
, .

, ..
, ..
.. ()
.
.

. ..,
, , 1,5 , ..
110C, ' ,
.
.. (
), . "
" .

.
.. .
..
.

. .
(, , ) ,
, .
,
.
,
.
.

,
. , .

, .
1,293 .
, , 1 0,001293
/.. 0C 760 . .
1015
1016
-

. ,
.
(kg)
(lb). (m3)
(ft3).
kg 1 m3
, lb 1 ft3. kg/m3 (
) lb/ft3 ( ).
m3
1 kg , ft3 lb .
m3/kg ( ) ft3/lb ( ).

. , V , , v
, :
= / V v = V / B,
= 1 / v v = 1 / .
:
.

.

.

.
: 760 mmHg 0
C =1,293 kg/m3, v
= 1 / . v = 1 / 1,293 = 0,778 m3/kg.

,
. ,
Boyle-Mariotte Gay-Lussac
:

V

n
R
kB
.

,
.
, :
.
.
, ,
( ) .
.
. , ,
.
, ,
.
() : .
,
.
1017
1018
1019

Roche
.
.

.

. . (
) .
1020
, -
.
P=F/S ( F=
S=)(. 15 BAR = 15kg/cm2) .
, ,
(..
) (..
).
:
.

.

,
.
(Pa), (Atm), (mmHg),
Torr, (Bar) : (mb) (b).
.
.
, ,
,
.
V (Volume).

(m3),
.
foot (ft3), ""
. ,
1L=1dm3, .
,

. ( )
( ) . ,
,
. ,
(1000=103), (100=102).
1021
. ,

.
,,:
,h:
,h:
,h:
,h:
"" ,
. ,
, ,
, (
, ).
:
V=
, h
h.
1022
.
, ( ).
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,
, .

() () " " (
). .
, .
,
.
( )
. ,
,
.
"" "" " " (
). " "
, "" ""
. Celsius () oC , ,
Farenhait () oF, .
(0 C) ,
100 (100 C) . 100
" ".
32 F,
212 F. 180
" ".
180 32 F 212 F,
100 , 0 C 100 C.
1,8 . :
C = (F - 32)100/180 C = (F - 32)/1,8
F = 180/100 X C + 32 F = 1,8 C + 32
:

(oR)
.

0

.

. t.

( )
.
- 273,15 C
- 459,67 F.

( ).
.
, ,
,
kBT, kB T .
.

Q
dS .

,
.

. ,
. ,

. , () .

. . ,
(
).
1023
1024

.
,

. : , ,
, , , .

().
" "
, . ,
.
, 7 :
: 120
( ).
: ( ).
: (
).
: (
).
( "")[1] :
( ).
: ( .
)
: (
).
.

1025
,
[1] . . . (http:/ / www. geo. auth. gr/ 106/ 0_properties/ system. htm)

.

.

.
,
, .
,
( ) .

.
.
,
DNA .
.

1915 (1862-1942)
.
12.
1953 (1920-1958)
DNA.

"" [1]
" " [2] - E
Polyhedron
[1] http:/ / www. ims. demokritos. gr/ lccc/ lccc. html

[2] http:/ / www. ims. demokritos. gr/ lccc/ special-issue. html
1026
1027
1028

Roche
.
:
1 kgr/m3.
, 1 gr/cm3.

. ,
, / .
1029
:
.
,
( ). ,
,
. ,
, 7800 kgr/m3, ( ).
(, , )
,
.

(kgr/m3)
( 20 C) 1,2
( 0 C)
1,3
250
800
900
920
1000
2400
2700
7800
11340
13600
19300
22587
1030
( EN
) , ,
' ,
.
( )
.
, .
(Linus Pauling)
1932 -, .

.
,

. ,
, .
.
" ",
.
Pauling.
, 0,7 4,0
( = 2,2). " Pauling". ,
, (
) Pauling " Pauling".

()
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
()
1
H
2.20
He
Li
Be
0.98 1.57
B
C
N
O
F
2.04 2.55 3.04 3.44 3.98
Ne
Na Mg
0.93 1.31
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
1.61 1.90 2.19 2.58 3.16
Ar
K
Ca Sc
Ti
V
Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se
Br Kr
0.82 1.00 1.36 1.54 1.63 1.66 1.55 1.83 1.88 1.91 1.90 1.65 1.81 2.01 2.18 2.55 2.96 3.00
Rb Sr
Y
Zr
0.82 0.95 1.22 1.33
Nb
1.6
Mo
2.16
Tc
1.9
Ru
2.2
Rh Pd Ag Cd
In
Sn Sb
2.28 2.20 1.93 1.69 1.78 1.96 2.05
Te
2.1
I
Xe
2.66 2.60
Cs Ba
0.79 0.89
Hf
1.3
Ta
1.5
W
2.36
Re
1.9
Os
2.2
Ir
Pt Au Hg Tl
Pb
Bi
2.20 2.28 2.54 2.00 1.62 2.33 2.02
Po
2.0
At
2.2
Fr
0.7
Ra
0.9
**
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
La
1.1
Ce
Pr Nd Pm Sm
1.12 1.13 1.14 1.13 1.17
Eu
1.2
Gd
1.2
Tb
1.1
Dy Ho Er Tm
1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25
Rn
2.2
Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
Yb
1.1
Lu
1.27
1031
**
Ac
1.1
Th
1.3
Pa
1.5
U
Np Pu Am Cm
1.38 1.36 1.28 1.13 1.28
Bk
1.3
Cf
1.3
Es
1.3
Fm
1.3
Md
1.3
No
1.3
Lr
1.3
Pauling

Pauling
Pauling 1932 1932
(-)
- -. -,
Pauling , " " -
" ".
:
, Ed, [1] -, - - (eV)

(eV) . ', Pauling
0.73 ( : H-Br 3.79 eV, H-H 4.52 eV, Br-Br 2.00 eV).
,
.
: 2.1
2.20.
( ,

. "
" : , (HBr)
(3+) (Br-).
.
Pauling ,
.
Allred Pauling 1961
"" Pauling.
1032
Mulliken
Mulliken
,
1
(i)[2]
(Eea)[3] . ,

Pauling,

. ,
( '
)
eV KJ/mol.

eV :
Mulliken ( -x, xM, J/mol)

Pauling (-y, xP)
KJ/mol :
Mulliken,
, Pauling,
Mulliken
. 2006 57 .

AllredRochow
Allred Rochow

"" :

,

.
,
,
AllredRochow (-x, 2)
Pauling (-y)

Slater, 2
,
.
ngstrm, :
1033

Sanderson
Sanderson

,

.
,
Sanderson,

Sanderson (-x,
.
) Pauling (-y)
,
, s-, spin-spin
NMR .
Sanderson,
.
Allen

Allen,

[4]
.
Allen (-x J/mol)

Pauling (-y)
- s- p-
s- p- .
1.75103 KJ/mol 0.169 eV,
Allen Pauling.
- ,
' ,
. ,

1034
, .. ,
Allen 0.67. , d-
f- ,
Allen. ' (Ne)
(Cs) .
()
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
()
1
H
2.300
He
4.160
Li
Be
0.912 1.576
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
2.051 2.544 3.066 3.610 4.193 4.789
Na
Mg
0.869 1.293
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
1.613 1.916 2.253 2.589 2.869 3.242
K
Ca
Sc
Ti
V
Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
0.734 1.034 1.19 1.38 1.53 1.65 1.75 1.80 1.84 1.88 1.85 1.59 1.756 1.994 2.211 2.434 2.685 2.966
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe
0.706 0.963 1.12 1.32 1.41 1.47 1.51 1.54 1.56 1.59 1.87 1.52 1.656 1.824 1.984 2.158 2.359 2.582
Cs
Ba
Lu Hf Ta
W Re Os
Ir
Pt Au Hg
Tl
Pb
0.659 0.881 1.09 1.16 1.34 1.47 1.60 1.65 1.68 1.72 1.92 1.76 1.789 1.854
Fr
0.67
Ra
0.89
Bi
2.01
Po
2.19
At
2.39
Rn
2.60
**
Allen
(2008), Noorizadeh Shakerzadeh
.
Pauling Allred-Rochow.

,
,

.

,

Pauling. ,
(-y mm/s)

[SnX6]2-, 119Sn Mssbauer,
Pauling -
,
(-x)

,
. Pauling

" " ,
.

: ,
,
Pauling.
NMR Mssbauer
(. ). s-
,
"
".

. , (F)

, (Cs)
,

.

. (Ga)
(Ge)
(Al)
Pauling (-y)
(Si) ,
2 6
.
d
(d-block). 4
, ,
3d- ,
(.
Allred-Rochow Sanderson). (Pb),
(Tl) (Bi),
.
1035
1036
pKa
(Cl)
HClO
+1
+7.5
HClO2
+3
+2.0
HClO3
+5
1.0
HClO4
+7
10

"" . ,
,
, .
Allred Pauling
(
) . , ,

.
.
,

. , CrO3 Mn2O7 , Cr2O3
Mn2O3 .

.

pKa log(1/4) = -0.6 .
,
"" (+)
.

,
, .
. ,
- - .

Hammet.
[1] .
KJ/mol eV.
[2] +
[3]
[4] ( ) .

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
List_of_various_electronegativities)
http://www.cci.ethz.ch/vorlesung/de/ac1/ac1_node26.html
ChemGlobe - (http://www.chemglobe.org/general/chembindung/en.php)
UNI TERRA (http://www.uniterra.de/rutherford/tab_en.htm)
Elecronegativity (http://www.chem.shef.ac.uk/chm131-2002/cha02aw/index.html)
Elecronegativity (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Elecronegativity)
by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Elecronegativity)).

.
.

.
,

.
1037
--
, [1] .
.
, [2] .
,
[3] .
3 .
, .
.
17 ,
,
[4]

,
.
.
.[5]
(Thomas Savery)
1697 (Thomas Newcomen) 1712. ,
.
,
. ,
(Sadi Carnot), " "
" " , , 1824,
. 18
R. J. Mayer , [6] .
1849 ,
1859 (William Rankine).

,
. ,
, .
.
,

[7] .
1038
[1] http:/ / science. howstuffworks. com/ heat-info2. htm

[2] (http:/ / www. grc. nasa. gov/ WWW/ K-12/ airplane/ thermo0. html)
[3] Cengel, Yunus A.; Boles, Michael A. (2005). ISBN : 960-7219-65-1 (http:/ / www. tziola.
gr/ gr/ PreviewBook. asp?ID=194)
[4] Smith, J.M.; Van Ness, H.C., Abbott, M.M. (2005). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics. McGraw Hill. ISBN
978-0-07-310445-4 (http://www.amazon.com/Introduction-Chemical-Engineering-Thermodynamics-Mcgraw-Hill/dp/0073104450/
ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8& s=books& qid=1262995145& sr=8-1)
[5] . (1979). ISBN 960-319-210-4 (http:/ / www. papasotiriou. gr/ product.
gbook. asp?pfid=397756& prid=86181& deid=0)
[6] Thermodynamics Enrico Fermi ISBN-10: 048660361X (http:/ / www. amazon.
comThermodynamicsEnricoFermidp048660361Xref=sr_1_1ie=UTF8& s=books& qid=1263051781& sr=8-1#reader_048660361X)
[7] DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK THERMODYNAMICS, HEAT TRANSFER,AND FLUID FLOW DOE-HDBK-1012/1-92
(http:/ / www. hss. energy. gov/ NuclearSafety/ ns/ techstds/ standard/ hdbk1012/ h1012v1. pdf)

Thermodynamics Data & Property Calculation Websites (http://tigger.uic.edu/~mansoori/Thermodynamic.
Data.and.Property_html)

(Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann, 20
1844 5 1906)
[1] .

. 2
,

.
( -)

.

(Ludwig George Boltzmann)
Katharina Pauernfeind. ' ,
, 15 .
1863.[2]
.
1866.
, .[3]
1869 ,
. 1871
. 1873
1039

. Henriette
von Aigentler, .
, Henriette
, .
, . 17 1876 ,

, . . 14
,

. 1885 1887
. 1890
1893
.[4]
, ,
,
1900, 1902, .
.
, , :
, ,
. ,
.
,
(Duino) 1906 .
. S = klogW.

- . -

. .

, .
,

. ,
.
1040
1041
[1] Encyclopedia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 72401/ Ludwig-Eduard-Boltzmann)
[2] Ali Eftekhari, Ludwig Boltzmann (1844 1906), Pittsburg University (http:/ / philsci-archive. pitt. edu/ 1717/ 02/ Ludwig_Boltzmann.
pdf)
[3] J J O'Connor and E F Robertson, Ludwig Boltzmann, St. Andrews University, UK (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/
Biographies/ Boltzmann. html)
[4] Morris University of Minnesota (http:/ / www. morris. umn. edu/ ~sungurea/ introstat/ history/ w98/ Boltzmann. html)
,

( )
.
()
(
) .

(

),
, :
.
.

().

,
.

.
, . ,

.[1]

.
, .

, ,
.
,
,
( )
.
.

().

1042
.
, , .
.
,
.
,
() .
,
, DNA .

(- + , , )
1865[2] . , ,

,
.
( ,
)
( ) (q=Tds).
.

( ),
cV ,
,
V
R .
, ,
. [3]
""
Boltzmann, :
,

1 2 ,
.
,
( , , : dS ),

. ,
.

, cp
, :
Tm b m b .

,
. ,
( ,
).

, . (Ludwig Boltzmann)
S = kln, k Boltzmann
.
,
,
.
[1] Richard D. Feinman; Eugene J. Fine (2004). ""A calorie is a calorie" violates the second law of thermodynamics" (http:/ / www. nutritionj.
com/ content/ 3/ 1/ 9). Nutrition Journal 3 (9). doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-3-9 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1186/ 1475-2891-3-9). .
[2] . , Rudolf Clausius (http:/ / users. sch. gr/ kassetas/ zzzzzzzphClausius. htm)
[3] , ,
: U=(i/2)RT , , i: .
, .., , , , 1993, ISBN

960-02-0448-9
Smith, J.M., Van Ness, H.C., Abbott, M.M., ( .
), 5 , , , ISBN 960-7219-79-1
, , -, , 2002, ISBN 960-220-218-1
1043

[1] .
.
, = , , ,

.
.
.
,
, .
.. ,
.
.
[1] Ebbing, Darrell D.; Steven D. Gammon. (http:/ / www. travlos. gr). . () ( ).
: . .144-145. ISBN 960-7990-66-8. . 9-1-2010.
1044
1045
IUPAC
2--4-()
C5H11NO2S
149,21 amu
CH6SCH2CH2CH(NH2)COOH
met, M
CAS
59-51-8 (DL)
63-68-3 (L)
348-67-4 (D)
SMILES
O=C(O)C(N)CCSC
InChI
1S/C5H11NO2S/c1-9-3-2-4(6)5(7)8/h4H,2-3,6H2,1H3,(H,7,8)
EINECS
200-432-1
UN
73JWT2K6T3
PubChemCID
876
ChemSpiderID
853 (DL)
5907 (L)
281 C ()
1.340 kg/m3
1046
pKa
2,28 (COOH)
9,21 (NH2)
pI
5,745
[1]
(25C, 1 Atm)

( : Met M[2] ) -
CH3SCH2CH2CH(NH2)COOH.
,
IUPAC
:
2--4-() ,
IUPAC. L- 24 ( )
S -. ( )
( R = CH3SCH2CH2 - = ).
. , ,
.
, C3H7NO2,
[3]

C-S
2sp3-3sp2d
182 pm
C#3-C#4
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm
C#3-C#2
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm
C#2-C#1
2sp3-2sp2
151 pm
C-N
2sp3-2sp3
152 pm
6% C+ -
-H
2sp3-1s
101,7 pm
17% N- H+
C=O
2sp2-2sp2
132 pm
19% C+ O-
2p-2p
C-O
2sp2-2sp3
147 pm
19% C+ O-
O-H
2sp3-1s
96 pm
32% O- H+

-O
-0,51
-N
-0,40
=O
-0,38
C#1'
-0,0885
C#3
-0,06
C#4
-0,0585
-0,0015
C#2
+0,03
1,5 C+ S-
1047
H(CH)
+0,03
H(NH2)
+0,17
H(OH)
+0,32
C#1
+0,57
pH pI = 5,745 .
2--4-()
1.. [4] :
2. [5]
[6] :
3. ( Gabriel)[7] :
Stracker
(HCN) (NH3) 3-() (CH3SCH2CH2CHO)[8] :
2--4-()
2--4-() [9] ::
4-()-2-
4-()-2- [10] :
[2'-()]
[2'-()] - Hofmann[11] :
1048
2--4-()
2--4-() :

4--2- (.. CH3SK),
[12] . ( Williamson ):
S- 2--4-
, .

2--4-() [13] :

1. :
( ) .
:
1. pH<pK1 ().
2. pH=pI ( ).
3. pH>pK2 ().
2. . ..:
1049
[14]
. [15]
, .
.
4--2- :

(HgX2) [16] :

(RX) [17] :

2--4- [18] :

[1] pKa ( ).
[2] Nomenclature and symbolism for amino acids and peptides (IUPAC-IUB Recommendations 1983)", Pure Appl. Chem. 56 (5): 595624,
1984, doi:10.1351/pac198456050595.
. . 1982, . 34.
[4] . . 1982, . 243, 10.2.
[5] .
[6] . . 1982, . 298, 13.31, . 243, 10.2B4 . 301. 13.4.II.
[7] . . 1982, . 329, 14.2.1.
[8] . . 1982, . 329, 14.2.2.
[9] . . 1982, . 329, 14.2.3.
[10] . . 1982, . 243, 10.2B2.
[11] . . 1982, . 298, 13.31, . 296, 13.2, 13.21, . 243,
10.2B3 . 301. 13.4.II.

[12] . . 1982, ,266, 1.
[13] SCHAUM'S OUTLINE SERIES, , . . , 1999, .360,20.6.43.
[14] ,

-.
, .
[15] ,

-.
, .
[16] SCHAUM'S OUTLINE SERIES, , . . , 1999, .360,20.6.I3.

1. SCHAUM'S OUTLINE SERIES, , . . , 1999
2. . . 1982
3. , , , 1991
4. . , &
1991
5. . , , , 1985
6. . , , , 1983
7. . , , , ,
, 1986
8. .
Methionine (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Methionine)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Methionine)).
1050
(
(RCOOH[1] ) (-NH2)[2] .
.

:
1. " 1" " "
.
. C
-. .
. R

.
1.
-

. 20 ,
, .
,
( ).
.
-, - , ( )
, (), , (), .
2. " 2", " ",
3. " 3", " ".
.
p, .
' pH (pI).
' ,
.

.
- [ RCH(NH2)COOH[3] ], (1)
(C) (-COOH).
(20)
. .
()
(transamination), (essential
amino acids) .
1051
1052
, 8 20
,
. 4 20 ,
. 12 .
() DNA.
.
( ), (-NH-CO-)
(peptide chain).
20
Ala
Leu
Arg
Lys
Asn
Met
Asp
Phe
Cys
Pro
Gln
Ser
Glu
Thr
Gly
Trp
His
Tyr
Ile
Val
. (*) 8
,

. , ,
, .

1981 "
20 ".
(RNP).

-- -- .
RNA
.

[1] R , .
[2] .
.
[3] R , .
1053
1054
IUPAC
2-
C3H7NO2
89,09 amu
CH3CH(NH2)COOH
ala, A
CAS
302-72-7 (DL)
56-41-7 (L)
338-69-2 (D)
SMILES
O=C(O)C(N)C
InChI
1/C3H7NO2/c1-2(4)3(5)6/h2H,4H2,1H3,(H,5,6)
EINECS
206-126-4
RTECS
SJ3325000
PubChemCID
5950
1055
ChemSpiderID
971
GCU
GCC
GCA
GCG
>119
258C
1.424 kg/m3
166,5 g/m3
pKa
2,35 (COOH)
9,87 (NH2)
pI
6,11
[1]
79C
(25C, 1 Atm)

( : Ala A[2] ) -
CH3CH(NH2)COOH. IUPAC : 2- ,
IUPAC. L- 24
( ) S -.
( ) ( R = CH3 - = ).
, .
, C3H7NO2, 119 :
1. 1- : CH3CH2CH2NO2.
2. 2- : CH3CH(NO2)CH3.
3. : CH3CH2CH2ONO (
).
4. : CH3CH(ONO)CH3 (
).
5. 1--1 : CH3CH2CH(NO)OH ( (2) ).
6. 2--1 : CH3CH(NO)CH2OH ( (2) ).
7. 3--1 : ONCH3CH2CH2OH.
8. 1--2 : CH3CH(OH)CH2NO ( (2) ).
9. 2--2 : CH3C(NO)(OH)CH3.
10. 2--1--1,1 : CH3C(NH2=C(OH)2.
11. 3--1--1,1 : H2NCH2CH=C(OH)2.

12. 1--2--1,1 : CH2=CHC(NH2)(OH)2.
13. 2--2--1,1 : CH2=C(NH2CH(OH)2.
14. 3--2--1,1 : H2NCH=CHCH(OH)2 ( (2)
).
15. 1--1--1,2 : CH3C(OH)=C(NH2)OH ( (2)
).
16. 3--1--1,2 : H2NCH2C(OH)=CHOH ( (2)
).
17. 1--2--1,2 : CH2=C(OH)CH(NH2)OH ( (2)
).
18. 3--2--1,2 : H2NCH=C(OH)CH2OH ( (2)
).
19. 1--1--1,3 : HOCH2CH=C(NH2)OH ( (2)
).
20. 2--1--1,3 : HOCH2C(NH2)=CHOH ( (2)
).
21. 1--2--1,3 : HOCH=CHCH(NH2)OH (
: (2) + (2) ).
22. 1--1--1 : CH3CH=C(OH)NHOH ( (2)
).
23. 2--1--1 : CH3C(OH)=CHNHOH ( (2)
).
24. 3--1--1 : HOCH2CH=CHNHOH ( (2)
).
25. 1--2--1 : CH2=CHCH(OH)NHOH ( (2)
).
26. 2--2--1 : CH2=C(OH)CH2NHOH.
27. 3--2--1 : HOCH=CHCH2NHOH ( (2)
).
28. Y-1--2 : CH3C(NHOH)=CHOH ( (2)
).
29. Y-2--2 : CH2=C(NHOH)CH2OH.
30. -1,1 : CH3NHCH=C(OH)2.
31. -1,2 : HOCH=C(NHCH3)OH.
32. : CH2=CHNHCH(OH)2
33. --1- : CH2=C(OH)N(OH)CH3.
34. --2- : HOCH=CHN(OH)CH3 ( (2)
).
35. : CH2=CNHCH2OH.
36. 1--2- : CH3OCH=C(NH2)OH ( (2)
).
37. 2--1- : H2NCH=C(OCH3)OH ( (2)
).
38. 1-() : CH2=C(OCH2NH2)OH.
39. 2-() : H2NCH2OCH=CHOH ( (2)
).
40. 1- : CH2=C(NHOCH3)OH.
1056

41. 2- : CH3ONHCHCHOH ( (2)
).
42. A : CH2=CCH(NH2)OH ( (2)
).
43. 1- : CH2=C(OCH3)NOH.
44. 2- : CH3OCH=CHNOH ( (2)
).
45. 2--1,1 : CH3C(=NH)CH(OH)2.
46. 3--1,1 : HN=CHCH2CH(OH)2.
47. 1--1,2 : CH3CH(OH)C(=NH)OH ( (2)
).
48. 3--1,2 : HN=CHCH(OH)CH2OH ( (2)
).
49. -1,3 : HOCH2C(=NH)CH2OH.
50. 1--1 : CH3CH2C(OH)=NOH.
51. 2--1 : CH3CH(OH)CH=NOH ( (2)
).
52. 3--1 : HOCH3CH2CH=NOH.
53. -2 : CH3C(=NOH)CH2OH.
54. -1,1 : CH3N=CHCH(OH)2
55. -1,2 : HOCH2C(=NCH3)OH.
56. - : CH3CH=NCH2OH.
57. 2--1- : CH3OCH2C(=NH)OH.
58. 1--2- : HN=CHCH(OCH3)OH ( (2)
).
59. 2--2- : HN=C(OCH3CH2OH.
60. 1- : CH3C(OCH3)=NOH.
61. 2- : CH3OCH2CH=NOH.
62. 1-() : CH3C(=NOCH3)OH.
63. 2-() : CH3ON=CHCH2OH.
64. : CH3CH2N=C(OH)2.
65. (1-) : CH3CH(OH)N=CHOH ( (2)
).
66. (2-) : HOCH2CH2N=CHOH.
67. -(1,1-) : CH3C(OH)2)N=CH2.
68. -(1,2-) : HOCH2CH(OH)N=CH2 ( (2)
).
69. -(2,2-) : (HO)2CHCH2N=CH2.
70. N-(1-) : CH3CH(OH)N=CHOH ( (2)
).
71. N-(2-) : HOCH2CH2N=CHOH.
72. 1- : CH3CH2OC(=NH)OH.
73. N- : CH3CH2ON=CHOH.
74. N-(1-) : CH3CH(OH)ON=CH2 ( (2)
).
75. N-(2-) : HOCH2CH2ON=CH2.
76. N-() : CH3OCH2N=CHOH.
1057

77. N-() : CH3OCH(OH)N=CH2 ( (2)
).
78. N-() : CH2OCH2N=CH2.
79. 1,1- : CH3OC(=NH)OCH3.
80. 1,- : CH3OCH=NOCH3.
81. 1-() : HN=CHOCH(OH)CH3 ( (2) ).
82. 2-() : HN=CHOCH2CH2OH.
83. : CH3CH2OCH=NOH.
84. : CH3CH2ON=CHOH.
85. 2--2- : CH3C(NH2)(OH)CHO ( (2)
).
86. 3--2- : H2NCH2CH(OH)CHO ( (2)
).
87. 2--3- : HOCH2CH(NH2)CHO ( (2)
).
88. 2--2- : HOCH(NH2)CH2CHO ( (2)
).
89. 1--1- : CH3COCH(NH2)OH ( (2)
).
90. 3--1- : H2NCH3COCH2OH.
91. -2- : CH3NHCH(OH)CHO ( (2)
).
92. -N- : CH3N(OH)CH2CHO.
93. : CH2NCH2CHO.
94. : CH3OCH(NH2)CHO ( (2) ).
95. () : H2NCH2OCH2CHO.
96. : CH2NHOCH2CHO.
97. - 3- : H2NCH2CH2COOH.
98. : CH3NHCH2COOH.
99. : CH3CH2NHCOOH.
100. : (CH3)2NCOOH.
101. 2- : CH3CH(OH)CONH2 ( (2) ).
102. 3- : HOCH2CH2CONH2.
103. : CH3CH2CONHOH.
104. : HOCH2CONHCH3.
105. : CH3CON(OH)CH3.
106. () : CH3CONCH2OH.
107. : CH3OCH2CONH2.
108. 2--1,1 :
109. 1--1,2 :
110. 3--1,2 :
111. 1- :
112. 2- :
113. :
114. 1,2,3- :
115. 1,2,4- :
116. 1,3,2- :
1058
1059
117. 1,3,4- :
118. 1,3,5- :
119. 1,4,2- :

D- .
- ( 3- , H2NCH2CH2COOH)
: , .
().
, . -
(-CH3). [3]
( ). () ,
,
() [4] .
[5]

C-H
2sp3-1s
109 pm
C#3-C#2
2sp3-2sp3
154 pm
C#2-C#1
2sp3-2sp2
151 pm
C-N
2sp3-2sp3
152 pm
6% C+ -
-H
2sp3-1s
101,7 pm
17% N- H+
C=O
2sp2-2sp2
132 pm
19% C+ O-
2p-2p
C-O
2sp2-2sp3
147 pm
19% C+ O-
O-H
2sp3-1s
96 pm
32% O- H+

-O
-0,51
-N
-0,40
=O
-0,38
C#3
-0,09
C#2
+0,03
H(CH)
+0,03
H(NH2)
+0,17
H(OH)
+0,32
C#1
+0,57
3% C- H+

pH pI = 6,11 .
-
1.. [6] :
2. [7]
[8] :
3. ( Gabriel)[9] :
Stracker
(HCN) (NH3) (CH3CHO)[10] :

[11] ::
,

.
-
- [12] :
- - :

- Hofmann[13] :
1060
1061
-
- :
To -
[14]

1. :
( ) .
:
1. pH<pK1 ().
2. pH=pI ( ).
3. pH>pK2 ().
2. . ..:
[15]
. [16]
, .
.
:

. ..
:
:
1. (3) C#3-H. 2- ,
-.
2. (2) N-H. 2-() ,
-.
3. (1) C#2-H. 2--2- ,
-.
4. (1) O-H. 2- ,
.
5. (1) C=O. 1-(1'-)-1-,
.
(8) , (' )
, ,
( ) .

L- ( )
7,8% 1.150 [17] . : GCU, GCC, GCA
GCG.
- () ,
1879.
.
: , , , ,
, , , , , , , ..
,
. ,
.
1062

L-
.
.
-
.
.
(ATP)

(PEP) (GTP).

L- ,
, ,
. -

. .

- .

.
.

[1] pK ( ).
a
[2] Nomenclature and symbolism for amino acids and peptides (IUPAC-IUB Recommendations 1983)", Pure Appl. Chem. 56 (5):
595624, 1984, doi:10.1351/pac198456050595.

[3] - . ,
.
[4] , .
. . 1982, . 34.
[6] . . 1982, . 243, 10.2.
[7] .
[8] . . 1982, . 298, 13.31, . 243, 10.2B4 . 301.
13.4.II.
[9] . . 1982, . 329, 14.2.1.
[10] . . 1982, . 329, 14.2.2.
[11] . . 1982, . 329, 14.2.3.
[12] . . 1982, . 243, 10.2B2.
[13] . . 1982, . 298, 13.31, . 296, 13.2, 13.21, . 243,
10.2B3 . 301. 13.4.II.

[14] Streckel
[15] ,

-.
, .
[16] ,

-.
, .
1063
1064
[17] Doolittle, R. F. (1989), "Redundancies in protein sequences", in Fasman, G. D., Prediction of Protein Structures and the Principles
of Protein Conformation, New York: Plenum, pp. 599623, ISBN 0-306-43131-9.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Britanica 2004 Ultimate Reference DVD Suite.

. . 1982
, , , 1991
. , &
1991
. , , , 1985
. , , , 1983
. , , , ,
, 1986
.
Alanin (http:/ / de. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Alanin) ,
GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). (
/ (http:/ / de. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Alanin)).
Alanine (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Alanine)

/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Alanine)).
Alanine (http:/ / fr. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Alanine) ,

GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( /
(http:/ / fr. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Alanine)).

.
DNA, ,
.
O C4H5N3O IUPAC
4--1H--2-. 111,3.
1894 (Albrecht
Kossel). 1903
, 1903.[1] .
( ) ,
-, - - . T
: H
,
, ,
, " " .
,
. ,
DNA.
[1] Answers.com (http:/ / www. answers. com/ topic/ cytosine?cat=health)
1065
1066
9H-Purin-6-amine
6-

C5H5N5
135.13 g/mol
360 - 365 C
CAS
73-24-5
SMILES
NC1=NC=NC2=C1N=CN2
, ( ), ( )
DNA RNA.
, ...
() DNA
(), .
RNA, , ()
(U), . DNA RNA
ATP, ADP AMP

,
. .
, , ( ), PO3-2
(AMP).
(ADP).
, ATP. ATP
(
) .
"" , ATP ADP.
( ), ADP
ATP.
AMP (cAMP, 3'-5'- ) ,
ATP (second messenger)
(intracellular signal transduction
pathways).

( ) (HCN).
1067
1891, -
1897. B4.
.

Computational Chemistry Wiki [1]
[1] http:/ / www. compchemwiki. org/ index. php?title=Adenine
2--3,7--6-
2-

C5H5N5O
151,13 g/mol
360C
CAS
73-40-5
, ( G) ( )
, DNA RNA. DNA RNA
(G) (C),
.
.
2--6- .
(guano),
,
.
1844, 1846, "",
, 1891.
, .

(NH4CN)
,
.
1068
RNA
- - . ,
, + .

Chemistry Daily [1]
/ Madison, Wisconsin [2]
[1] http:/ / www. chemistrydaily. com/ chemistry/ Guanine

[2] http:/ / www. bmrb. wisc. edu/ metabolomics/ gen_metab_summary_5. php?molName=guanine
5-Methylpyrimidine-2,4(1H,3H)-dione

C5H6N2O2
126.11 g/mol
316 - 317C
CAS
65-71-4
SMILES
CC1=CNC(NC1=O)=O
H ( 5--) DNA (
). DNA (T) () .
RNA. RNA (T) (U).
, . ,
TMP, TDP TTP (-, -, -, ) .
, DNA
( ).
1069

Computational Chemistry Wiki [1]
[1] http:/ / www. compchemwiki. org/ index. php?title=Thymine
,
,
,
.

DNA,
.
DNA, RNA
.
,
.
1070
IUPAC
1-, 1-,
[b],

129.16 g/mol
CAS
91-22-5
SMILES
C1=CC=C2C(=C1)C=CC=N2
InChI
1/C9H7N/c1-2-6-9-8(4-1)
5-3-7-10-9/h1-7H

-15C (5F) (258.15 K)
238C (460.4F) (511.15 K)
1.093 g/ml
(6.1 mg/L)
1071
3.76 cP
,
nD
1.625

pKa
4.9
480C
101.1C
40, 41, 45, 20/21/22,

36/37/38, 68, 51/53
23, 26, 36, 53, 45, 61
(25C, 1
Atm)

C9H7N.
1834
(Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge).
, ,
.

(Ph-NH2) :
Combes: - -
Schiff.
Conrad-Limpach: - 4--
Schiff.
Doebner-Miller, ,- .
2- .
Skraup-Doebner-Von Miller in situ ( ),
Beyer.
Friedlnder, 2--.
Camps: Camps '
--- - -
2- 4-.
Gould-Jacobs:
- . ,
, NaOH , 4--.
1072
Skraup
Skraup : ,
, .
FeSO4.
:
()
(, )
Michael

- -.
2 1,2- ()
.
(ArNO2) .
ArNO2 (ArNH2), .
, H3As3O4,
.
(V2O5). .

, . , ,
. .

.
KMnO4 :
( Ni-Raney) 1,2,3,4- :
3 2SO4 0C 5- 8-
:
NaNH2 2 2-- 4-. ,

2- 4- :
ArLi 2- :
1 mol Br2 5- 8-.

- :
1073

8-- . A
. 2-- ()
4-- () .

.
. ,
, .

.

:--, 1991.
2. . " ", 1986.
3. ., . " ", 13, 1985.
4. . . " , --", 1 2,
1985.
5. . . " ", 1989.
7. . " . ", 1995.
8. . . " ", 1988.
9. . . " ", 1988.
IR [1]
[2]
UV/Vis [3]
[4]
[5]
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
http:/ / webbook. nist. gov/ cgi/ cbook. cgi?ID=C91225& Units=SI& Mask=80#IR-Spec

http:/ / webbook. nist. gov/ cgi/ cbook. cgi?ID=C91225& Units=SI& Mask=200#Mass-Spec
http:/ / webbook. nist. gov/ cgi/ cbook. cgi?ID=C91225& Units=SI& Mask=400#UV-Vis-Spec
http:/ / webbook. nist. gov/ cgi/ cbook. cgi?ID=C91225& Units=SI& Mask=2000#Gas-Chrom
http:/ / www. cem. msu. edu/ ~reusch/ VirtTxtJml/ heterocy. htm#top1
1074
1075
IUPAC
CH2O2
46,0254 amu
HCOOH
CAS
64-18-6
SMILES
O=CO
ChemSpiderID
278
236
1,41 D ()
8,4C
100,8C
1.220 kg/m3
1,57 cP 26C
1076
pKa
3,744
69C
R10, R35
(S1/2) S23 S26 S45
MSDS
External MSDS
NFPA 704
(25C, 1
Atm)

(HCOOH) (236)
,
.
, , , .
: ( ),
, formica = . , ,
.
(1) : , :
15
(). (
) 1671. ,
, .
(HCN) - . 1855,
, ,
(CO).

. '60, ,
.
.
1077

,
. . ,
(MeOH), (EtOH) (H2O),
.
85%
.
[1]
C-H
2sp2-1s
107 pm
3% C- H+
C=O
2sp2-2sp2
132 pm
19% C+ O-
2p-2p
C-O
2sp2-2sp3
147 pm
19% C+ O-
O-H
2sp3-1s
96 pm
32% O- H+
HCO
120
COO
120
OCO
120
COH
104,45

O (OH)
-0,51
O (=O)
-0,38
H (HC)
+0,03
[2]
1078
H (OH)
+0,32
+0,54

(HCN) [3] :
,
1. (CH2=CH2) [4] :
2. (CH3OH) [5] :
3. (2CHO) [6] :

1. (CO) (NaOH)[7] :
2. (CO) [8] :

(H2O) .
.
( )[9] .
.

.
.
, 22,4%.
.
1079

(pKa = 4,8),
. ,

:
( )
( )
( )
1. [10] :
2. ( Kolbe), [11] :
3. ( ) [12] :
4. - Hunsdiecker[13] :
o (LiAlH4) (NaBH4) [14] :
1. o (H2O2),
[15] :
2. o (CO2)[16] :
1. :
2. :
Koch. .:
3. (Pt) (Ru)[17] [18] :
[19] :
[20] :
1. SOCl2:
2. PCl5:
3. PX3:
:

. ..:

. ..
:
:
1. (1) C-H. , .
2. (1) O-H. ,
.
1080

3. (1) C=O. , .
(3) , (' )
, ,
( ) .
,
,
. 236.

, ..
N- [21] . ,
, , Eschweiler-Clarke
Leuckart-Wallach, .
.

1.
2.
3.
4.
.
.
.
, ,
.
5. .
6. HPLC CE ,
.
7. .
85%
[22] .
, . OSHA
5 ppm.
.
:
, [23] .
.
.
'
.
(CO) (H2O),
. 98%
.
.

1081
1082
:
(% )
-R
2%10%
(Xi)
R36/38
10%90%
(C)
R34
>90%
(C)
R35
,
(HCOO-), ,
[24] .

. . 1982, . 34.
[2]
[3] . . 1982: .283, 12.2.2.
[4] . . 1982: .283, 12.2.3.
[5] . . 1982: .283, 12.2.3.
[6] . . 1982: .283, 12.2.3.
[7] . . 1982: .283, 12.2.6.
[8] Werner Reutemann and Heinz Kieczka Formic Acid in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
doi:10.1002/14356007.a12_013
[9] Werner Reutemann and Heinz Kieczka Formic Acid in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
doi:10.1002/14356007.a12_013.
[10] . . 1982: .285, 12.4.3.
[11] . . 1982: .285, 12.4.3.
[12] . . 1982: .285, 12.4.3.
[13] . . 1982: .285, 12.4.3.
[14] . . 1982: .285, 12.4.4.
[15] . . 1982: .285, 12.4.5.
[16] . . 1982: .285, 12.4.5.
[17] C. Fellay, P. J. Dyson, G. Laurenczy, A Viable Hydrogen-Storage System Based On Selective Formic Acid Decomposition with a
Ruthenium Catalyst, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2008, 47, 39663970.
[18] G. Laurenczy, C. Fellay, P. J. Dyson, Hydrogen production from formic acid. PCT Int. Appl. (2008), 36pp. CODEN: PIXXD2 WO
2008047312 A1 20080424 AN 2008:502691
[19] . . 1982: .285, 12.4.8.
[20] . . 1982: .285, 12.4.8.
[21] L. F. Fieser and J. E. Jones (1955), Org. Synth., http:/ / www. orgsyn. org/ orgsyn/ orgsyn/ prepContent. asp?prep=cv3p0590 ; Coll. Vol. 3:
590
[22] US Code of Federal Regulations: 21 CFR 186.1316, 21 CFR 172.515
[23] "Methanol and Blindness". Ask A Scientist, Chemistry Archive. http:/ / www. newton. dep. anl. gov/ askasci/ chem03/ chem03561. htm.
Retrieved 22 May 2007.
[24] Makar AB, McMartin KE, Palese M, Tephly TR (1975). "Formate assay in body fluids: application in methanol poisoning". Biochem Med
13 (2): 11726. doi:10.1016/0006-2944(75)90147-7. PMID 1.
. , , 1985
. , , , 1991
. . 1982
. : , 1991, .
. , . , . : , 1985,
.
. : , 1983.
acid Formic acid (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Formic)
, GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( acid
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Formic)).
1083
1084
IUPAC
,
( )

44.010 g/mol,
CAS
124-38-9
SMILES
C(=O)=O
InChI
1/CO2/c2-1-3
EINECS
204-696-9
RTECS
FF6400000
PubChemCID
280

57C (216K) (-70F)
78C (195K) (-109F )
1,562 g/mL ( 1 tm, 78,5C)

0,770 g/mL ( 56 tm, 20C)
1.977 g/L ( 1 tm, 0C)
849,6 g/L (
150 tm, 30C)
1,45 g/L
0.07 cP 78C
,
nD
1,1120

pKa
6,35, 10,33
9, 23, 26, 36
1085
(25C, 1 Atm)

( : CO2)
. .
27,3 % w/w 72,7 % w/w . : O=C=O.
, ,
.
(, , ,
.), , .. .
.
* . ,
, .
CaCO3 (, , ..),
MgCO3, FeCO3, CaCO3.MgCO3 ..

.
(*)
200 . .

. 17
, (Jan Baptist van Helmont)
,
.
"" " ".
1750-1760
(Joseph Black). ( )
" ".
" "
.
( ), .

.
1772, (Joseph Priestley) "
"
( ) , ,
, .
( ) 1823
(Humphry Davy) (Michael Faraday).
(Charles Thilorier),
1834 ,
"" CO2.
.
.

1. M :
CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
NaHCO3 + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + CO2 + H2O
2. :
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 ( 850C)
2KHCO3 K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

1. :
2Fe2O3 + 3C 4Fe + 3CO2
2. (CaO) :
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
3. . (2, CO)
CO2 .
4. ,
:
C6H12O6 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH
5. (
), (, diesel, .)
.
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
6. , CO2
1086

.

1,98 kg/m3, . 1,5
. 1 Atm (.
),
,
-78,51C
, ,
-78,51C.
, "
".

CO2 ()
()
31,1C
(7,38 MPa). ,
, , . CO2 " Seltz".
518 kPa -56.6C.
,
. , ""
CO2 ( 400000 Atm).

. , ""
.

(O=C=O)
, .
[1] C=O 799 KJ/mol.
CO2
( ) C=O (. 4
-
)
C=O CO2

.
CO2 , . -.
1087
1088

CO2 C +4,
(H2CO3) (.. Na2CO3)
: CO2 + H2O H2CO3.
CO2
(C) (CO), .
-
mol
, , :
CO2 + CaO CaCO3
CO2 + NaOH NaHCO3
CO2 + 2 2CO3 + H2O
CO2 ,
:
Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O 2NaHCO3
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca(HCO3)2

C CO (K, Na, Mg) C :
C + CO2 2CO
2Mg + CO2 2MgO + C
-
CO2
, :
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
(CO2 + 2 2CO3 + H2O) CO2
() : 36 % w/v 32 % w/v NaOH.
30/ CO2. K2CO3
Na2CO3 NaOH
. CO2
,
. CO2 ,
Ba(OH)2 , Ba(OH)2.
1089

CO2

CO2
(
),
),
pH
(
CO2
pH),
(

,
CO2 (g/L) ( bar)

).
(25C), CO2 90 mL 100 mL .
, :
CO2(aq) + H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+ CO32- + 2H+
,
. , .. Ca2+ / Mg2+
CaCO3 MgCO3 , CO32-,
.
, ,
.
,
, , . CO2 .
CO2 ,
.
.

.
.
CO2 (),
. 2009
,
,
4, .
, . [2]
Pop Rocks 40 bar.

, .
, ,
baking powder ,
.

.
CO2 .

.

CO2
.

,
.
. , CO2
,
.

,
:
21 m. ,
( 93C)
.

(CCl3)
. , ,
. , CO2 ,
.
1090
1091
,
CO2 . , CO2
,
- .
("") , CO2
. CO2
. ,
. 1% ,
, .
, ,
.
.
, CO2 5%
O2/CO2 .

CO2.

CO2
.

.
.

,
,

.
" "

.
( R744 R-744)
,
R-12[3] .

.
130 bar,
CO2

. , 90%
, R744 R-134a[4] .
CO2 ( , , )
HFCs[5]
, - .

.

, ,
. CO2 ,
, ,
,
.

.
, , .
pH
pH .
CO2 , pH .
.
CO2
CO2
: 50%
50%
.

385 ppm.

31015 kg (3000 ).
(
CO2 Mauna Loa
)
.
.

.
.
1092

, 20 , .
, 4 5 ,
49 , .
,
35%
. 40%
.
130-230 CO2 .
Bossoleto .
100 , CO2
75% .
CO2 27
.
CO2 ,
.
CO2
CO2, H2CO3 HCO3- CO32-

50 . ,
CO2 .
CO2 .
CO2
, . CO2

,
.
CO2

,
. ,
. ,
, .
1093
CO2

,
CO2,
.
,
.
,
: 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 2817 KJ.
:

.
,
. ,
.
CO2 + H2O + 2
: C2 + ||
(C2)x.
, ' "". , ,
CO2, CO2
12 .
CO2.
50% 1000 ppm
CO2. CO2 ,
, , .
CO2
' .
,
.
CO2 .
CO2 , CO2
,
.
CO2 -
CO2 (
30 Km) 0,036 % (360 ppm) 0,039% (390 ppm),
.

.
.
1094

CO2 :
1% v/v[6]
(
), CO2

. *
2% v/v CO2

.

, .
5% v/v

, ,

CO2
.
.
8% v/v
, , ,
.
1984 Monoun 37
CO2, CO2. 1986
Nyos 1700 .
CO2,
...,
5000 ppm (0,5%). , ,
. (
) , 30000 ppm (3 %). CO2 4%
.
CO2 .
CO2 3 % 4 %
. 2 %
(.. ), .
.
CO2 300 ppm 2500 ppm,
. , 1000 ppm
20 % . 2000 ppm,
, ,
.
, CO2 ,
:
. CO2 ,
, CO2.
20
1095
1096
, , .
2009 .
, , -
, ASIC1a.
, , ,
,
. ,
ASIC1a ,
. ,
, .

, ASIC1a,

. ,
,
, .
To CO2
To CO2 . (
) :
CO2 ( 70% - 80%), (HCO3-)
: CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-.
5% - 10% .
5% - 10% .
, - , 2 CO2.
, CO2 2.
2 , CO2
. CO2
: : C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O +
. CO2 : CO2 + H2O H2CO3.

, : Na2CO3 + H2CO3 2NaHCO3 ().
. H2CO3
CO2, . H2CO3, ()
NaHCO3 Na2CO3 H2CO3
. 4 % 5 % CO2 4 % 5 % 2
. 1 Kg CO2 .
1097
[1] . .
[2] (http:/ / www. in. gr/ news/ article. asp?lngEntityID=1064657&
lngDtrID=252), in.gr
[3] --, CF Cl FREON-12,
2
1995.
[4] 1,1,1,2--, F C-CFH , Genetron 134a, Suva 134a HFC-134a.
3
2
1990 R-12.
[5] . CFCs .
[6] % v/v % .. (% ' ).
mL 100 mL .
1.
2.
3.
4.
. . " ", 1986.

., . " ", 1976.
. . " ", 1986.
. . " , --", 1 2,
1985.

:--, 1991.
7. Murell J. N., Kettle S. F. A., Tedder J. N. "O ", . , 1992.
8. . . ", ', - ",
1985.
9. . . " , , ",
1984.
10. . " ", 1986.
11. . . " ", 1980.
12. . . " ", .
13. Pople J.A., Beveridge D.L. "Approximate Molecular Orbital Theory", New York 1970
14. Szabo A., Ostlund N. "Modern Quantum Chemistry", New York 1982
15. .. " ", 1 2, 1981.
16. ., . " ", 14, 1984.
1098
IUPAC
C6H6O
1099
94,11
C6H5OH
PhOH, OH
CAS
108-95-2
SMILES
Oc1ccccc1
InChI
1/C6H6O/c7-6-4-2-1-3-5-6/h1-5,7H
RTECS
SJ3325000
ChemSpiderID
971
1,7 D
>100

40,5C
181,7
83 kg/m3 (20C)

pKa
9,95
79C
(T)
(C)
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

(phenol) ( , IUPAC) (
, IUPAC) ( ) (
) ( ) ( )
( ) ,
, , . ,
.
O : C6H5OH, (C6H5-,
Ph- -) .
. , pKa = 9,95.
.
() .
1100
. 1834
Friedrich Ferdinand Runge .
( 7.000.000 ),
[1] .
[2]

C-H
2sp2-1s
106 pm
C-C
2sp2-2sp2
147 pm
C#1...C#6'
[3]
2p-2p
147 pm
C-O
2sp2-2sp3
147 pm
19% C+ O-
O-H
2sp3-1s
96 pm
32% H+ O-
3% C- H+
-0,51
C#2-6
-0,03
H (H-C)
+0,03
C#1
+0,19
H (H-O)
+0,32
1. , .
2. Dow ( ): (PhCl), Cl
(), (NaOH),
Raschig-Hooker[4] :
3. Cumene, [5] :
4. M , ..[6] :
5. [7] :
6. :
1101
, 1013,
10 , [8] .
C=C C=O,

. ' [9] :

1. , Ka = 9,95,
. , .., NaOH ( )[10] :
[11] : (2CO3 > (PhOH) > (H2O).
PhO-
,
6 C .
( ' )
.
, ,
:
2. Williamson[12] :
- - .
3. , . RCOOH
, [13] : :
- - .
4. :
. ROH PhOH HX. PhOH
PhH, ,
[14] :
1102
5. , .. (POCl3)[15] :
6. (CH2N2)[16] :

1. ( 175C, 15 atm, Ni). [17] :
2. :
3. . -, --
- - . [18] :
1. ( X , F):
, CS2,
X2 PhOH.
2. [19] :
.., : , ,
1986.
Speight J. G., Chemical and Process Design Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 2002
&
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
. . 1982
1103

[1] Manfred Weber, Markus Weber, Michael Kleine-Boymann "Phenol" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2004,
Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a19_299.pub2.
. . 1982, . 34.
[3] 6 6
[4] . . 1982, . 379, 17.21.
[5] Acetone Uses and Market Data (http:/ / www. icis. com/ v2/ chemicals/ 9074858/ acetone/ uses. html). ICIS.com (October 2010)
( 2011-03-21 )
[6] . . 1982, . 379, 17.23.
[7] . . 1982, . 379, 17.22.
[8] Capponi, Marco; Gut, Ivo G.; Hellrung, Bruno; Persy, Gaby; Wirz, Jakob (1999). "Ketonization equilibria of phenol in aqueous
solution". Can. J. Chem. 77: 605613. doi: 10.1139/cjc-77-5-6-605 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjc-77-5-6-605).
[10] . . 1982, . 380, 17.3.1.
[11] . . 1982, . 380, 17.3.1.
[12] . . 1982, . 381, 17.3.6.
[13] . . 1982, . 380, 17.3.5.
[14] . . 1982, . 380, 17.3.3.
[15] . . 1982, . 380, 17.3.4.
[16] . . 1982, . 380, 17.3.8.
[17] . . 1982, . 380, 17.3.3.
[18] . . 1982, . 382, 17.3.13.
[19] . . 1982, . 380, 17.3.7.
Phenol (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Phenol)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Phenol)).
LP
Live-Pedia. ( (http:/ / www. livepedia. gr/ index.

php?title=& action=history)).
1 2008, CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ /
creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ) GFDL (http:/ / www. gnu. org/ copyleft/ fdl. html).
1104
()
[1] ,
(>C=O) (1) ,
-CH=O ( -CHO). , ..
(O=CHCOOH), , ,
( ),
(-COOH).
,
(-COOH), ,
(-SO3H) . ,
, .

-R

, ( 3,5
2,5 Pauling). ,
. , pKa 17.
, ,
.

, .
( ) .

. .. , (-2, >NH, >N-),
....

. .. , , ....
, ,
:
1. :
.
2. :
.
3. : . ,
.
aldehyde alcohol dehydrogenatum,

.
(
) "-", "-", .. ,
, , , ....
--. .. ,
, ....
, ,
-. ..
2-.
,
, , . .. 2-.

1. .
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
.
.
.
-2- .
.
-1- .

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
.
.
.
.
.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
() ,
.
CH3.
.
1105
1106
, .
,
, .
.
1. :
2. M :
3. :
4. :
5. :
6. HIO4 :

1. :
. KMnO4:
. K2Cr2O7:
. :
. Tollens[2] [3] :
. Fehling[4] [5] :
2. :
()
()
3. Cannizzaro .
2, .. R3CCHO:
1107
4. :
. :
. :
,
. :
,
[6]

1. :
2. :
. LiAlH4 NaBH4:
. :
3. :
Wolff-Kishner:
4. SeO2:
5. :
. -1,1:
. . .. :
2--1,3-
. . .. :
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. :
. :
. :
. :
1108
. :

[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
- .
.
AgNO3, AgOH.
, " "
CuSO4 ( Fehling A) NaOH ( Fehling B), CuO +
NaOH.
[6] .
. , . , , 1972
. , , , 1991
. . 1982
. : , 1983.
,
,
,
Cn(H2O)[1] .

[2]
(..
,
),
, , .
, 100 gmol-1, ,
gmol-1.
:
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.

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.[4]

[1]
[2]
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[4]
2:1.
, ""
G Cooper. The Cell. American Society of Microbiology. .72.
W. D. McArdle, F. I. Katch, V. L. Katch (2006). Essentials of exercise physiology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=L4aZIDbmV3oC&
pg=PA45). 1. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. .45, 46. .
1109
1110

.

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1112

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1114

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Thomson) . ,
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, (Antonius Van den Broek)[4] .

.

:

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in particular.

,
.
Unicode U+269B, [5] .
, ,
.
1115
-
[1] The Geiger-Marsden Experiment (http:/ / physics. nmt. edu/ ~raymond/ classes/ ph13xbook/ node189. html).
[2] Rutherford E. 1911, The Scattering of and Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom, April Philos. Mag, 6, 21, pdf downloaded
2008-10-09 (http:/ / ion. elte. hu/ ~akos/ orak/ atfsz/ atom/ rutherford_atom11. pdf,)
[3] BOHR-RUTHERFORD DIAGRAMS (http:/ / www. tvdsb. on. ca/ saunders/ courses/ Online/ SNC1D/ McIntosh/
chemistry/ bohr-rutherford_diagrams. htm)
[4] The Atomic Number Puzzle (http:/ / www. davidparker. com/ janine/ twins. html).
[5] Unicode Character 'ATOM SYMBOL' (U+269B) (http:/ / www. fileformat. info/ info/ unicode/ char/ 269b/ index. htm)

(http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/AtomicStructure/Thomson-Model-Intro.
html)
- " " (http://library.thinkquest.org/C0122360/full/1-1_e.
html)
(http://www.rwc.uc.edu/koehler/biophys/7a.html)
(http://www2.kutl.kyushu-u.ac.jp/seminar/MicroWorld1_E/Part2_E/P25_E/
Rutherford_model_E.htm)
model Rutherford model (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Rutherford)
by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). ( model / (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Rutherford)).

( ) (SI).
Kelvin
"", .. 77 .
(-273,15 C ) 0 . 0
. (William Thomson),
1 Kelvin.
.

, ..
.
Kelvin .
273,15 . : k = Tc + 273,15.
1116
1117

(, SI, . Systme International )
.
SI ,
MKS (--) CGS.
1961 11 .
SI
(
, )

SI :
7 .
.
.
SI,
.
(kg)
(m)
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/ (K)
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:
. .

SI
.
10. ,

. ,
.
1118
(deca, hecto, kilo)

(deci, centi, milli).
SI. 10.
(centi), (deci) (deca) (hecto).
(
. kilo
( ) (
, ).

yotta
1024
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1021
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1018
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109
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10-24
1119

(
) .
,
.
:
m2
dm3
l (liter)
, ,
m/s
/2
m/s2
kgm/s2
N (Newton)
/m2
Pa (Pascal)
Nm
kg/m3
N/m3
Nm
J (Joule)
J/s
W (Watt)
(http://users.ntua.gr/soulman/convert.html)
(http://www.bipm.org/en/si/base_units/)
(http://www.eim.org.gr/html/greek/eim/history.html)
Convertworld.com (http://www.convertworld.com/el/)
nso:SI
DNA
1120
DNA
()()() (Deoxyribonucleic acid - DNA)

. DNA .
DNA,
DNA ,

.
DNA ,
DNA

.
DNA
.

DNA
DNA 1953
(James D. Watson) (Francis Crick).
DNA 20
. DNA, 1962
, .
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1121
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T 1953 (J. Watson), , (F.
Crick),
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.
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.
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nucleus ).
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.
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1122
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1928 (Diplococcus pneumoniae),
. ,
:
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,
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.
(R) (S),
.
, .
.
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.
1944, ,

(in vitro).

, , RNA, DNA ..
.

DNA.
DNA

.

DNA

DNA 1953
() , ,
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, 1948
,
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:
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:
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1123
2. DNA
. DNA (
).
, (37)
, .
, ,
.

25 1953, Nature.
DNA, 1962
.
To 1957 ,
DNA .
DNA
DNA 1956
1961.
RNA
o ,
,
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.

,
(
DNA), . RNA

DNA

( RNA, mRNA).
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.
RNA
DNA
RNA ,
( )
DNA.
RNA .
11% RNA , 15% ,
RNA
1124
24% 50% .
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. RNA
. RNA ( DNA),
3'-5' .
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, DNA.
,
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( DNA), .
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.
mRNA DNA RNA
, , .
mRNA ,
tRNA (
).
1868, ( 1869), (1844-1895),
.
.
RNA 1939,
(Torbjrn Oskar Caspersson), (Jean Brachet) (Jack Schultz).
RNA
. , RNA,
1959. 77 RNA
, 1968.
1976, [(Walter Fiers)
RNA MS2 [1] .
RNA
RNA mRNA (Messenger RNA)

RNA tRNA (Transfer RNA)
RNA rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)
RNA (Non-coding RNA)
RNA (Catalytic RNA)
RNA
1125
[1] Fiers W et al., Complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA - primary and secondary structure of replicase gene, Nature, 260,
500-507, 1976

RNA (http://www.imb-jena.de/RNA.html)
Nucleic Acid Database (http://ndbserver.rutgers.edu/atlas/xray/) DNA, RNA
RNA (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ RNA) ,
GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). (
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ RNA)).

.
(William Bateson),
, 18 1905.
, , 1865
.
.
,
.
, 6.000 ,
.
,
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(
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).
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. 1865,
(Gregor Mendel) ,
. , 20
,
1126

1859 (The Origin of Species)
1865
1903 ()
1905
1910 (Thomas Hunt Morgan)
1913 (Alfred Sturtevant)
1918 (Ronald Fisher) On the correlation between relatives on the

supposition of Mendelian inheritance -
1927 DNA
1928 O (Frederick Griffith)
( )
1931 (Barbara McClintock)

1941 (Edward Lawrie Tatum) (George Wells Beadle)

1944 (Oswald Theodore Avery), (Colin McLeod)
(Maclyn McCarty) in vitro DNA

1950 (Erwin Chargaff)
DNA (.
.
1952 2 DNA
1953 (James D. Watson) (Francis Crick)
DNA
1956 Jo Hin Tjio (Albert Levan) 46

1958 DNA
1961

1964 (Howard Temin) ( RNA)

1970
1972 DNA
1974
1977 DNA,
, (Fred Sanger]],
(Walter Gilbert) (Allan Maxam).
-X174.
1127
1983 (Kary Banks Mullis) (PCR)
DNA
1985 O (Alec Jeffreys) DNA (DNA fingerprinting)
1989 ,
(Francis Collins) - (Lap-Chee Tsui).
CFTR
1990
1996 ,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1998 Caenorhabditis elegans
2003 (14 ) , ,
. 99,99%, 99%

:
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.
.
.
.

.
.

. ,
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20

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,
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1128

[1]
Evelyn Fox Keller (2004), (. ), . ,
[1] http:/ / www. ornl. gov/ sci/ techresources/ Human_Genome/ home. shtml
,

.
. [1]
(D'Arsonval)
() D'Arsonval, . [2]
,
() . ,
.[3]
50 mV .

(ADC)
.
1129
,
0.1, ,
.
0-10 mV,
,
.

(DC) 50 MHz.[4]

.

,
,

. [5] ,
, ,

(Hall).
DC-60 MHz, 0-3A,

SO239
.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
.. . (1996). (2nd ). . .46. ISBN 960-405-412-0.

.. . (1996). (2nd ). . .36-38. ISBN 960-405-412-0.
.. . (1996). (2nd ). . .51-55. ISBN 960-405-412-0.
.. . (1996). (2nd ). . .48-49. ISBN 960-405-412-0.
. (1992). ( ). . & ...
.533-534. ISBN 960-431-155-7.
N 60051-1:1998 "Direct acting indicating analogue electrical measuring instruments and their accessories -- Part
1: Definitions and general requirements common to all parts" (IEC 60051-2:1997)
EN 60051-2:1989 "Direct acting indicating analogue electrical measuring instruments and their accessories -- Part
2: Special requirements for ammeters and voltmeters" (IEC 60051-2:1984)
1130

()
.
D' Arsonval
.
D'Arsonval
.
.
,
. , ,
. , ,
( ).
, ,
, .
.
, ,
()
(), .
H
. , , ,
, ,
.
(. Voltmeter)
( ) .
( ) ,
. [1]
() (D'Arsonval)[2] .
.

. [3]
[1] .. . (1996). (2nd ). . .59. ISBN 960-405-412-0.

[2] .. . (1996). (2nd ). . .36-38. ISBN 960-405-412-0.
[3] . (1992). ( ). . & ...
.531-533. ISBN 960-431-155-7.
N 60051-1:1998 "Direct acting indicating analogue electrical measuring instruments and their accessories -- Part
1: Definitions and general requirements common to all parts" (IEC 60051-2:1997)
EN 60051-2:1989 "Direct acting indicating analogue electrical measuring instruments and their accessories -- Part
2: Special requirements for ammeters and voltmeters" (IEC 60051-2:1984)
(. Volt) (V) .
,
.
(SI) , .
:
A =
C =
kg =
m =
N =
s =
V =
Wb =
=
J =
W =
1131
1132

Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, SI [1] page 118.
[1] http:/ / www. bipm. org/ utils/ common/ pdf/ si_brochure_8_en. pdf
( )
(Farad, : F)
(capacitance)
(International System) S.I..
, (volt)
,
1 (coulomb)
.
, 1 F
(), 1 C ()
1 V ().
.
1 (F) .
.
. ,

1000F

10F.
( )
( )
(. Coulomb) C.
, .
1 Coulomb
(1) .
, 1 Coulomb 1
farad 1 :
, C Farad,
V.
Coulomb , .
/ mC (, 10-3C), C (, 10-6C), nC (, 10-9C).
1133
1134
IUPAC
4-----4'-
C14H14N3NaO3S
327,33 g/mol
CAS
547-58-0
SMILES
[Na+].CN(C)c2ccc(/N=N/c1ccc
(cc1)S([O-])(=O)=O)cc2
InChI
1S/C14H15N3O3S.Na/c1-17(2)13-7-3-11(4-8-13)
15-16-12-5-9-14(10-6-12)21(18,19)
20;/h3-10H,1-2H3,(H,18,19,20);/q;+1/p-1
EINECS
208-925-3
RTECS
DB6327000
1135
PubChemCID
11036
ChemSpiderID
16736152

>300 C
1,28 g/cm3
(200 mg/L)
1,50710-13 Pa
[1]
[1]

pI
3,7
22, 23, 24, 25, 36, 37, 38
26, 36, 37, 37, 45
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

(methyl orange)
IUPAC
,
[2]
4-----4'-
. [1]
4-(4-(-)-)- , p-----
, p-((p-(-)))- ..
[3] C.I. 13025, acid orange 52, orange
III, C.I. acid orange 52, tropaeolin D, orange 3, gold orange, helianthine b ..
C14H14N3NaO3S % w/w C 51,37%, H 4,31%, N 12,84%, Na 7,02%, O 14,66%, S
9,80%. [4] , ,
, ,
, [5] [6] .
(H2N-Ar-SO3Na), (NaNO2)
- (Ar-NMe2)[5] :
[7] , NaO3SArN=N+HSO4.
-
[8] :

.
() . 25C 200 mg/L
. (0,3 mg/mL),
. 2-- 20 mg/mL. ,
. ,
N,N---[5] .

(-=-) "" [8] .
, ,
, , , .

[9] .
, ,
.
(pH < 7).

-[10]
,

.
[11] .
pK = 3,7 pH 3,71 . 2,7 4,7.
pH 3,0 4,4[12] .
pH 2,7 3,0 4,4 4,7.
pH
( pH )
. 3,0 4,4 .
pH ( pH
pH )
1136
1137

(3)

(HCl)
()

(H2SO4) .
(NaOH)
()[11] .
,
3 HCl:
HCl + NH3
NH4Cl

:
NH4Cl
.
pH 3,0 4,4
NH4+ + Cl
:
NH4+ + H2O
NH3 + H3O+
pH .
, :
NaOH + H2SO4
NaHSO4 + H2O
:
NaHSO4
Na+ + HSO4
:
HSO4 + H2O
SO4= + H3O+
1138
(Na2CO3)
(HCl)[13]
.

,
- (
mL)

)

Na2CO3 HCl
(
). pH
:
Na2CO3 + HCl
NaCl + NaHCO3
pH :
NaHCO3 + HCl
NaCl + CO2 + H2O
0,1 % w/w 1 g [14]

. 1 L .

[15] .
-

(-=-)
. (3),
-,
( ) [16] .
1139
( )
( )
3,1 - 4,4
pH
:
( )
3,2 - 4,2
( )
-
, .
, .
. LD50[17] 60
mg/Kg , 101 mg/Kg [3]
.
[1] United States National Library of Medicine. ChemIDplus Lite (http:/ / chem2. sis. nlm. nih. gov/ chemidplus/
ProxyServlet?objectHandle=DBMaint& actionHandle=default& nextPage=jsp/ chemidlite/ ResultScreen. jsp& responseHandle=JSP&
TXTSUPERLISTID=0000547580& DT_START_ROW=0& DT_SELECTED_ROW=0& NEW_DATAVIEW=&
DT_ROWS_PER_PAGE=0& DC_SEARCH_STRING=& DC_SEARCH_FIELD=& DC_SEARCH_DIRECTION=)
[2] - [3] Oxford University HSci web site (http:/ / msds. chem. ox. ac. uk/ ME/ methyl_orange_sodium_salt. html)

[4] , HO3S-Ar-NH2
[5] Hazardous Substances Data Bank(HSDB). Methyl orange (http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi-bin/ sis/ search/ r?dbs+ hsdb:@term+ @rn+
@rel+ 547-58-0)
[6] The Merck Index (http:/ / themerckindex. chemfinder. com/ TheMerckIndex/ Forms/ Home/ ContentArea/ Home. aspx)
[7] V. M. Ivanov (2004). "The 125th Anniversary of the Griess Reagent". Journal of Analytical Chemistry 59 (10): 10021005. doi:
10.1023/B:JANC.0000043920.77446.d7 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1023/ B:JANC. 0000043920. 77446. d7). Translated from V. M. Ivanov
(2004). Zhurnal Analiticheskoi Khimii 59 (10): 11091112.
[8] . (, 1982). & (' ). UNIVERSITY STUDIO
PRESS.
[9] R. T. Morrison, R. N. Boyd (1991). ( --). ed. (' ) (4 ).
.
[10] ,
[11] . . (1980). . , .
[12] 100C 2,5 - 3,7 (http:/ / www. titrations. info/ acid-base-titration-indicators)
[13] Acid-Base Indicators (http:/ / www. chemguide. co. uk/ physical/ acidbaseeqia/ indicators. html)
[14]
- . .
, . .
Na+, K+ Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe3+ .., .

[15] 2o EK (http:/ / 2ekfe. ira. sch. gr/ chem_lyk/ A_lyk/ deiktes. pdf)
[16] . ( 1977). " . -". .
. (2 ).
[17] LD50 .
(50%) (LD = lethal dose, ). ,
,
titrations (http://www.titrations.info/)
Acid-base titration. Indicators preparation (http://www.titrations.info/
acid-base-titration-indicators-preparation)
( - ) (http://users.sch.gr/konal/oxea/6/
6.htm)
Acid-base titration End point indicators (http://www.titrations.info/acid-base-titration-indicators)
MSDS Methyl Orange, 1% (http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9926081)

()
1140
1141
IUPAC
3,3-(4-)-2--1(3)-
2-(-(4-)) ,
3,3-(p-),
3,3-(4-)-1(3H)-

C20H14O4
318,3228 g/mol
HIn, phph
CAS
77-09-8
SMILES
C1=CC=C2C(=C1)C(=O)OC2(C3=CC=C
(C=C3)O)C4=CC=C(C=C4)O
InChI
1/C20H14O4/c21-15-9-5-13(6-10-15)20(14-7-1116(22)12-8-14)18-4-2-1-3-17(18)19(23)2420/h1-12,21-22H
EINECS
201-004-7
RTECS
SM8380000
PubChemCID
4764
1142
ChemSpiderID
4600
[1]
260C
557,8C
1,385 g/cm3
(80 g/mol)
,
,

,
nD
1,57 1,693
6,7410-13 mmHg
[2]
[2]
[1]

[3] [4]
pKa
9,7
206,5C[2]
45, 62, 68
53, 45
NFPA 704
(25C, 1 Atm)

,
IUPAC , 3,3-(4-)-2--1(3)-[2] .
[4]
[5]
2-(-(4-))
,
3,3-(p-),
3,3-(4-)-1(3H)-,
-(-)--(4--2,5--1-)- ,
[6] [4] Agoral, Alophen, Correctol, Doxidan, Euchessina, Phenolax, Purgophen,
Evac-U-Lax, Modane, Prifinol, Fructosan .. .
C20H14O4 % w/w 75,5 % C, 4,43 % H 20,1 % .
phph.
1871 (Adolf von
Baeyer)[7] [4] .

Luck 1877[8]
pH
, , ,
.

, [9] .
-[9] .
( ) 400 mg
/1 L [3] 0,1 g /100 mL [10] . (1 g /12 mL
) (), (1 g /100 mL ),
, , ,
, [9] [1] .
260C[5] 262,5C[3] 1,385 g/cm3[2] 1,29 gr/cm3[5]

. 120C 1012 :
,
[4] .
1990 197
..., 1999 33 [4] .
- -
0,05 g
50 mL 50 mL .
, ' .
1990,
,
, , , .
. -
.
' ,
[4] .
1143
(pH)
.
.
, [9] .
.
, , ,

[11] .
Kastle-Meyer (Kastle-Meyer test)
: ,
, ,
, ,
(): , .
[12] .
"" .
""
(Barbie): () pH
8,2, .
, (CO2)
:
2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O
.
, .
, [13] .
.
1902 .

.
[4] [14] .

,
() . pH
[11] .

[15] . [16] ,
( ) 3+ :
H2In() + 2 3+ + InH-()
InH-() + H2O H3O+ + In2-( -)
() H2In
(1) In2-. C-O
( 2)- . ,
1144
1145
,
( 1 2 pH=8-12) , . ,
(2) [11] .
pH (>12) -,
- ,
(C),
[11] .
pH
:

In+
H2In
In2
In(OH)3
pH
<0
08,2
8,212,0
>12,0
1146
,

( ..) .

.

.

( ..)
.

pH 8,2 10,5
-
[17] . pH
[18] .
.. (. )
.. .
: ) pH
/ ) pK . , p = p 1,
. pK = 9,7,
pH 8,7 10,7. pH 8,3 10,5. [19] . pH
. CH3COOH . NaOH :
NaOH + CH3COOH
CH3COONa + H2O
,
:
CH3COONa
CH3COO + Na+
:
CH3COO + H2O
CH3COOH + OH
pH > 7[17] . - (.
HCl-NaOH), / .. pH = 7 ,
. -
(. HCl-3), / .. pH < 7
. - , / ..
pH = 7, pH < 7 pH > 7 (Ka Kb)
. pH > 7[20]
[17] . .
( ),

. .
[1] The Merck Index (http:/ / themerckindex. chemfinder. com/ TheMerckIndex/ Forms/ Home/ ContentArea/ Home. aspx)
[2] ChemSpider. The free chemical database (http:/ / www. chemspider. com/ 4600)
[3] U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Chemical Information. National Library of Medicine. ChemIDplus Lite (http:/ / sis. nlm. nih.
gov/ chemical. html)
[4] (PDF) Some Antiviral and Antineoplastic Drugs, and Other Pharmaceutical Agents. PHENOLPHTHALEIN (http:/ / monographs. iarc. fr/
ENG/ Monographs/ vol76/ mono76-15. pdf). 76. World Health Organisation. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).
Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. 2000. pp. 387-415. . 12/7/2011.
[5] Oxford University HSci web site (http:/ / cartwright. chem. ox. ac. uk/ hsci/ chemicals/ phenolphthalein. html)
[6] National Center for Biotechnology Information, phenolphthalein (http:/ / pubchem. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ summary/ summary.
cgi?cid=4764#Synonyms)
[7] Encyclopedia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 455539/ phenolphthalein)
[8] Ferenc Szabadvry (1993). History of analytical chemistry (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=53APqy0KDaQC& printsec=frontcover&
source=gbs_ge_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage& q& f=false) (, ). Taylor & Francis. ISBN
2881245692. .
[9] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Toxicology Program. Report on Carcinogens, 12th Edition (2011) (http:/ / ntp.
niehs. nih. gov/ ntp/ roc/ twelfth/ profiles/ Phenolphthalein. pdf)
[10] Chemical Book (http:/ / www. chemicalbook. com/ ChemicalProductProperty_EN_CB4141228. htm)
[11] . ( 1977). " . -". .
. (2 ).
[12] U.S. National Criminal Justice Reference Service (pdf) (http:/ / www. ncjrs. gov/ pdffiles1/ pr/ 160880_unit_2. pdf)
[13] David A. Katz (2002) (PDF). CHEMISTRY IN THE TOY STORE (http:/ / www. chymist. com/ Toystore part3. pdf) (6 ). David A.
Katz. . 11/7/2011.
[14] June K. Dunnick and James R. Hailey, Phenolphthalein Exposure Causes Multiple Carcinogenic Effects in Experimental Model Systems
Journal of Cancer research (http:/ / cancerres. aacrjournals. org/ content/ 56/ 21/ 4922. abstract)
[15]

[16] a = 210-10
[17] . - . ( 1993). '2 (16 ). .
[18] . / HCl / NaOH
. / NH3 (Kb = 1,810-5)
CH3COOH (Ka = 1,810-5), pH / , , 7.
pH / 7
pH 7 ( 25C)
[19] 100C 8,1 - 9,0 (http:/ / www. titrations. info/ acid-base-titration-indicators)
[20] HCN (Ka = 410-10) 3 (Kb = 1,810-5) Kb > Ka
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lK3FzP0gSws&
feature=related)
. (http://
users.hellasnet.gr/spangs/AnalysiTrofimon.htm)
( - ) (http://users.sch.gr/konal/oxea/6/
6.htm)
ACID-BASE INDICATORS (http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/acidbaseeqia/indicators.html)
Acid-base titration. Indicators preparation (http://www.titrations.info/
acid-base-titration-indicators-preparation)]
titrations (http://www.titrations.info/)
Acid-base titration End point indicators (http://www.titrations.info/acid-base-titration-indicators)
1147

()
1148
1149
1150

Roche
(K, , , ),
.

/ .
, ,
. , ,
, .
,
,
m v .
.
.
.

, F .

dr,
dv/dt . dr/dt ( )
. ,
()
0 ( r0) v ( r),

m v (1/2)mv2. '
:
, , ,
.
,
( )
. , m=m0 (
m0 ),

( ) v :
1151
1152
(m-m0)
.
vc, .
v=0 v=c .
, (v/c<<1),
. , x (1-x2)-1/2
1+(1/2)x2, x=v/c

.

.
, ( )
. - ,

([K,p]=0), . ,
p (
)
K p
p2/2m :
, ,
(p=0) (x=).
,

2 .
1153
Beiser, A. (2002). . . , .
, . (2009). . , .
1154

Roche
1155
, , (
), .
,
. , " " (..
) .. ,
" ", , ,
(.. ).
, "" .
,
,
,
:
F = , h =
. ,
, ,
, .
. ()
(
). ,
.
.
.
, ,
,
.

(22 1791 25 1867)

.
,
,
.

. (
)
,
,
.

Bunsen

.
O

,
. SI,
farad[1] .

1791 , .
( ).
, . 14
, 7 .
,
.
. , :
,

.
1812, , (Humphry
Davy) .
,
, .
1813 1815.
1156

1821 (Annals of Philosophy)

.
, .

: ,
.
1825 1833
, .
,

,
. ,
, ,
.
1821.

(
) 3 1821, .

, .
,
.
:
. ' ' ('magnetic field')
. ,

.
'' ,

. .
,
' ' ' '...
1157
1158
29 1831
,
.
:
,
(. ).
,
,
.

'' ,

''. ,

. ,
. ,
. ,
,
.

.

.
.

, ,
. (C2Cl6 C2Cl4)
.
. 1825, ,
. , .
.
,
. , ,
.
1159

.

. ,

. ,
.

.
(1861). ,

, .

(1797-1878).
[1] ,
, '' (faraday). ,
coulomb (1 mole
, 96485.3415 coulomb).

('The Chemical History of a Candle')
Detailed biography of Faraday (http://replay.web.archive.org/20090118175012/http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/

history/faraday.htm)
IEE biography of Michael Faraday (http://replay.web.archive.org/20070216111755/http://www.iee.org/
TheIEE/Research/Archives/Histories&Biographies/Faraday.cfm)
Faraday as a Discoverer by John Tyndall, Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1225)
(downloads)
The Christian Character of Michael Faraday (http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1991/PSCF6-91Eichman.
html)
Michael Faraday Directory (http://replay.web.archive.org/20080821021531/http://www.dmoz.org/

Kids_and_Teens/School_Time/Science/Physics/Physicists/Faraday,_Michael/)
Michael Faraday (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Michael_Faraday) Project Gutenberg
(downloads)
"Experimental Researches in Electricity" by Michael Faraday (http://rack1.ul.cs.cmu.edu/is/faraday/doc.
scn?fr=0&rp=http://rack1.ul.cs.cmu.edu/is/faraday/&pg=4) Original text with Biographical Introduction by
Professor John Tyndall, 1914, Everyman edition.
Video Podcast with Sir John Cadogan talking about Benzene since Faraday (http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/video/
index.rss)
1160
( ) .
1834 ,
"", (
) .[1]
.
.
, .

.
()
.
.

.
[1] Online (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=ion)
, '
' (
).

1962 W.M.O., ()
400-500 . ( )
, .
() .
.

, ,

. " "
. 24
, , ,
, .
, ,

, , .. .

1966.

.

() .

, ,
.
D, E F.
D: () .
. 60-90 .
E: ( ). Kennely Heaviside. 100-150 .
.
.

.
F: () APLETON, ( !),
200-300 . F

" ".
D, E F
.
.
() .
, ,
" " .
,
,
.
1161
, 80-1000 ,
,
.
[1]
[1] http:/ / www. iono. noa. gr/
,
, .
(
) () .
,
.

: H+
: Li+
: Na+
: K+
: Cs+
: Be2+
: Mg2+
: Ca2+
: Ba2+
: Al3+
: Ag+
: Zn2+
1162
1163

: H : F : Cl : Br : I : O2 : S2 : N3 : P3-

(II) : Fe2+
(III) : Fe3+
(I) : Cu+
(II) : Cu2+
(II) : Co2+
(III) : Co3+
(II) : Sn2+
(IV) : Sn4+
(II) : Pb2+
(IV) : Pb4+
() : Hg2+
() : Hg22+*
() Hg2
ion Monoatomic ion
[2]
[1]
GNU FDL CC-BY-SA 3.0 . (ion / ).
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Monoatomic
[1]
1164
" "
" ".
, .
.

, [1] o.
:
Arrhenius (1887)
Arrhenius "
". ' : x
( = ) ,
(+).
52+, 73+, 94+ 3+ ( )
:
1) HCl H+ + Cl-, (HCl) .
2) HNO3 H+ + NO3-. (3) .
3) CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+. CH3COOH .
Arrhenius
. , ( )
.
Brnsted Lowry (1923)

:

'

().
(
)

, .
Arrhenius
Brnsted - Lowry.
.
1 : CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO- + H3O+ 2 : CH3COOH +
Brnsted
NH3 CH3COO- + NH4+
Lowry
+.
.
:
1165
1) : HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-, HCl () + 2
( . ). HCl Cl- ( HCl Cl-) 2 H3O+ ( H2O - H3O+).
2) H2SO4 + H2O HSO4- + H3O+. - : H2SO4-HSO4- H3O+-H2O.
3) NH3 + HCl NH4+ + Cl-. - : NH4+-NH3 HCl-Cl-.
4) 2 + 2 3+ + -. - : 2-- 3+-2.
5) HS-[2] + H2O S-2 + H3O+. - : HS--S-2 H3O+-H2O
, Brnsted-Lowry,
.
, 2, 4, .
.
Lewis (1923)
:

(.
)
().
.

(- )

.
[3]
.
Lewis,

.
[4] :
:NH3 + H+ NH4+
1. H+ + :NH3 NH4+.
+ 3.
2. CaO: + SO3 Ca:SO3
SO3 CaO.

: SO3 + O2- SO42-.
3. PtCl2 + 2 :NH3 (H3N)2PtCl2,
(F3B) (NH3) Lewis
3
(:)
Lewis PtCl2 Lewis.
4. F3B + :NH3 F3B:NH3. BF3 Lewis 3 .
5. PO4-3 + H2O HPO4-2 + OH-. PO4-3 2 .
xA
( SO3, N2O5 ..). , Lewis

.
1166
, , Lewis
,
. , - . ,
, .

[5]
:
1. (.. HNO3) (..
CH3COOH)
.
2. , (.. H2SO4),
, (.. 2S).
3. , ,
, .
: (HClO4), (3),
(HCl), (HBr), (),
(H2SO4, ' ) .. HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-.
..CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO- + H3O+.
4. Pearson (1963) Lewis
.
,

d .
H+, Na+, K+, RC+O, R+, BF3 ..
Cu+, Ag+, Hg+ ..
5. ( ), (.. HCl),
( ), (.. H3PO4).
6. -
.. - (H3BO3),
- (H4SiO4) ..
7. - - .. -
(H2SiO3) ..
8.
.. (H2SiF6) ..
9. - ( ) .. (HNO4) ..
10. ..
(H2S2O3), (H3PO2S2) ..
11.
.. (H8Si3O10) ..
1167

:
.
.
.. 2HCl + Zn
ZnCl2 + H2 . ( = ).
(, , , , ).
: + + .
: : 3+ + - 22.
: NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O.
: :2H+ + 2e H2 [6] .
: 2HCl + CaCO3 CaCl2 + H2O +
CO2.
0 pH < 7 25C.
, ' 100 %
w/w, "-". -
Lewis .. , SbF5,
Brnsted-Lowry (HF).

F-, Cl-, Br-, I-, S2-, CN-,
"-",
( -) " " .. HCl , 2S
, HCN , 3 , 2SO4 , H3PO4 ..
: ( -xxxx-
)
HCl ( ), HF ( ), HI ( ),
HBr ( ) H2S, HCN ( ).
:
H3PO4, H2SO4, H2SO3. HNO3, HNO2.
-, - -
.. H4SnO4 , H2S2O7 , HPO3 - ..

, ,
C-C -1.
.. , , , , ..).
I.U.P.A.C..
: HCOOH,
CH3COOH, C2H2O4,
C C6H8O6), () ..
1168

[7] :
) " + " .. H2 +
Cl2 2HCl. H2S : H2 + S H2S.
) F2Cl2Br2I2S.
" + + " .. F2 + 2HI
2HF + I2, Cl2 + H2S 2HCl + S.
) " + + "
.. PCl5 + 4H2O H3PO4 + 5HCl.
:
) " + " .. P2O5 + H2O H3PO4
) 3 " + 3 + 2 + 2"
.. P + 5HNO3 H3PO4 + 5NO2 + H2O
( ) :
) " + + ".
" " .. CaF2 + H2SO4
CaSO4[8] + 2HF
- -
HF
(,
, )
HCl
, , , , 2, Cl2, H2S, CO2

(NaCl)
HBr
HI
H2S
, ,

H2SO4
, ,
, , , ,
HNO3
, ,
H3PO4
H33
, ,
1169
[1] .. Lux-Flood .
[2] HS- 1o H2S : H2S + H2O HS- + H3O+
.. NaHS Na+ + HS[3] (coordination compounds)
[4] :
[5]
[6] =
[7] X = . , , ,
[8] =
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
.. " ", 1 2, 1981.

., . " ", 14, 1984.
., . " ", 1976.
. . " ", 1986.
. . " ", 1986.

:--, 1991.
8. . . ", ', -- ",
1985.
9. . " ", 1986.
10. . " ", 1986.
-
-

1170
.
.
, ( )
.
: " + + ".
" " ( )
. , ,
, , ,
, , .

, , ..
.

.

" " " ".

( ),
, .
(1887)
(Arrhenius) "
". ' ,
() (.
"") (-)
(.. NH4+).
, M(OH)x = x =
. x 1, 2 3. ' , ""
, "". .. , Ca(OH)2, Fe(OH)3 ..
(3).
(-2). ' ,
, ""
( )
( ).
, ,
. ..
:
1171
NaOH Na+ + OH-.
:
Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2OH 3 :
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH (CH3NH2) :
CH3NH2 + H2O CH3NH3+ + OH-.
Brnsted Lowry (1923)

'

().

" ".

1 : CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO- + H3O+ 2 : CH3COOH +
, . ,
NH3 CH3COO- + NH4+

Brnsted-Lowry - . ,
( .. Na2O) O2-
. .
Brnsted-Lowry .
:
O2- + H3O+ OH + OH
3+ ( ) 2-.
- 3+ - - - 2-.
:
NH3 + HCl NH4+ + Cl HCl 3 - NH4+ - NH3
HCl - Cl-.
.
, 2 ( Brnsted Lowry) .
[1] .
[2] .
1172
Lewis (1923)
,

(.
)
().
(F3B) (NH3) lewis

()

. .
, M(OH)x, (.. CaO) 3
Lewis (-),
(2-) () ( )
:
:
Cu2+ + 4 :NH3 [Cu(NH3)4]2+

BF3 + :NH3 F3B:NH3
3 Lewis (: = )
:
SiF4 + 2 :F SiF62 F .

:
1. (.. , NaOH)
(.. , CH3NH2)
.
2. (.. , KOH),
(.. , 3).
3. , ,
. (
) .. KOH K+ + OH-
.. NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-
4. Pearson (1963) Lewis .

,

d . OH-, F-, RO-, Cl- [3] .. RS-, I-, CN-, R-, C6H6 ..
5. - (.. , 3 ..), (
- .. a(OH)2).
6. . .
NaOH, , a(OH)2, 3 . Ca(OH)2[4] .
1173
. '
. .
.. , Mn(OH)2,
: Mn(OH)2(aq) Mn2+(aq) + OH-(aq). Mn(OH)2
: Mn(OH)2(s)
Mn(OH)2(aq). [5] .

( )
( ) :
) .
) .
) .
) : +
+ .
(
Arrhenius)
:
3+ + - 22
: NaOH + HCl NaCl +

H2
) , :
2OH- 2e + 2OH H2O + 1/2 O2
) 7 < pH 14 25C.

( Arrhenius) ()x :
:
NaOH ( ).
KOH ( ).
Ca(OH)2 . .
Fe(OH)2 () ( +2).
Fe(OH)3 () ( +3).
Al(OH)3 ...
3 .

(I.U.P.A.C).
1174

, ,
.
)
: + + . .. Na + H2O NaOH + 1/2 H2.
) : + .. CaO +
H2O Ca(OH)2.
) 3 : N2 +
3H2 23.
) NaOH NaCl KCl .
) " + + " ..
K2CO3 + CaCO3 CaCO3 + 2KOH
BaO + 2NH4Br BaBr2 + 2NH3 + H2O.
, , ,
, ,
NaOH
, ,
Ca(OH)2
, ,
[1] IUPAC : " (
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
) "
". .
( )
, .
R = CH2+1- = 1,2,3,...
. .
s = , aq =
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
.. " ", 1 2, 1981.

., . " ", 14, 1984.
., . " ", 1976.
. . " ", 1986.
. . " ", 1986.
Morrison R. T., Boyd R. N. " " 1,2,3,
:--, 1991.
8. . . ", ', -- ",
1985.
1175
9. . " ", 1986.

10. . " ", 1986.

NH4+.
18,05 gmol-1
(3)
+ + :NH3 4+
()
.
(+).
(NH4+)

:
4+ + : + 3
,

3+ + 3 2 + 4+
pH . pH
( ) :
( ). pH
( ) :
.

. , ( )
[HCl (g)] ,
, ,
, .
, (+) (Na+)
(NH4HCO3), (NH4Cl) (NH4NO3).
.
.
2 NH4+ + 2 e- 2 NH3 + H2
.
[1] .
[2] .
1176

(
), , ,
.
.
. ,
, ,
. ,
,
[3] .

[4] .
[1] Pseudo-binary compounds (http:/ / www. hull. ac. uk/ chemistry/ intro_inorganic/ Chap9. htm)
[2] "Ammonium Salts" (http:/ / www. vias. org/ encyclopedia/ chem_ammonia_salts. html). VIAS Encyclopedia. .
[3] Campbell, Neil A.; Jane B. Reece (2002). "44". Biology (6th edition ). San Francisco, California: Pearson Education, Inc..
.937938. ISBN 0-8053-6624-5.
[4] Ammonia Toxicity (http:/ / www. emedicine. com/ emerg/ TOPIC846. HTM)
Ammonium (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Ammonium)
/ (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Ammonium)).
1177
, (hydroxide),
()
(OH-). () .

.
(LiOH), (NaOH), (KOH), (RbOH) (CsOH),
,
, .. ,
.
, Ca(OH)2,
.

.

TlOH.

-
[1] :
[2] ,
" "
[3] '.
Pauling :[4]

F > O > Cl,N > Br > I > S > C > P > As > Sb > B > Bi > H > Si > Al >
[5]
. ,
[6]
.
.
[7] ( "..")
:
.
.

.
:
1178
1. (CaF2) Ca2+ F,
.. = +2 .. = 1.
2. , ,

(C) () C,
" " 4, +1.
.. C 4 +1.
(CO2),
, ()
(C). .. = 2 .. C = +4.
3. (. ,
2), ..

.

, ..

. , ()
:
. = 0. ..
(2), .. = 0 . (3) 0.
(F) .. = -1.
() . = -2 [8] ..
= -1 F2 . = +2. .. 2 .. = -2,
(22) .. = -1.
() .. = +1. .. =
1. .. 2S .. = +1, (NaH) .. = 1.
.. [9] . 1, 2 13
.. +1, +2 +3.
..
( F) ..
, , .. (. Cl
NaCl, PCl5 HCl . = 1)
.
.. . .. .. + = +1, .. S2 = 2.
.. 0. .. 2
2.(+1) + (2) = 0 .. = +1 .. = 2.
.. .
.. (2) + (+1) = 1.
4 +8. .
, ..
.. .. .. (Fe) Fe3O4
8/3 . Fe3O4 ,
() (FeO) () (Fe2O3). , ..
1179
Li, K, Na, Ag +1
Mg, Ba, Ca, Zn, Ni, Co
+2
[10]
Pb +2, (+4)
Mn +2 (+7)
Al, Bi +3
Cr +2, (+3, +6)
Au +3, (+1)
[11]
Cu, Hg
+1, +2
Fe +2, +3
Sn, Pt +2, +4
F -1
H +1, (-1)
Cl, Br, I -1, +1, +3, +5, +7
O -2
S -2, +4, +6
N -3, -2, -1, +1, +2, +3, +4,
+5
P, As, Sb -3, +3, +5
C -4, -3, -2, -1, +1, +2, +3,
+4
Si -4, +4
B -3, +3
:
1. S H2SO3.
.. = +1, .. = -2. .. S = x. : 2(+1) + x + 3(-2) = 0 2
+ x - 6 = 0 x = +4. .. S +4.
2. Cr Al2(Cr2O7)3.
.. Al = +3, .. = -2. .. Cr = a. : 2(+3) + 6a +
21(-2) = 0 6 + 6a - 42 = 0 a = +6. .. Cr +6.
3. (3-) :
.. = -2. .. = . : + 3(-2) = -1 - 6 = -1 =
+5. .. +5.

(C) . ,
.. , .. C.
C [12] , .. '
.. .. . .. C
C2H6 +3. .. C :
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http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ Constants/ index. html
http:/ / chemlab. pc. maricopa. edu/ periodic/
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Webelements.com [1]
[1] http:/ / www. webelements. com
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: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2946494 : *, Alqualond, ArielGlenn, Dada, Dead3y3, Diderot, E2m, Egmontaz, Fefeli, Kalogeropoulos,
Konsnos, Kupirijo, Lemur12, Leonariso, Lucinos, MARKELLOS, Ntozis, Song1for, Suisui, Templar52, Tthelaw, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Vyruss, ., 30
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2979208 : *, CeeKay, Dada, Dead3y3, Drpagel, EleftheriosKosmas, Excellent, Isabella,
Kalogeropoulos, Leonariso, MARKELLOS, Templar52, Tot12, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, , , 28
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2797070 : Atlantia, Dimitrisss, MARKELLOS, S. Cruz, Statr95, Templar52
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2813148 : Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras, , 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2918628 : Badseed, Kostisl, Templar52
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2877611 : Atlantia, Isabella, Kupirijo, Metaldoctor, Metalman, Pumpie, Templar52, , 5

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1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2759920 : Kostisl, Lemur12, Templar52, Vanakaris
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2889689 : Biller25, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Templar52, , 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2979199 : Loveless, Lucinos, Ravenous, Song1for, 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2903593 : Badseed, CommonsDelinker, Dada, Dead3y3, FocalPoint, Geraki, Neagoras, Tthelaw, 5
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2927595 : Alexander Gerashchenko, Alqualond, AndreasJS, Ank, Badseed,

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., 22
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2914590 : AndreasJS, Avacalop, Badseed, CubicStar, Dada, Dead3y3, Diu, Fefeli, Gavrilis,
Gepsimos, Harkoz, Kafrileontas, Kostisl, Lemur12, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Patriot8790, Ravenous, V-astro, VJSC263IO, Xhmikos, 29
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2295074 : Avacalop, Badseed, MARKELLOS, Ravenous, Templar52
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2975190 : 23x2, Alaniaris, Ank, Aphaia, Archelaos, Atlantia, Badseed, CES1596, Chggr, Dada, Dionysus,
Divineale, E2m, EleftheriosKosmas, Ferengi, FocalPoint, Geonikos, Geraki, Gf uip, Jorunn, KAKTOS, Kalogeropoulos, Katranid, Knop92, Kostisl, Kriton, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Mits1986,
Nataly8, Pumpie, Song1for, Stravon, Suisui, Templar52, Tony Esopi, Ttzavaras, Wutsje, , , , , 53
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2958168 : Aspiotis, Cruxx, Dipa1965, Egmontaz, EleftheriosKosmas, Geraki, JohnMad, KAKTOS,
Kalogeropoulos, Kostisl, Loveless, Lucinos, Murtasa, Nikolas vk, Pumpie, Pyraechmes, Seagull.Stefanos, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, Vlasis211977, , , 6
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2860314 : Amalgam, Atlantia, Juckelbert, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, V-astro

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2966996 : Amalgam, Atlantia, CommonsDelinker, Geraki, Kalogeropoulos, Kostisl, MARKELLOS,
NuclearWarfare, Ttzavaras, V-astro, Veron, , 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2855097 : Atlantia, Badseed, Diderot, FocalPoint, Gepsimos, Geraki, Kalogeropoulos, Kostisl,
Lemur12, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Ravenous, Templar52, Tony Esopi, 5
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2827754 : Atlantia, Badseed, Kostisl, Lemur12, Loveless,
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2954413 : Atlantia, Costas78, Giannisf, Tony Esopi, Ttzavaras
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2960214 : Amalgam, AndreasJS, Avacalop, CeeKay, Dada, Dionyziz, Diu, Dlomen, Dr Moshe, Egmontaz,
FocalPoint, Geraki, Harkoz, Katerina kapkidi, Kostisl, Lemur12, MARKELLOS, ManosHacker, Miltonas, Nataly8, Tony Esopi, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, , 28
() : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2951785 : Lassner, Ttzavaras
() : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2863610 : Cleanthis, Nataly8, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos
() : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2742701 : Lassner
() : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2638104 : *, BlackFairy988, Dead3y3, Diu, Ferengi, Nataly8, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, Veron,
, 12
() : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2771574 : Atlantia, Ttzavaras
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2818913 : Alaniaris, Costas78, MARKELLOS, Pazoulis, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, Xhmikos, 4
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2977000 : *, Alaniaris, Badseed, FocalPoint, MARKELLOS, Nikandros, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Tzatziki,

Xhmikos, , 9
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2898749 : Egmontaz, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, 7
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2976702 : Biller25, Templar52, Xhmikos
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2757546 : Alaniaris, ArielGlenn, Badseed, Barbar, CeeKay, Costas78, CubicStar, Dada, Dead3y3, Diderot,
FocalPoint, Gepsimos, Loveless, ManosHacker, Pan25, Ttzavaras, V-astro, , , 22
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2965177 : Amalgam, Badseed, Egmontaz, Entropy1963, Giannisf, Harkoz, MARKELLOS, Mahmudmasri,
Marinos el, NikiAnna, Tony Esopi, Ttzavaras, V-astro, , , 5
- : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2970914 : Amalgam, C messier, CeeKay, Dead3y3, , , 9
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2961667 : Amalgam, Badseed, Christos Vittoratos, Dada, Dai, Dimitrisss, Geomanjo, Giannisf, Kostisl,
Loveless, Tony Esopi, Ttzavaras, , , 25
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2759876 : Badseed, Christos Vittoratos, Kostisl, Lemur12, Loveless, MARKELLOS, V-astro, 7
1185

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2831399 : AaThinker, Badseed, Dada, Egmontaz, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Matia.gr, Sisyphos23,
SkarmoutsosV, 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2873356 : Costas78, Dipa1965, Kupirijo, MARKELLOS, Sotkil, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos,
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2898602 : Alaniaris, ArielGlenn, Badseed, CeeKay, Costas78, Dead3y3, Diderot, Divineale, E2m, Egmontaz,
Geraki, Jake V, Kalogeropoulos, Klidge, Kostisl, Lemur12, Lou, Loveless, MARKELLOS, ManosHacker, Mik, Ntozis, Pplatis, Pumpie, Stavros.Dal, Templar52, Terring, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris,
Vchorozopoulos, , , ., 32
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2926986 : Akeramop, Badseed, Costas78, CubicStar, Dead3y3, Egmontaz, Geraki, Jake V, Kostisl, Loveless,
MARKELLOS, Pumpie, Song1for, StefanosKozanis, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, ., 7
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2978058 : Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Geraki, Jake V, Kalogeropoulos, Kostisl, Loveless, Morgatek, Templar52, Teo
024, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, ., 5
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2202577 : Atlantia, Costas78, MARKELLOS, Patriot8790, Ttzavaras, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2871715 : Atlantia, Patriot8790, Vchorozopoulos
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2603418 : Atlantia, MARKELLOS, Nataly8, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2701336 : Atlantia, Costas78, Patriot8790, Xhmikos, , .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2706265 : Alectorides, Armando-Martin, Vchorozopoulos
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2879233 : CeeKay, Costas78, Dada, Dead3y3, Geraki, Jake V, Kostisl, Lobillo, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras,
, 12
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2883492 : Akeramop, Costas78, Dead3y3, Egmontaz, Geraki, Incnis Mrsi, Jake V, Kostisl, Lemur12, Loveless,
MARKELLOS, Murtasa, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, Vchorozopoulos, Veron, Xhmikos, , ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2905501 : Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Geraki, Jake V, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS, ManosHacker,
Murtasa, Statr95, Templar52, TetaBilianou, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos, ., 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2970942 : Akeramop, Costas78, Dead3y3, FocalPoint, Geraki, Jake V, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Murtasa,
Nickas14, Nikosguard, Purodha, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos, ., 10
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2968156 : Atlantia, Badseed, Costas78, Dead3y3, Divineale, Egmontaz, FocalPoint, Geraki, Jake V, Kostisl,
Lemur12, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Murtasa, Purodha, Sotkil, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos, ., 5
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2944407 : CommonsDelinker, Costas78, Dead3y3, Geraki, Harrygouvas, Jake V, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS,
Murtasa, Temeteronix, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos, , ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2879096 : Atlantia, Baronnet, Biller25, Costas78, Dead3y3, Flyax, Geraki, Jake V, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS,
Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, ., 5
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2879086 : 96679247, Atlantia, Badseed, Costas78, Dead3y3, Gepsimos, Geraki, Kalogeropoulos, Kostisl, Loveless,
MARKELLOS, Templar52, Vanakaris, , ., 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2912762 : ArielGlenn, Biller25, Dead3y3, FocalPoint, Jake V, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras,
Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos, , , 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2933548 : Alchemist-hp, Costas78, Dead3y3, FocalPoint, Jake V, Kalogeropoulos, KostasG, Kostisl, MARKELLOS,
Metallos, Purbo T, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Veron, Xhmikos, Xoristzatziki, , ., 9
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2879670 : Amalgam, Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Egmontaz, Kostisl, Loveless, Purbo T, Steliosft, Templar52,
Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, , 8
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2949704 : Atlantia, Badseed, Costas78, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Pvasiliadis, Rousodim, Sotkil, Templar52, Ttzavaras,
Vchorozopoulos, Veron, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2953012 : Atlantia, Biller25, Costas78, Dead3y3, Egmontaz, Ferengi, FocalPoint, Kostisl, Loveless, Propagitas,
Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, , ., 4
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2624571 : Jaguarlaser, MARKELLOS, Templar52
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2879546 : Badseed, Costas78, Dead3y3, Harrygouvas, Iraklis2007, Jake V, KostasG, Kostisl, Loveless, Runden2011,
Templar52, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, ., 10
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2906568 : Atlantia, Biller25, Bobsfougarakis, Costas78, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Magioladitis, Templar52, Ttzavaras,
, ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2945875 : Atlantia, Badseed, Biller25, Costas78, Dead3y3, Gepsimos, Geraki, ImLovingThat, Knop92, Kostisl,
MARKELLOS, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos, ., 4
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2845156 : Atlantia, Biller25, Costas78, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Skotidas, Sotkil, Templar52, Ttzavaras,
., 9
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2828162 : Archaeodontosaurus, Atlantia, Ttzavaras, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2708024 : Atlantia, MARKELLOS, Patriot8790, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2967780 : Drpagel, Giorgakis, Kalogeropoulos, Lucinos, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2941281 : Alchemist-hp, Badseed, Biller25, Dead3y3, Dipa1965, FocalPoint, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS,
Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, , , ., 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2933558 : Alchemist-hp, Christos Vittoratos, Dead3y3, Gf uip, Kostisl, Loveless, Syfra, Templar52, Ttzavaras,
Xhmikos, 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2942274 : Alchemist-hp, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Tiyoringo, Ttzavaras, , , ., 1

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2945382 : Alchemist-hp, Biller25, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Nataly8, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos,
, , ., 8
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2951641 : Alchemist-hp, Atlantia, Biller25, Costas78, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Tempora, Ttzavaras, 1

1186

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2964926 : Atlantia, Biller25, Costas78, Dead3y3, Dipa1965, Egmontaz, Gepsimos, Kostisl, Loveless, Purbo T,
Purodha, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, ., , 7
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2975430 : Atlantia, Biller25, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Ttzavaras, , 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2708495 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Lemur12, Templar52, Ttzavaras, , 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2965108 : ArgGeo, Atlantia, Dead3y3, Efthimiopoulos, FocalPoint, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS, ManosHacker,
Nataly8, Purbo T, Purodha, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos, , , ., 16
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2836117 : *, Atlantia, Biller25, Dead3y3, Evi, Kostisl, MARKELLOS, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris,
, 8
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2879849 : Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, GeorgeLydiotis, Kostisl, Sotkil, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, .,
1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2950700 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Dipa1965, Galopoulos, Geraki, Giachaforgr, Kostisl, MARKELLOS, Purbo T,
Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, ., 5
( ) : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2832898 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras, ., 7
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2947388 : Atlantia, Badseed, Dead3y3, Egmontaz, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras, ., 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2852757 : Alaniaris, Atlantia, Costas78, David12345678, Dead3y3, Jake V, Kalogeropoulos, Kostisl, Loveless,
MARKELLOS, Matesi1976, Statr95, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, ., 9
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2950547 : Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Fotigna, Kostisl, Ttzavaras, ., 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2728086 : ArgGeo, Atlantia, Biller25, Costas78, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras, ., 1

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2855046 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Ttzavaras, ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2776017 : Alchemist-hp, Atlantia, Dead3y3, FocalPoint, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Templar52, Ttzavaras,
Xhmikos, , ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2823727 : Badseed, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Lahanoulis, Loveless, Ttzavaras, Veron, 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2970945 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Egmontaz, FocalPoint, Geraki, Kostisl, ManosHacker, Nataly8, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos,
., 5
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2962375 : Alchemist-hp, Christos Vittoratos, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras,
., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2766600 : Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Q43, Ttzavaras, , , ., 3

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2969470 : Alchemist-hp, Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, , 1

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2933494 : Costas78, Dead3y3, JAn Dudk, Kostisl, Loveless, Materialscientist, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, , 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2954713 : C messier, Cleanthis, Costas78, Dead3y3, Geraki, JaadesA, Kostisl, MARKELLOS, ManosHacker,
Nikosguard, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, , , 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2958323 : Atlantia, Chrysalifourfour, Costas78, Dead3y3, Dipa1965, Egmontaz, Jake V, Kostisl, Loveless, Purodha,
Templar52, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, , , ., 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2978258 : Alchemist-hp, Ank, Atlantia, Badseed, Dead3y3, Fefeli, Kostisl, Templar52, ,
, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2883331 : ArielGlenn, Atlantia, C messier, Cleanthis, Dead3y3, Jake V, Kostisl, Nataly8, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos,
Xhmikos, , ., 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2909398 : Atlantia, Christos Vittoratos, Dead3y3, Diderot, Jake V, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras,
Vanakaris, , , ., 5
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2835699 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, FocalPoint, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Ttzavaras, ., 6
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2727184 : Atlantia, CommonsDelinker, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, ., 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2972224 : Dead3y3, Gio111, Kostisl, Loveless, Statr95, Templar52, Ttzavaras, , ., 8
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2954838 : Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Fotigna, Kostisl, Loveless, Poime, Ttzavaras, .

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2823576 : ArgGeo, Atlantia, Dada, Dead3y3, Kadros, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras, , ., 3

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2790024 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Tony K, Ttzavaras, ., 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2796791 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, MARKELLOS, Magioladitis, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, .,
2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2820272 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Templar52, Ttzavaras, ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2736309 : Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Lucinos, Templar52, ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2716984 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2735919 : Alchemist-hp, Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Teo 024, , ., 1

1187

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2780086 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras, , ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2780509 : Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras, ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2825916 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Gio111, Kostisl, Templar52, ., 1

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2782306 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2789210 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Murtasa, Templar52
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2908118 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Murtasa, Templar52, Ttzavaras, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2908137 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Murtasa, Templar52, ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2692697 : Alchemist-hp, Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Murtasa, Templar52, Ttzavaras, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2833754 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Murtasa, Templar52, Ttzavaras, , .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2977704 : Alchemist-hp, Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Murtasa, Ttzavaras, ., 5
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2979234 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Ttzavaras, ., 1

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2956735 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, FocalPoint, Kostisl, Loveless, Ttzavaras, , 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2837135 : ArgGeo, Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Nataly8, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Wutsje, ., 15

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2933472 : Alchemist-hp, Atlantia, CommonsDelinker, Costas78, Dead3y3, Diu, Geraki, Kostisl, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos,
., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2933483 : Alchemist-hp, Costas78, Dead3y3, Diamond, Divineale, FocalPoint, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS,
Nataly8, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, , 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2952507 : Christos Vittoratos, CommonsDelinker, Costas78, Dada, Dead3y3, Diu, FocalPoint, Kostisl, MARKELLOS,
Pumpie, Ttzavaras, Veron, Xhmikos, , 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2955361 : Alchemist-hp, Atlantia, Badseed, Costas78, Dead3y3, Efthimiopoulos, Flashdart2, Ju, Kostisl,
Lucinos, MARKELLOS, Meidei, MrBoboCombo, Nataly8, Nikosguard, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, , ., 10
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2958362 : *, Amalgam, Atlantia, Badseed, Dead3y3, Egmontaz, FocalPoint, JinJian, Kostisl, Loveless,
Nataly8, Necoara, Purbo T, Rmih, Svlioras, Ttzavaras, V-astro, , , ., 14
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2922751 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Dimkon98, Egmontaz, Evangelie1989, Jake V, Kostisl, Nataly8, Templar52, Tony
Esopi, Ttzavaras, ., 23
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2188027 : Nataly8, Patriot8790, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2272102 : Atlantia, Costas78, Patriot8790, Ttzavaras, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2381744 : Nataly8, Ttzavaras,
() : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1587530 : Templar52,
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2943655 : Alaniaris, Atlantia, Dada, Dead3y3, Dipa1965, Kostisl, Loveless, Sotkil, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos,
., 4
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2971315 : Atlantia, Badseed, Chrimpa, Costas78, Dead3y3, FocalPoint, Kostisl, Purodha, Templar52, Ttzavaras,
Xhmikos, ., 14
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2908924 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Ttzavaras, ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2823920 : Alchemist-hp, Atlantia, Dead3y3, Diamond, Geraki, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras, .,
2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2975028 : Atlantia, CeeKay, CommonsDelinker, Costas78, Dada, Dead3y3, FocalPoint, Geraki, Jake V,
Kalogeropoulos, Kostisl, Lucinos, Ttzavaras, ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2821206 : Atlantia, Badseed, Celestine, CommonsDelinker, Costas78, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Kriton, Loveless,
Ttzavaras, ., 4
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2978306 : Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Geraki, Jake V, Kostisl, Loveless, Pacificgilly1992, Ttzavaras,
Vchorozopoulos, , ., 14
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2841874 : ArgGeo, Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Diamond, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Ttzavaras,
Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos, ., 3
() : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2692452 : Atlantia, CommonsDelinker, Dada, Dead3y3, Diamond, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS,
Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, Xhmikos, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2837515 : Atlantia, CeeKay, Dead3y3, Fotigna, Kostisl, Loveless, Murtasa, Q43, Ttzavaras, ., 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2799441 : Alchemist-hp, Atlantia, Costas78, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Loveless, Murtasa, Ttzavaras,
Vanakaris, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2833846 : Ank, ArgGeo, Atlantia, Dead3y3, E2m, Ekton, Geraki, Kostisl, MARKELLOS, Nataly8, Syfra, Ttzavaras,
Vanakaris, Xhmikos, ., 7
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2778448 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Fotigna, Kostisl, Murtasa, ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2978285 : Atlantia, Badseed, C messier, CommonsDelinker, CubicStar, Dead3y3, Dipa1965, Egmontaz,
HarDNox, Kostisl, Murtasa, Nataly8, Templar52, Ttzavaras, VJSC263IO, Vanakaris, Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos, ., 4
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2692319 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Murtasa, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2910795 : Atlantia, C messier, CommonsDelinker, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Murtasa, Ttzavaras, .
1188

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2692040 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Murtasa, Templar52, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2692266 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Murtasa, Templar52, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2826125 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kalogeropoulos, Kostisl, Loveless, Mmsoft, Murtasa, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos,
., 9
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2692062 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Murtasa, , .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2692075 : Atlantia, Christos Vittoratos, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Murtasa, Richiski, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2818357 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, Murtasa, Nataly8, ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2911259 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Murtasa, Sotkil, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2970407 : Atlantia, CeeKay, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, , ., 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2824377 : Atlantia, CeeKay, Diamond, Geraki, Kostisl, Loveless, Ttzavaras, , ., 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2905262 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Geraki, Gf uip, Kostisl, Loveless, Nerantzoula, Ttzavaras, ., 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2903289 : Atlantia, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Murtasa, Ttzavaras, Xoristzatziki, ., 18
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2772981 : Atlantia, Badseed, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, ., 1

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2772960 : Atlantia, Celestine, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Ttzavaras, ., 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2975080 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Veron, ., 4
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2824787 : Atlantia, Badseed, Biller25, Celestine, Kostisl, Loveless, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2954938 : Atlantia, Biller25, Ferengi, Kostisl, Lemur12, Teo 024, Vchorozopoulos, ., 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2975095 : Atlantia, Badseed, Ferengi, FocalPoint, Kostisl, Loveless, Teo 024, Xhmikos, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2713198 : Atlantia, Badseed, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Teo 024, ., 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2975098 : Atlantia, CeeKay, Dada, Diamond, Kostisl, Loveless, , ., 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2975102 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Loveless, .

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2691836 : Atlantia, Biller25, Dead3y3, Egmontaz, Geraki, K sal 15, Kostisl, Loveless, Ttzavaras, ,
., 5
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2714140 : Atlantia, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras, , ., 5

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2854687 : Badseed, Biller25, Diamond, K sal 15, Kostisl, Loveless, Purodha, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos,
., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2952976 : Alaniaris, Amalgam, CeeKay, Dada, Diderot, Exc, FocalPoint, Giorgakis, Klidge, Loveless, Lucinos,
MARKELLOS, Nataly8, Odysseus nemo, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos, , , 13
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2859430 : Atlantia, Badseed, Dead3y3, Drpagel, FocalPoint, Geraki, Templar52, V-astro, 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2768749 : Badseed, Ferengi, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Xhmikos

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2740373 : Atlantia, Badseed, Biller25, FocalPoint, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2900863 : FocalPoint, K sal 15, Kostisl, Pogie, Templar52, Ttzavaras, VJSC263IO, ., 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2796050 : Dead3y3, Geraki, HarDNox, Kostisl, Loveless, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, Wizard scr, .
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2933825 : Biller25, FocalPoint, Kostisl, Sokopa, Templar52, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2969828 : *, Alaniaris, Ank, Atlantia, Badseed, CeeKay, Dead3y3, Egmontaz, FocalPoint, Gepsimos,
Kostisl, Pumpie, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Wikiphysicsgr, Zarkos, 11
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2850383 : Dead3y3, Kostisl, Murtasa, Templar52, 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2976525 : Badseed, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2975901 : Dead3y3, FocalPoint, K sal 15, Kostisl, Nikandros, Templar52, Ttzavaras, V-astro, ., 5

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2951815 : Arylius, Atlantia, Badseed, Biller25, Dead3y3, FocalPoint, Inspirus, Kostisl, Ravenous, Templar52,
Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, Vchorozopoulos, 4
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2909403 : Amalgam, Atlantia, Badseed, Dada, Dead3y3, Diderot, Elefand, Gepsimos, Geraki, Loveless, Lucinos,
Mmsoft, Nakos2208, Ntozis, Papadopc, Pumpie, Ttzavaras, 7
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2878053 : Amalgam, Andre Engels, Badseed, Dada, Gepsimos, Lucinos, Mmsoft, Ntozis, Papadopc, 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2968097 : Amalgam, ArielGlenn, Badseed, Biller25, Dada, Ekton, Elia, Gepsimos, Kostisl, Loveless, Lucinos,
ManosHacker, Omiros123, Planodios, Q43, Templar52, Vanakaris, Vchorozopoulos, Wthered, Xx22xx, , 7
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2950835 : CeeKay, FocalPoint, Geraki, Kalogeropoulos, Kostisl, Loveless, Templar52, , 2

1189

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2937545 : Amalgam, Badseed, Biller25, CeeKay, Dada, Diderot, Geraki, Lucinos, Tas-90, Vchorozopoulos,
Xx22xx, 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2773268 : Amalgam, AndreasJS, Badseed, Dada, Gepsimos, Lucinos, Nakos2208, Ntozis, Paramita,
Pumpie, Vanakaris, , 7
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2826918 : Amalgam, Badseed, Constantinos1, Costas78, Diderot, Geraki, Ionn-korr, Loveless, Lucinos,
MARKELLOS, Morgatek, Murtasa, Nakos2208, Q43, Templar52, Turm, V-astro, Veron, , 10
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2772631 : Amalgam, Badseed, CeeKay, Dada, Gepsimos, Giannisf, Klidge, Ntozis, Veron, 7
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2940980 : Amalgam, Costas78, Egmontaz, Gepsimos, Ionn-korr, JorgePap, Lucinos, Templar52, ,

, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2757867 : Atlantia, Egmontaz, Ferengi, Polyvios, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2933940 : Badseed, CeeKay, Dead3y3, Diderot, Drpagel, Egmontaz, Geraki, Lemur12, MARKELLOS, Mns imx,
Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, Vchorozopoulos, , , 5
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2957932 : Akeramop, Badseed, Costas78, Dada, Drpagel, Edgar181, Egmontaz, Kostisl, Kupirijo, MARKELLOS,
Roland1952, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos, , 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2925056 : Badseed, Dead3y3, Diderot, Drpagel, Egmontaz, FocalPoint, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Mns imx,
Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2974866 : Nikosguard, V-astro, Vchorozopoulos, , 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2904570 : Akeramop, Dead3y3, Drpagel, Jake V, MARKELLOS, Mns imx, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos,
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1953568 : : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2823643 : Akeramop, Bob Saint Clar, Drpagel, FocalPoint, Loveless, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos,
,
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2954995 : Akeramop, Dead3y3, Drpagel, Egmontaz, FocalPoint, Mns imx, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos,
, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2978277 : Akeramop, Drpagel, FocalPoint, Vchorozopoulos, ,
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2966979 : Jake V, MARKELLOS, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, ,
2- : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2877488 : FocalPoint, Sigors, Vchorozopoulos,
3- : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2869034 : Vchorozopoulos,
2,2- : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2911836 : Atlantia, Ferengi, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos,
2,3- : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2911935 : Armando-Martin, Egmontaz, Jake V, Vanakaris, Vchorozopoulos,
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2955188 : Vchorozopoulos, ,
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2945515 : CommonsDelinker, Dead3y3, Diderot, Drpagel, Egmontaz, Jake V, KostasG, Loveless, MARKELLOS,
Mns imx, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, Vchorozopoulos,
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2783931 : Badseed, Dead3y3, Drpagel, Kostisl, Kupirijo, MARKELLOS, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris,
Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2845237 : CommonsDelinker, Drpagel, Fefeli, Geraki, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, 2
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2784971 : Atlantia, Diamond, Ekton, Giannakoudakisz, Kostisl, Kupirijo, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Templar52,
Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Xhmikos
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2784737 : Atlantia, Egmontaz, MARKELLOS, Templar52, Vchorozopoulos
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2933404 : *, Alaniaris, Chemi-science, Dada,
Kalogeropoulos, Ttzavaras, 5
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2952923 : Badseed, CeeKay, Dada, Dead3y3, Geraki, Kalogeropoulos, MARKELLOS,
Pne, Ttzavaras, , , , 2
ISO 4217 : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2961910 : *, Badseed, Geraki, Kalogeropoulos, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Nikosguard,
Pyraechmes, Trouble18, Ttzavaras, Xoristzatziki, 9
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2894131 : *, Dim1pap1, FocalPoint, MARKELLOS, Nikosguard,
Ttzavaras, Vchorozopoulos, Xoristzatziki, , 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2894059 : Alexignatiou, Amalgam, Badseed, Diderot, Gepsimos, Odysseus nemo, Templar52, Ttzavaras,
Vanakaris,
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2855191 : Amalgam, Diamond, Dinosfl, Egmontaz, FocalPoint, Joseph S., ManosHacker, Sportswriter, Templar52,
Ttzavaras, Vanakaris, , 4
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2955689 : Amalgam, Badseed, FocalPoint, Gf uip, Latrioula, Loveless, Templar52, Ttzavaras, Vanakaris,
Vchorozopoulos, , 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2969480 : Amalgam, Badseed, FocalPoint, Loveless, Templar52, Vanakaris,
- : http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=531706 : Amalgam, Templar52,
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2857108 : Amalgam, Badseed, Geovard, S. Cruz, Tas-90, Templar52, Vanakaris
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2949991 : Costas78, Dead3y3, Egmontaz, Templar52, Vanakaris, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2910392 : Badseed, Egmontaz, Kalogeropoulos, Kostisl, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Odd, Okle, Templar52, Ttzavaras,
Vanakaris, Xoristzatziki, , 3
1190

: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2951372 : Aexon79, Amalgam, Badseed, CeeKay, Diderot, Ferengi, Flyax, Gepsimos, Lucinos, Myle,
Templar52, Tony K, Vanakaris, , 3
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1508440 : CeeKay, Templar52, Ttzavaras, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2167251 : CeeKay, Templar52
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2846304 : Amalgam, Diamond, FocalPoint, Illyria05, Rtt57, Templar52, Ttzavaras, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2823396 : Badseed, CeeKay, Costas78, Dada, Gepsimos, Kostisl, Purbo T, Templar52, V-astro, Vanakaris,
Vchorozopoulos, Wikiphysicsgr, Xhmikos, 1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2958437 : Atlantia, Costas78, Ferengi, Vanakaris, Xhmikos,
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2774495 : Patriot8790, Templar52
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2964249 : Amalgam, Atlantia, Gavrilis, Ihatebiologyalot, MARKELLOS, Templar52, Ttzavaras, ,
1
: http://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=2844497 : Exc, Loveless, MARKELLOS, Tsoy, Ttzavaras, V-astro
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[1] . Whler : NH4OCN (NH2)2C=O

[1] , . (http:/ / www. komvos. edu. gr/ dictonlineplsql/ simple_search.

Lon Theremin, 1924

Quadrangularus Reversum, Harry Partch

Moodswinger, Yuri Landman, 2006

87 88 * 103 104 105 106

111 112 113 114 115 116

Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner to 1829 ,

[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/

" " [12]

" " ( 10)

" " ( 7)[2]

(~460 ..- 370 .) ,

[1] . (http:/ / www. mikrosapoplous. gr/ dl/ dl09. html). . ',

[1] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius

(15 1859 - 19 1906)

http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ articles/ curie/ index. html

[13] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Image:Banknote_500FF_Curies. jpg

[1] , Conformational Isomerism (http:/ / www2. chemistry. msu. edu:80/ faculty/

1. McMurry John (2005). . . ISBN 978-960-524-055-4.

Michigan State University. Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry. Stereoisomers (http://www2.chemistry.

SAMP RAMP ( Enders)

[1] http:/ / de. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Auxiliar

[1] 22 Fe2+. 1894,

1. . . ", ', -- ",

K2Cr2O7 + 3H2S + 4H2SO4 Cr2(SO4)3 + 3S + K2SO4 + 7H2O.

AgCl, Hg2Cl2, CuCl, PbCl2

AgBr, Hg2Br2, CuBr, PbBr2

AgI, Hg2I2, CuI, PbI2

NH4F, KF, NaF, AgF

K2S, Na2S, (NH4)2S, CaS, BaS, MgS

K2CO3, Na2CO3, (NH4)2CO3

K3PO4, Na3PO4, (NH4)3PO4

CaSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4, g2SO4,

K2SO3, Na2SO3, (NH4)2SO3

3-, ClO3-, ClO4-, HCO3-,

[1] I.U.P.A.C. (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ S05447. html).

.. " ", 1 2, 1981.

1. . . " ", 1980.

.. " ", 1 2, 1981.

[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Molar_concentration

- (1), (2) (3),

. 1884 Ludwig Boltzmann

(Wilhelm Wien) Paschen.

http:/ / www. physics4u. gr/ articles/ 2002/ blackbody. html

(Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck)

Walther Meiner 1906 (1882 - 1974)

"Pour le Mrite" 1915

(Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, 12 1824 17 1887)

1847 Clara Richelot,

. Annalen der Physik

[1] http:/ / pl. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Barwa

() (V), (VI), (VII)

2ROH R-O-R + H2O

R'ONa + RX R-O-R' + NaX

RCH=CH2 + R'OH + (CF3COO)2Hg RCH(R')-CH2(HgOCOCF3) + CF3COOH

4RCH(R')-CH2(HgOCOCF3) + 4NaBH4 + 4NaOH 4RCH(OR')-CH3 + 4Hg + 4CF3COOH

CnH2n+2O + 3n/2 O2 nCO2 + (n+1)H2O

RCH2-O-R' + Cl2 RCH(Cl)-O-R' + HCl

T R2O+H HSO4- HSO4-

ROR' + 2HI RI + R'I + H2O

ROR' + HI ROH + R'I