मुक्त ज्ञानकोष विवकपीविया से

यहााँ जाएाँ : भ्रमण, खोज

गिननर-जनरल का ध्वज (१८८५-१९४७) वजसमें ऑिन र ऑफ द स्टार ऑफ इं विया एक संघीय

ध्वज में एक भारतीय शाही मुकुट के नीचे दवशनत

भारत के गिननर-जनरल (या १८५८-१९४७ तक िाइसयॉय एिं गिननर-जनरल) भारत में

विवटश राज का अध्यक्ष, और भारतीय स्वतंत्रता उपरां त भारत में, विवटश शासक का प्रवतवनवि
होता था। इनका कायान लय सन 1773 में बनाया गया था, वजसे फोटन विवलयम की प्रेसीिें सी का
गिननर-जनरल के अिीन रखा गया था। इस कायान लय का फोटन विवलयम पर सीिा वनयंत्रण
था, एिं अन्य विवटश ईस्ट इं विया कंपनी के अविकाररयों का पयनिेक्षण करता था। सम्पूणन
विवटश भारत पर पूणन अविकार 1833 में वदये गये , और तब से यह भारत के गिननर-जनरल
बन गये।

भारत के अंवतम विवटश गिननर-जनरल

१८५८ में भारत विवटश शासन की अिीन आ गया था। गिननर-जनरल की उपावि उसके
भारतीय विवटश प्रां त (पं जाब, बंगाल, बंबई, मद्रास, संयुक्त प्रां त, इत्यावद) और विवटष भारत, शब्द
स्वतंत्रता पूिन काल के अविभावजत भारत के इन्ीं विवटश वनयंत्रण के प्रां तों के वलये प्रयोग
होता है ।

अअअअअअअ
[छछछछछछ]

 1 छछछछछछ
 2 छछछछछछ-छछछछ छछ छछछछछछछछ
 3 छछछछछ
 4 छछछछ छछछ छछछछछ
 5 छछछछ
 6 छछछछ
 7 छछछछछछ-छछछछ छछ छछछछ
o 7.1 छछछछछ छछछछछछ छछछछछछछछछछछ
o 7.2 छछछछ छछ छछछछछछ-छछछछ
o 7.3 छछछछ छछ छछछछछछछ छछछ छछछछछछ-छछछछ
o 7.4 छछछछ छछ छछछछछछ-छछछछ
o 7.5 छछछछछछछछछ छछ छछछछछछ-छछछछ
 8 छछछछछछ छछ छछछछछ
 9 छछछछछछछ

िैसे अविकां श विवटश भारत, विवटश सरकार द्वारा सीिे शावसत ना होकर, उसके अिीन रहे
शासकों द्वारा ही शावसत होता था। भारत में सामंतों और रजिाडों को गिननर-जनरल के
विवटश सरकार के प्रवतवनवि होने की भूवमका को दवशनत करने हे तु, सन १८५८ से िाइसरॉय
एिं गिननर-जनरल ऑफ इं विया (वजसे लघुरूप में िाइसरॉय कहा जाता था) प्रयोग हुई।
िाइसरॊय उपावि १९४७ में स्वतंत्रता उपरां त लुप्त हो गयी, लेवकन गिननर-जनरल का कायान लय
सन १९५० में, भारतीय गणतंत्रता तक अस्तित्व में रहा।

१८५८ तक, गिननर-जनरल को विवटश ईस्ट इं विया कंपनी के वनदे शकों द्वारा चयवनत वकया
जाता था, और िह उन्ीं को जिाबदे ह होता था। बाद में िह महाराजा द्वारा विवटश सरकार,
भारत राज्य सवचि, विवटश कैवबनेट; इन सभी की राय से चयन होने लगा। १९४७ के बाद,
सम्राट ने उसकी वनयुस्तक्त जारी रखी, लेवकन भारतीय मंवत्रयों की राय से, ना वक विवटश मंवत्रयों
की सलाह से।

गिननर-जनरल पां च िषन के कायनकाल के वलये होता था। उसे पहले भी हटाया जा सकता था।
इस काल के पूणन होने पर, एक अस्थायी गिननर-जनरल बनाया जाता था. जब तक वक नया
गिननर-जनरल पदभार ग्रहण ना कर ले। अस्थायी गिननर-जनरल को प्रायः प्रान्तीय गिनन रों में
से चुना जाता था।
इतिहास[संपातिि करें ]

प्रथम िाइसरॉय िारन न हास्तस्टंग्स

िारन न हास्तस्टंग्स, भारत के प्रथम गिननर-जनरल (१७७३-१७८५]]

भारत के कई भागों पर ईस्ट इं विया कंपनी का राज था, जो नाममात्र को मुगल बादशाह के
प्रवतवनवि के तौर पर राज करती थी। १७७३ में, कंपनी में भ्रशःटाचार के चलते , विवटश सरकार
ने , रे गुलेशन एक्ट अविवनयम के तहत, भारत का प्रशासन आं वशक रूप से अपने वनयंत्रण में ले
वलया था। बंगाल में फोटन विवलयम की प्रेसेिेंसी के शासन हे तु एक गिनन र-जनरल, तथा एक
पररषद का गठन वकया गया। प्रथम गिननर-जनरल एिं पररषद का नाम अविवनयम में वलस्तखत
है । उनके उत्तराविकारी ईस्ट इं विया कंपनी के वनदे शकों द्वारा चयवनत होना तय हुआ था। इस
अविवनयक्म के अनुसार गिननर-जनरल तथा पररषद का पां च िषीय कायन काल वनवित वकया
गया था। परं तु शासन को उन्ें मध्यािवि में हटाने का पूणान विकार था।

लॉिन कैवनंग, कश्मीर के तत्कालीन महाराजा रणाबीर वसंह से , 9 माचन 1860 को वमलते हुए।
१८३३ के चाटन र एक्ट अविवनयम ने फोटन विवलयम के गिननर-जनरल एिं पररषद को बदल कर
भारत का गिननर-जनरल एिं पररषद बना वदया। लेवकन उन्ें चयन करने की सामर्थ्न वनदे शकों
को ही रखी, केिल उसको शासन के अनुमोदन का विषय बना वदया।

१८५७ के संग्राम के बाद, ईस्ट इं विया कंपनी समाप्त कर दी गयी, और भारत विवटश शासन
के अिीन आ गया। गिर्न्मेंट आफ इं विया एक्ट १८५८ अविवनयम के द्वारा, गिननर-जनरल को
वनयुक्त करने का विकार वदया गया। भारत और पावकिान को १९४७ में स्वतंत्रता वमली, परन्तु
गिननर-जनरल वफर भी जारी रहे , जब तक वक दोनों दे शों के संवििान नहीं बन गये।
माउं टबैटन कुछ समय भारत का गिननर-जनरल बना रहा। लेवकन दोनों दे शों के अपने
गिननर-जनरल बने। बाद में भारत १९५० में िमन -वनरपेक्ष गणतंत्र बना, और १९५६ में पावकिान
इस्लामी गणराज्य बना।

गवर्नर-जर्रल के प्रकार्न[संपातिि करें ]

लॉिन कजनन, भारत के िाइसरॉय की िेशभूषा में, जो पद १८९९-१९०५ तक चला

गिननर-जनरल को पहले पहल, केिल बंगाल प्रेसीिें सी पर ही अविकार था। रे गुलेवटं ग

अविवनयम द्वारा, उन्ें विदे श संबंि एिं रक्षा संबंिी कई अवतररक्त अविकार वदये गये। ईस्ट
इं विया कंपनी की अन्य प्रेसीिें वसयों जैसे मद्रास प्रेसीिें सी, बंबई प्रेसीिें सी, एिं बेंगकुलु प्रेसीिें सी
(बैनकूलन) को, वबना फोटन विवलयम के गिननर-जनरल एिं पररषद की अवग्रम अनुमोदन के; ना
तो कोई युद्ध की घोषणा के अविकार थे , ना ही वकसी भारतीय रजिाडॊ ं से शां वत संबंि बनाने
के अविकार वदये गये थे ।

गिननर-जनरल की विदे श मामलों के अविकार इं विया एक्ट १७८४ के द्वारा बढाये गये। इस
अविवनयम के तहत, कंपनी के अन्य गिननर नातो कोई युद्ध घोवषत कर सकते थे , ना ही शां वत
प्रविया, ना ही कोई संवि प्रिाि या अनुमवत वकसी भी भारतीय राजाओं से, जब तक वक
गिननर-जनरल या कम्पनी के वनदे शकों से अनुमवत या आदे श ना वमला हो।

हालां वक गिननर-जनरल विदे श नीवतयों का संचालक बन गया, परन्तु िह भारत का पूणन अध्यक्ष
नहीं था। यह स्तस्थवत केिल चाटन र एक्ट १८३३ के तहत आयी, वजसने उसे पूरे विवटश भारत पर
नागररक एिं सैन्य शासन के पूणन अिीक्षण, वनदे शन, एिं वनयंत्रण के अविकार वदये। इस
अविवनयम से उसे िैिावनक अविकार भी वमले।

लॉिन िफररन, भारत के िाइसरॉय।

१८५८ उपरां त, गिननर-जनरल भारत का मुख्य प्रशासक और विवटश शासन का प्रवतवनवि बन

गया। भारत को कई प्रां तों में बां टा गया, प्रत्येक के एक गिननर या प्रशासक वनयुक्त हुए।
गिननर विवटश सरकार द्वारा वनयुक्त हुए थे , वजनके िे सीिे जिाबदे ही थे । लेस्तिनेंट गिननर, चीफ
कवमश्नर (मुख्य आयुक्त) एिं प्रशासक (एदवमवनस्टर े टर) वनयुक्त हुए, जो वक गिननर के अिीन
कायनरत थे।
लॉिन मैटकाफ, भारत के िाइसरॉय।

गिननर-जनरल सबसे शस्तक्तशाली राज्य भी स्वयं दे खता था, जैसे:-है दराबाद के वनजाम, मैसूर
के महाराजा, ग्वावलयर के वसंविया महाराजा, बडौदा के गायक्वाि महाराजा, जम्मू एिं कश्मीर
के महाराजा, इत्यावद। शेशः रजिाडे या तो राजपूताना एजेंसी]] एिं सेंटरल इं विया एजेंसी दे खती
थी (जो वक गिननर-जनरल के प्रवतवनवि की अध्यक्षता में होता था), या प्रान्तीय शासन।

एक बार भारत के स्वतं त्रता प्राप्त करने के उपरां त, भारतीय मंत्रीमण्डल (कैवबनेट) के वदन
पर वदन अविकार प्राप्त करते रहने पर, गिननर-जनरल की भूवमका केिल औपचाररक रह गयी
थी। राष्ट्र के गणतं त्र बनने पर, गैर-कयनपालक भारत के राष्ट्रपवत ने िही प्रकायन जारी रखे।

पररषि[संपातिि करें ]
गिननर-जनरल को अपने िैिावनक एिं कायनपालक अविकारों के प्रयोग हे तु, सिनदा ही पररषद
की सलाह वमली। गिननर-जनरल को, कईप्रकायों के दौरान, गिननर-जनरल इन कॉस्तिल कहा
जाता था।
विवलयम िै वनसन, भारत के िाइसरॉय।

 रे गुलेवटं ग एक्ट १७७३ अविवनयम ने ईस्ट इं विया कम्पनी के वनदे शकों को चुनािों द्वारा,
चार सलाहकार वनयुक्त कराये। गिननर-जनरल के पास इन सलाहकारों सवहत, एक मत
(िोट) का अविकार था, वजसके साथ ही उसे समान मत संख्या की स्तस्थवत में उठे
वििाद को सुलझाने हे तु, एक अवतररक्त मत वदया गया था। पररषद का वनणनय गिननर-
जनरल को मान्य होना था।

 १७८४ में, पररषद को तीन सदस्य तक सीवमत कर वदया गया, जबवक गिननर-जनरल के
पास अभी भी दो िोट थे। १७८६ में, गिननर-जनरल के अविकार और बढाये गये , औइर
पररषद के वनणनय अब उसके वलये बाध्य नहीं थे ।

 चाटन र एक्ट १८३३ से पररषद के ढां चे में और बदलाि आये। यह प्रथम अविवनयम था,
वजसके तहत गिननर-जनरल की कायनपलक एिं िैिावनक उत्तरदावयत्वों में अन्तर बताया
गया। इसके तहत पररषद में चार सदस्य होने चावहये थे , जो वक वनदे शकगण चुनते थे।
प्रथम तीन सदस्य प्रत्येक अिसर पर भाग लेते थे , परन्तु चौथे सदस्य को केिल वििान
के बहस के दौरान ही बैठने की अनुमवत थी।

 १८५८ में वनदे शकगण के अविकार घटा वदये गये । उनका पररषद के सदस्य चुनने का
अविकार बंद हो गय। इसके स्थान पर, चौथे सदस्य, वजसे केिल िैिावनक बैठक में मत
 दे ने का अविकार था, उसे शासक ही चुनते थे, और अन्य तीन सदस्य भारत के राज्य
सवचि चुनते थे।

विवलयम िै वनसन, भारत के िाइसरॉय।

 इं वियन काउं वसल एक्ट १८६१ अविवनयम द्वारा पररषद के संयोजन में कई बदलाि वकये
गये। तीन सदस्य भारत के राज्य सवचि द्वारा वनयुक्त होना तय हुआ, और दो सदस्य
मुख्य शासक द्वारा (१८६९ में पां चों सदस्यों के चुनाि का अविकार विवटश सम्राट के
पास चला गया)। गिननर-जनरल को अवतररक्त छः से बारह सदस्य (१८९२ में छः से
दर हुए, और १९०९ में दस से बारह)। भारतीय सवचि द्वारा चुने गये पां च लोग
कायनपालक विभाग के मुख्य होते थे, जबवक गिननर-जनरल द्वारा चयवनत सदस्य बहस
में, और वििान में मत दे ने का कायन करते थे।

 १९१९ में, राज्य पररषद एिं िैिावनक सभा के संयोजन से बना भारतीय वििान अस्तित्व
में आया, वजसने गिननर-जनरल की पररषद के िैिावनक प्रकायों का कायन संभाला।
गिननर-जनरल को वििान के ऊपर महत्वपूणन अविकार था। िह वििान की सहमवत के
वबना भी आवथनक व्यय को अविकृत कर सकता था। यह केिल भूवम(राजनैवतक), रक्षा
आवद उद्दे श्ों हे तु, एिं आपातकाल में सभी वनणनयों में, सीवमत था। यवद उसने संिुवत
की है , लेवकन केिल एक ही चैम्बर ने कोई वबल पास वकया है , तो भी िह दू सरे चैमि
के आपवत्त करने पर भी उस वबल को अध्यादे श बना कर जारी कर सकता था।
वििान को विदे श मामलों एिं रक्षा में कोई अविकार नहीं था। राज्य पररषद का
अध्यक्ष, गिननर-जनरल द्वारा वनयुक्त वकया जाता था। वििान सभा अपना अध्यक्ष चुनती
थी, लेवकन इसका चुनाि, गिननर-जनरल की सहमवत से ही होता था।

शैली एवं उपाति[संपातिि करें ]

लॉिन हावििं ग, भारत के िाइसरॉय।

गिननर-जनरल (जब िे िाइसरॉय थे १८५८ से १९४७ तक के समय समेत) एक्सीलेंसी की

शैली प्रयोग वकया करते थे , एिं भारत में, अन्य सभी सरकारी अविकाररयों पर िचनस्व रखते थे।
उन्ें योर एक्सीलेंसी से सम्बोवित वकया जाता था, तथा उनके वलये वहज़ एक्सीलेंसी प्रयोग वकया
जाता था। १८५८-१९४७ के काल में, गिननर-जनरल को फ्रेंच भाषा से रॉय यावन राजा, और
िाइस अंग्रेज़ी से, यावन उप, वमलाकर िाइसरॉय कहा जाता था। इनकी पवियों को िाइसराइन
कहा जाता था। उनके वलये हर एक्सीलेंसी, एिं उन्ें योर एक्सीलेंसी कहकर सम्बोवित वकया
जाता था। परन्तु विटे न के महाराजा के भारत में होने पर, यह उपावियां प्रयोग नहीं होती थीं।

सन १८६१ में, जब ऑिन र ऑफ द स्टार ऑफ इं विया, िाइसरॉय को ग्रैंि मास्टर एक्स

ऑफीवशयो (पदे न या पदानुसार) घोवषत वकया गया। गिननर-जनरल को १८७७ में, पदे न ग्रैंि
मास्टर ऑफ ऑिन र ऑफ इं वियन एम्पायर भी घोवषत वकया गया।

अविकां श गिननर-जनरल एिं िाइसरॉय पीयर थे। जो नहीं थे , उनमें सर जॉन शोर बैरोनत , एिं
कॉिन विवलयम बैंवटक लॉिन थे , क्ोंवक िे एक ड्यूक के पुत्र थे। केिल प्रथम और अंवतम
गिननर-जनरल िारन न हास्तस्टंग्स तथा चििती राजगोपालाचायन , और कुछ अस्थायी गिननर-जनरल,
को कोई विशेष उपावि नहीं थी।

ध्वज[संपातिि करें ]
विवटष राज का ध्वज, वजस पर स्टार ऑफ इं विया अंवकत है ।

१८८५ के लगभग, गिननर-जनरल को बीच में एक स्टार ऑफ इं विया, के ऊपर एक मुकुट

लगा हुआ, संघीय ध्वज फहराने की अनुमवत दे दी गयी। यह ध्वज, गिननर-जनरल का वनजी
ध्वज नहीं था, यह गिननर, लेस्तिनेंट गिननर, चीफ कवमश्नर (मुख्य आयुक्त) एिं भारत में अन्य
विवटश अविकाररयों द्वारा भी प्रयोग वकया जाता था। सागर यात्रा के दौरान, केिल गिननर-
जनरल ही इस ध्वज वक मुख्य ध्वज िंभ पर फहराता था, अन्य उसे गौण िंभों से ही
फहराते थे।

१९४७ से १९५० तक, भारत के गिननर-जनरल, एक शाही ढाल (एक मुकुट पर वसंह आसीन)
सवहत एक नीला ध्वज प्रयोग वकया करते थे। इस वचन् के नीचे शब्द “भारत” सुनहरे अक्षरों में
अंवकत होता था। यही नमूना कई अन्य गिननर-जनरल द्वारा भू प्रयोग वकया गया। यह वकसी
गिननर-जनरल का अंवतम वनजी ध्वज था।

आवास[संपातिि करें ]

पूरी उनीसिी ं शताब्दी के दौरान गिर्न्मेंट हाउस ही गिननर-जनरल का सरकारी आिास हुआ
करता था।

फोटन विवलयम के गिननर-जनरल बैल्वेिेर हाउस, कलकत्ता में आरस्तिक उनीसिी ं शताब्दी तक
रहा करते थे। वफर गिर्न्मेंट हाउस का वनमान ण हुआ। १८५४ में, बंगाल के लेस्तिनेंट गिननर ने
िहां अपना आिास बनाया। अब बेलिेिेर हाउस में भारतीय राष्ट्रीय पुिकालय है ।
लॉिन कैवनंग

लॉिन िैलेस्ली, वजन्ोंने कहा था, वक भारत को एक महल से शावसत होना चावहये , ना वक एक
िाक बंगले से; ने एक एक िृहत हिेली बनिायी, वजसे गिर्न्मेंट हाउस कहा गया। यह १७९९-
१८०३ के बीच वनवमनत हुआ। यह हिेली सन १९१२ तक प्रयोग में रही, जब तक की राजिानी
कलकत्ता में रही। वफर राजिानी वदल्ली स्थानां तररत की गयी। तब बंगाल के लेस्ति. गिननर
को गिननर का पूणान विकार वदया गया, और गिर्न्मेंट हाउस में आिास वदया गया। अब यही
भिन, ितनमान पविम बंगाल का राज्यपाल आिास है । इसे अब इसी नाम के वहन्दी रूपान्तर,
राज भिन कहा जाता है ।

१८५४ में, बंगाल के लेस्तिनेंट गिननर ने गिर्न्मेंट हाउस में, अपना आिास बनाया। अब बेलिेिेर
हाउस में भारतीय राष्ट्रीय पुिकालय है ।

जब राजिानी को कलकत्ता से वदल्ली स्थानां तररत वकया गया, िाइसरॉय ने नि-वनवमनत सर

एि् विन लूट्यि द्वारा अवभकस्तित, िाइसरॉय हाउस में आिास वकया। हालां वक वनमान न १९१२ में
आरि हुआ, परन्तु िह १९२९ तक भी पूणन ना हो सका; और १९३१ तक भी उसका
औपचाररक उद् घाटन नहीं सम्पन हो पाया। इसाखी अंवतम लागत पाउण्ड ८,७७,००० (आज के
अनुसार साढे तीन करोड पाउण्ड) थी। ितनमान में, यह आिास, अपने ितनमान वहन्दी नाम
“राष्ट्रपवत भिन” से प्रवसद्ध है ।
पूरे विवटश प्रशासन के दौरान, गिननर-जनरल वशमला स्तस्थत िाइसरीगल लॉज (दे खें “राष्ट्रपवत
वनिास”) में ग्रीष्म ऋतु वबताते थे। पूरी सरकार ग्रीष ऋतु की गमी से बचने हे तु, हर िषन
वशमला जाते थे।

गवर्नर-जर्रल की सूची[संपातिि करें ]

फोर्न तवतलर्म प्रेसीडें सी[संपातिि करें ]

यहां के गिननर-जनरल की सूची , 1774 – 1833

लॉिन राइपन

गवर्नर-जर्रल

 िारन न हास्तस्टंग्स, 20 अक्तूबर 1773–1 फरिरी 1785

 सर जॉन मैक्फसनन, 1 फरिरी 1785–12 वसतंबर 1786, अस्थायी
 लॉिन कॉननिावलस, 12 वसतंबर 1786–28 अक्तूबर 1793, पहली बार (1792 से)
 सर जॉन शोर, 28 अक्तूबर 1793–माचन 1798
 सर एल्यूरेि क्लाकन, माचन 1798–18 मई 1798, अस्थायी
 लॉिन िैलेस्ली, 18 मई 1798–30 जुलाई 1805 (from 1799, लॉिन िैलेस्ली)
 लॉिन कॉननिावलस, 30 जुलाई 1805–5 अक्तूबर 1805, दू सरी बार
 सर जॉजन वहलेररयो बालो, 10 अक्तूबर 1805–31 जुलाई 1807, अस्थायी
 लॉिन वमंटो, 31 जुलाई 1807–4 अक्तूबर 1813
 फ्रां वसस रॉिन हास्तस्टंग्स, 4 अक्तूबर 1813–9 जनिरी 1823
 जॉन ऐिम, 9 जनिरी 1823–1 अगि 1823, अस्थायी
 लॉिन एम्हस्टन , 1 अगि 1823–13 माचन 1828
 विवलयम बटिनथन बेले, 13 माचन 1828–4 जुलाई 1828, अस्थायी
  लॉिन विवलयम बैंवटक 4 जुलाई 1828–1833

भारि के गवर्नर-जर्रल[संपातिि करें ]

1833–1858

िेिल, भारत के गिननर जनरल

 लॉिन विवलयम बैस्तिक 1833–20 माचन 1835, continued

 सर चार्ल्न मैटकाफ, 20 माचन 1835–4 माचन 1836, अस्थायी
 लॉिन ऑकलैंि, 4 माचन 1836–28 फरिरी 1842
 लॉिन ऐलनबरो, 28 फरिरी 1842–जून 1844
 विवलयम विबरफोसन बिन , जून 1844–23 जुलाई 1844, अस्थायी
 सर है नरी हावििं ग, 23 जुलाई 1844–12 जनिरी 1848
 लॉिन िलहौज़ी, 12 जनिरी 1848–28 फरिरी 1856
 लॉिन कैवनंग, 28 फरिरी 1856–1 निंबर 1858

भारि के वाइसरॉर् एवं गवर्नर-जर्रल[संपातिि करें ]

1858–1947

 लॉिन कैवनंग, 1 निंबर 1858–21 माचन 1862,

 जेम्स िूस, 21 माचन 1862–20 निंबर 1863
 सर रॉबटन नैवपयर, 21 निंबर 1863–2 वदसंबर 1863, अस्थायी
 सर विवलयम िै वनसन, 2 वदसंबर 1863–12 जनिरी 1864, अस्थायी
 सर जॉन लॉरें स, 12 जनिरी 1864–12 जनिरी 1869
 लॉिन मेयो, 12 जनिरी 1869–8 फरिरी 1872
 सर जॉन स्टर ै चे, 9 फरिरी 1872–23 फरिरी 1872, अस्थायी
 लॉिन नैवपयर, 24 फरिरी 1872–3 मई 1872, अस्थायी
  लॉिन नॉथनिूक, 3 मई 1872–12 अप्रैल 1876
 लॉिन वलट्टन, 12 अप्रैल 1876–8 जून 1880
 लॉिन राइपन, 8 जून 1880–13 वदसंबर 1884
 लॉिन िफररन, 13 वदसंबर 1884–10 वदसंबर 1888
 लॉिन लैंस्िाउन, 10 वदसं बर 1888–11 अक्तूबर 1894
 विक्टर िूस, 11 अक्तूबर 1894–6 जनिरी 1899
 लॉिन कजनन, 6 जनिरी 1899–18 निंबर 1905
 लॉिन ऐस्त्थथल, 1904,
 लॉिन वमंटो, 18 निंबर 1905–23 निंबर 1910
 लॉिन हावििं ग, 23 निंबर 1910–4 अप्रैल 1916
 लॉिन चे्फोिन , 4 अप्रैल 1916–2 अप्रैल 1921
 रीविं ग 2 अप्रैल 1921–3 अप्रैल 1926
 लॉिन इविनन, 3 अप्रैल 1926–18 अप्रैल 1931
 लॉिन विवलंग्िन, 18 अप्रैल 1931–18 अप्रैल 1936
 विक्टर होप, 18 अप्रैल 1936–1 अक्तूबर 1943
 िेिैल , 1 अक्तूबर 1943–21 फरिरी 1947
 लॉिन माउं टबैटन, 21 फरिरी 1947–15 अगि 1947

भारि के गवर्नर-जर्रल[संपातिि करें ]

1947–1950

 माउं टबैटन, 15 अगि 1947–जून 1948, जारी

 चििती राजगोपालाचायन , जून 1948–25 जनिरी 1950

पातकस्तार् के गवर्नर-जर्रल[संपातिि करें ]

1947–1958
मुख्य लेख : पावकिान के गिननर जनरल

 मोहम्मद अली वजनाह, 15 अगि 1947–11 वसतंबर 1948

 ख्वाजा नजीमुद्दीन, 14 वसतंबर 1948–17 अक्तूबर 1951
 गुलाम मोहम्मद, 17 अक्तूबर 1951–6 अक्तूबर 1955
 इस्कंदर वमजान , 6 अक्तूबर 1955–23 माचन 1956

इन्हें भी िे खें[संपातिि करें ]

 विवटश साम्राज्य
 भारत के सम्राट
भारि का तवभाजर् माउं टबेटन योजना के आिार पर तैयार भारतीय स्वतंत्रा अविवनयम१९४७
के आिार पर वकया गया। इस अविवनयम में काहा गया वक 15 अगि 1947 को भारत एिं
पावकिान नामक दो अविराज्य बना वदए जाएं गें और उनको वितानी सरकार सत्ता सौंप
दे गी।[1] स्वतं त्रता के साथ ही 14 अगि को पावकिानी िोवमवनयन (बाद में इस्लामी
ज्ूररया ए पावकिान) और 15 अगि को भारतीय यूवनयन (बाद में भारत गणराज्य) की
संस्थापना की गई। इस घटनािम में मुख्यतः विवटश भारत के बंगाल प्रां त को पूिी पावकिान
और भारत के पविम बंगाल राज्य में बााँ ट वदया गया और इसी तरह विवटश भारत के पंजाब
प्रां त को पविमी पावकिान के पंजाब प्रां त और भारत के पंजाब राज्य में बााँ ट वदया गया।
इसी दौरान विवटश भारत में से सीलोन (अब श्रीलंका) और बमान (अब म्ां मार) को भी
अलग वकया गया, लेवकन इसे भारत के विभाजन में नहीं शावमल वकया जाता है । इसी तरह
1971 में पावकिान के विभाजन और बां ग्लादे श की स्थापना को भी इस घटनािम में नहीं
वगना जाता है । (नेपाल और भूटान इस दौरान भी स्वतंत्र राज्य थे और इस बंटिारे से
प्रभावित नहीं हुए।)

15 अगि 1947 की आिी रात को भारत और पावकिान कानूनी तौर पर दो स्वतंत्र राष्ट्र
बने। लेवकन पावकिान की सत्ता पररितनन की रस्में 14 अगि को कराची में की गईं तावक
आस्तखरी विवटश िाइसराय लुइस माउं टबैटन कराची और नई वदल्ली दोनों जगह की रस्मों में
वहस्सा ले सके। इसवलए पावकिान में स्वतं त्रता वदिस 14 अगि और भारत में 15 अगि
को मनाया जाता है ।

भारत के विभाजन से करोडों लोग प्रभावित हुए। विभाजन के दौरान हुई वहं सा में करीब 5
लाख[2] लोग मारे गए, और करीब 1.45 करोड शरणावथनयों ने अपना घर-बार छोडकर
बहुमत संप्रदाय िाले दे श में शरण ली।[तर्थ् िांवछत]

अर्ुक्रम
[छु पाएाँ ]

 1 पृष्ठभूवम
 2 विभाजन की प्रविया
o 2.1 सं पवत्त का बंटिारा
 3 दं गा फ़साद
 4 जन स्थानां तरण
 5 शरणाथी
 6 सावहत्य और वसनेमा में भारत का विभाजन
 7 बाहरी कवियााँ
 8 यह भी दे खे
 9 संदभन
o 9.1 टीका-वटप्पणी
 o 9.2 ग्रन्थ और वनबंिसूची

पृष्ठभूतम[संपातिि करें ]
भारत के विवटश शासकों ने हमेशा ही भारत में "फूट िालो और राज्य करो" की नीवत का
अनुसरण वकया। उन्ोंने भारत के नागररकों को संप्रदाय के अनुसार अलग-अलग समूहों में
बााँ ट कर रखा। उनकी कुछ नीवतयााँ वहन्दु ओं के प्रवत भेदभाि करती थीं तो कुछ मुसलमानों
के प्रवत। 20िी ं सदी आते -आते मुसलमान वहन्दु ओं के बहुमत से िरने लगे और वहन्दु ओं को
लगने लगा वक विवटश सरकार और भारतीय नेता मुसलमानों को विशेषाविकार दे ने और
वहन्दु ओं के प्रवत भेदभाि करने में लगे हैं । इसवलए भारत में जब आज़ादी की भािना उभरने
लगी तो आज़ादी की लडाई को वनयंवत्रत करने में दोनों संप्रदायों के नेताओं में होड रहने
लगी।

सन् 1906 में ढाका में बहुत से मुसलमान नेताओं ने वमलकर मुस्तस्लम लीग की स्थापना की।
इन नेताओं का विचार था वक मुसलमानों को बहुसंख्यक वहन्दु ओं से कम अविकार उपलब्ध थे
तथा भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कां ग्रेस वहन्दु ओं का प्रवतवनवित्व करती थी। मुस्तस्लम लीग ने अलग-अलग
समय पर अलग-अलग मां गें रखीं। 1930 में मुस्तस्लम लीग के सम्मे लन में प्रवसद्ध उदू न कवि
मुहम्मद इक़बाल ने एक भाषण में पहली बार मुसलमानों के वलए एक अलग राज्य की मााँ ग
उठाई।[तर्थ् िांवछत] 1935 में वसंि प्रां त की वििान सभा ने भी यही मां ग उठाई। इक़बाल और
मौलाना मुहम्मद अली जौहर ने मुहम्मद अली वजना को इस मां ग का समथनन करने को
कहा।[तर्थ् िांवछत] इस समय तक वजना वहन्दू -मुस्तस्लम एकता के पक्ष में लगते थे , लेवकन िीरे -
िीरे उन्ोने आरोप लगाना शुरू कर वदया वक कां ग्रेसी नेता मुसलमानों के वहतों पर ध्यान नहीं
दे रहे । लाहौर में 1940 के मुस्तस्लम लीग सम्मेलन में वजना ने साफ़ तौर पर कहा वक िह
दो अलग-अलग राष्ट्र चाहते हैं

"वहन्दु ओं और मुसलमानों के िमन, विचारिाराएाँ , रीवत-ररिाज़ और सावहत्य वबलकुल

अलग-अलग हैं ।.. एक राष्ट्र बहुमत में और दू सरा अिमत में, ऐसे दो राष्ट्रों को साथ
बााँ ि कर रखने से असंतोष बढ कर रहे गा और अंत में ऐसे राज्य की बनािट का
विनाश हो कर रहे गा।"[तर्थ् िांवछत]

वहन्दू महासभा जैसे वहन्दू संगठन भारत के बंटिारे के प्रबल विरोिी थे , लेवकन मानते थे वक
वहन्दु ओं और मुसलमानों में मतभेद हैं । 1937 में इलाहाबाद में वहन्दू महासभा के सम्मेलन में
एक भाषण में िीर सािरकर ने कहा था - आज के वदन भारत एक राष्ट्र नहीं है , यहााँ पर दो
राष्ट्र हैं -वहन्दू और मुसलमान।[3] कां ग्रेस के अविकतर नेता पंथ-वनरपेक्ष थे और संप्रदाय के
आिार पर भारत का विभाजन करने के विरुद्ध थे। महात्मा गां िी का विश्वास था वक वहन्दू
और मुसलमान साथ रह सकते हैं और उन्ें साथ रहना चावहये। उन्ोंने विभाजन का घोर
विरोि वकया: "मेरी पूरी आत्मा इस विचार के विरुद्ध विद्रोह करती है वक वहन्दू और
मुसलमान दो विरोिी मत और संस्कृवतयााँ हैं । ऐसे वसद्धां त का अनुमोदन करना मेरे वलए ईश्वर
को नकारने के समान है ।"[तर्थ् िांवछत] बहुत सालों तक गां िी और उनके अनुयावययों ने कोवशश
की वक मुसलमान कां ग्रेस को छोड कर न जाएं , और इस प्रविया में वहन्दू और मुसलमान
गरम दलों के नेता उनसे बहुत वचढ गए।

अंग्रेजों ने योजनाबद्ध रूप से वहन्दू और मुसलमान दोनों संप्रदायों के प्रवत शक को बढािा

वदया। मुस्तस्लम लीग ने अगि 1946 में वसिी कायनिाही वदिस मनाया और कलकत्ता में
भीषण दं गे वकये वजसमें करीब 5000 लोग मारे गये और बहुत से घायल हुए। ऐसे माहौल में
सभी नेताओं पर दबाि पडने लगा वक िे विभाजन को स्वीकार करें तावक दे श पूरी तरह युद्ध
की स्तस्थवत में न आ जाए।

तवभाजर् की प्रतक्रर्ा[संपातिि करें ]

भारत के विभाजन के ढां चे को '3 जून प्लान' या माउण्टबैर्र् र्ोजर्ा का नाम वदया गया।
भारत और पावकिान के बीच की सीमारे खा लंदन के िकील सर वसररल रै िस्तक्लफ ने तय
की। वहन्दू बहुमत िाले इलाके भारत में और मुस्तस्लम बहुमत िाले इलाके पावकिान में शावमल
वकए गए। 18 जुलाई 1947 को विवटश संसद ने 'भारतीय स्वतंत्रता कानून' (इं वियन इं विपेंिेंस
एक्ट) पाररत वकया वजसमें विभाजन की प्रविया को अंवतम रूप वदया गया। इस समय विवटश
भारत में बहुत से राज्य थे वजनके राजाओं के साथ विवटश सरकार ने तरह-तरह के समझौते
कर रखे थे। इन 565 राज्यों को आज़ादी दी गयी वक िे चुनें वक िे भारत या पावकिान
वकस में शावमल होना चाहें गे। अविकतर राज्यों ने बहुमत िमन के आिार पर दे श चुना। वजन
राज्यों के शासकों ने बहुमत िमन के अनुकूल दे श चुना उनके एकीकरण में काफ़ी वििाद
हुआ (दे खें भारत का राजनैवतक एकीकरण)। विभाजन के बाद पावकिान को संयुक्त राष्ट्र में
नए सदस्य के रूप में शावमल वकया गया और भारत ने विवटश भारत की कुसी संभाली।[4]

संपति का बंर्वारा[संपातिि करें ]

विवटश भारत की संपवत्त को दोनों दे शों के बीच बााँ टा गया लेवकन यह प्रविया बहुत लंबी
स्तखंचने लगी। गां िीजी ने भारत सरकार पर दबाि िाला वक िह पावकिान को िन जल्दी
भेजे[तर्थ् िांवछत] जबवक इस समय तक भारत और पावकिान के बीच यु द्ध शुरु हो चुका था,
और दबाि बढाने के वलए अनशन शुरु कर वदया। भारत सरकार को इस दबाि के आगे
झुकना पडा और पावकिान को िन भेजना पडा। नाथूराम गोिसे ने महात्मा गां िी के इस
काम को उनकी हत्या करने का एक कारण बताया।[तर्थ् िांवछत]

िं गा फ़साि[संपातिि करें ]
बहुत से विद्वानों का मत है वक विवटश सरकार ने विभाजन की प्रविया को ठीक से नहीं
संभाला। चूंवक स्वतंत्रता की घोषणा पहले और विभाजन की घोषणा बाद में की गयी, दे श में
शां वत कायम रखने की वजम्मेिारी भारत और पावकिान की नयी सरकारों के सर पर आई।
वकसी ने यह नहीं सोचा था वक बहुत से लोग इिर से उिर जाएं गे। लोगों का विचार था वक
दोनों दे शों में अिमत संप्रदाय के लोगों के वलए सुरक्षा का इं तज़ाम वकया जाएगा। लेवकन
दोनों दे शों की नयी सरकारों के पास वहं सा और अपराि से वनबटने के वलए आिश्क
इं तज़ाम नहीं था। फलस्वरूप दं गा फ़साद हुआ और बहुत से लोगों की जाने गईं, और बहुत
से लोगों को घर छोडकर भागना पडा। अंदाज़ा लगाया जाता है वक इस दौरान लगभग 5
लाख लोग मारे गये [तर्थ् िांवछत], कुछ दं गों में, तो कुछ यात्रा की मुस्तिलों से ।

जर् स्थार्ांिरण[संपातिि करें ]

विभाजन के दौरान पंजाब में एक टर े न पर शरणाथी

विभाजन के बाद के महीनों में दोनों नये दे शों के बीच विशाल जन स्थानां तरण हुआ।
पावकिान में बहुत से वहन्दु ओं और वसखों को बलात् बेघर कर वदया गया। लेवकन भारत में
गां िीजी ने कां ग्रेस पर दबाि िाला और सुवनवित वकया वक मुसलमान अगर चाहें तो भारत में
रह सकें। सीमा रे खाएं तय होने के बाद लगभग 1.45 करोड लोगों ने वहं सा के िर से सीमा
पार करके बहुमत संप्रदाय के दे श में शरण ली। 1951 की विस्थावपत जनगणना के अनु सार
विभाजन के एकदम बाद 72,26,000 मुसलमान भारत छोडकर पावकिान गये और
72,49,000 वहन्दू और वसख पावकिान छोडकर भारत आए।[तर्थ् िांवछत] इसमें से 78 प्रवतशत
स्थानां तरण पविम में, मुख्यतया पंजाब में हुआ।

शरणाथी[संपातिि करें ]
भारत में आए शरणाथी पविम में मुख्यतः पंजाब और वदल्ली में, और पूिन में मुख्यतः पविम
बंगाल, असम और वत्रपुरा में बसाए गए। वसं ि से आए शरणाथी गुजरात और राजस्थान में
बसे। पंजाबी बोलने िाले मुस्तस्लम मुख्यतः पावकिान के पंजाब प्रां त में बसे और जल्दी ही
िहााँ सस्तम्मवलत हो गए। लेवकन उदू न बोलने िाले मुस्तस्लम जो वदल्ली, उत्तर प्रदे श, है दराबाद
और अन्य प्रां तों से पावकिान गए उन्ें िहााँ बसने और सस्तम्मवलत होने में बहुत कवठनाइयााँ
आईं। इन शरणावथनयों को मुहावजर का नाम वदया गया। Hamara Bharat

सातहत्य और तसर्ेमा में भारि का तवभाजर्[संपातिि करें ]

भारत के विभाजन और उसके साथ हुए दं गे-फ़साद पर कई लेखकों ने उपन्यास और
कहावनयााँ वलखी हैं , वजनमें से मुख्य हैं ,

 झूठा सच- यशपाल

 तमस - भीष्म साहनी
 वपंजर - अमृता प्रीतम
 [[टर े न टु पावकिान- खुशिंत वसंह]]
 वमिनाइट् स वचल्ड्रन (आिी रात की सन्तानें )- सलमान रशदी

वपंजर को वफल्म और तमस को प्रवसद्ध दू रदशनन िारािावहक के रूप में रूपां तररत वकया गया
है । इसके अलािा गरम हिा, दीपा महता की अथन (ज़मीन), कमल हसन की हे राम भी
भारत के विभाजन पर आिाररत हैं ।

बाहरी कतडर्ााँ[संपातिि करें ]

 माउिबेटन की करतूत (िा. सतीश चन्द्र वमत्तल)
 एक माक्सनिादी इवतहासकार का िैचाररक पररितनन (पां चजन्य)
 भारत-विभाजन के पीछे बहके मुसलमानों का वफतूर
 भारत विभाजन का षड्यंत्र और कां ग्रेस (िा. सतीश चन्द्र वमत्तल)

तितर्श साम्राज्य

http://hi.wikipedia.org/s/omr
मु क्त ज्ञानकोष विवकपीविया से

यहााँ जाएाँ : भ्रमण, खोज

१९२१ में विवटश साम्राज्य।

तितर्श साम्राज्य एक िैवश्वक शस्तक्त था, वजसके अंतगनत िे क्षेत्र थे वजनपर संयुक्त राजशाही का
अविकार था। यह साम्राज्य इवतहास काअ सबसे बडा साम्राज्य था, और अपने चरम पर तो
विश्व के कुल भूभाग और जनसंख्या का एक चौथाई भाग इसके अिीन था। उस समय लगभग
५० करोड लोग विवटश ताज़ के वनयंत्रण में थे। आज इसके अविकां श सदस्य राष्ट्रमण्डल के
सदस्य है और इस प्रकार आज भी विवटश
सबसे महत्वपूणन भाग था ईस्ट इं विया टर े विं ग
गई थी और बाद में एक बहुत बडी कंपनी
विदे शी कालोवनयों और व्यापार पदों के द्वरा
वकया गया|
साम्राज्य का ही एक अंग है । विवटश साम्राज्य का
कंपनी जो एक छोटे व्यापार के साथ आरं भ की
बन गई वजसपर बहुत से लोग वनभनर थे।यह
16 िी ं और 17 िी ं सदी में इं ग्लैंि द्वारा स्थावपत

यह लेख आविकाररक उपावि ‘’ भारत के सम्राट ‘’ के बारे में है । भारतीय सम्राटों की सूची के
वलए, भारत के सम्राट (१९१३) दे खें।

ऑिन र ऑफ द स्टार ऑफ इं विया का वसतारा, जो विवटश साम्रास्तज्यक भारत के वबल्ले (वचह्न)

के रूप में प्रयोग होता था।

”’भारत के सम्राट’”/”’साम्राज्ञी”, ”’ बादशाह-ए-वहं ””, ”’ एम्परर/एम्प्रैस ऑफ इस्तण्डय”” िह उपावि थी,

जो वक अंवतम भारतीय मुगल शासक बहादु र शाह वद्वतीय एिं भारत में विवटश राज के
शासकों हे तु प्रयोग होती थी। कभी भारत के सम्राट उपावि, भारतीय सम्राटों, जैसे मौयन िंश के
अशोक-महान।[1] या मुगल बादशाह अकबर-महान के वलये भी प्रयोग होती है । िैसे उन्ोंने
कभी भी यह उपावियां अपने वलये नहीं घोवषत कीं।

अर्ुक्रम
[छु पाएाँ ]

 1 बहादु रशाह वद्वतीय

 2 विवटश शासक
 3 भारत – पावकिान के राजा
 4 भारत के सम्राट-सम्राज्ञी
 5 इन्ें भी दे खें
 6 वटप्पणी

बहािु रशाह तििीर्[संपातिि करें ]

मुगल साम्राज्य, अपने चरमोत्कषन पर। (1700)
मुख्य लेख : बहादु रशाह ज़फर

हालां वक, मुगलों ने अविकां श भारतीय उपमहाद्वीप पर सोलहिीं शताब्दी से राज्य वकया, परन्तु
उन्ोंने केिल बादशाह का स्तखताब उपयोग वकया, वजसके साथ कभी भी कोई भौगोवलक नाम
नहीं जुडा। 1857 के भारतीय स्वतंत्रता सं ग्राम में , विद्रोही वसपावहयों ने वदल्ली का वनयंत्रण छीन
वलया, एिं बहादु रशाह वद्वतीय को बादशाह-ए-वहन्द घोवषत वकया। इस विद्रोह को कुचलने के
उपरां त, बहादु रशाह को पकड कर रं गून, बमान (अब यां गौन, म्ां मार) १८५८ में भेजा गया,
और इस िंश का अंत हुआ।

तितर्श शासक[संपातिि करें ]

विवटश ईस्ट इं विया कंपनी द्वारा मुगल बादशाह को पदच्युत कर दे ने के बाद, यह कंपनी
विघवटत हो गयी। इसके बाद भारत की सम्राज्ञी का पद, महारानी विक्टोररया ने 1 मई, 1876
से ग्रहण वकया। यह उपावि भारतीय उपमहाद्वीप के विवटश अविकृत क्षे त्रों एिं रवक्षत क्षेत्रों के
विवटश साम्राज्य में औपचाररक समािेशन के उनीस िषन बाद सृवजत वकया गया। इनमें
अविकां श ितनमान भारत (वसिाय पुतनगाली क्षेत्र गोिा, वसस्तिम राज्य, फ्रेंच पााँ िीचेरी के),
पावकिान, बां ग्लादे श एिं बमान सस्तम्मवलत थे। विवटश प्रिान मंत्री, बेंजावमन विस्राएली को इस
उपावि के सृजनकतान बताया जाता है । ref>History of the Monarchy, Victoria</ref> यह
उपावि, तब सृवजत की गयी, जब यह वनवित हो गया, वक महारानी विक्टोररया की पुत्री,
राजकुमारी विक्टोररया ही महारानी बनेंगीं, क्ोंवक उनके पवत ने जमनन शाही गद्दी संभाली थी,
वजसे कई बार एकदम गलत भी बताया गया, वक एक पुत्री अपनी मां से बेहतर उपावि ले।
A plaque on the Manchester Town Hall records George VI's titles before giving up
"Emperor of India".

Signature of King Edward VIII

The 'R' and 'I' after his name indicate 'king' and 'emperor' in Latin ('Rex' and
'Imperator').

विक्टोररया के मरणोपरां त, उसके पुत्र एिििन सप्तम ने गद्दी संभाली, और उसकी उपावि थी,
भारत के सम्राट। यह उपावि तब तक चली, जब तक भारत एिं पावकिान 14 अगि/15
अगि 1947 की अिनरावत्र को संयुक्त राजशाही के राज से स्वतंत्र नहीं हो गये। यह उपावि
एिििन अष्ट्म के उत्तराविकारी जॉजन षष्ट्म द्वारा १९४८ तक जारी रखी गयी। भारतीय मामलों
में हिाक्षरों के वलये, विवटश सम्राट/सम्राज्ञी R I (Rex/Regina Imperator/Imperatrix) or the
abbreviation Ind. Imp. (Indiae Imperator/Imperatrix) के आद्याक्षरों का प्रयोग, अपने नाम
से पूिन करते थे। तीनों वििावहत सम्राटों की पवियां R. का प्रयोग करतीं थीं। यही कई
तत्कालीन विवटश वसिों पर प्रयोग होता था। जब कोई पुरुष शासक उपावि ग्रहण करता था,
तब उसकी पिी क्वीन –एम्प्रैस प्रयोग करती थी, जो वक महारानी विक्टोररया से अलग स्वयं
शासक सम्राज्ञी नहीं, िरन शासक सम्राट की पिी मात्र थीं।
भारि – पातकस्तार् के राजा[संपातिि करें ]
जॉजन षष्ट्म ने भारत के स्म्राट की उपावि, माउं टबैटन के, एिं चििती राजगोपालाचायन के
गिननर-जनरल काल के दौरान भी रखी, तब तक, जब वक भारत सन १९५० २६ जनिरी में
[[गणतंत्र नहीं हो गया। पावकिान २३ माचन १९५६ में गणतं त्र हुआ, अतएि एवलजाबेथ वद्वतीय
पावकिान की सम्राज्ञी चार िषों तक रही।

भारि के सम्रार्-सम्राज्ञी[संपातिि करें ]

अअअअ अअअ अअअअअ अअअअ अअअअअ

छछ 1857
छछछछछछ
छछ – छछछछछ छछ छछछछ छछ –
छछछछछछ छछछछछछ
छछछछछछ
छछछ छछछ छछछछछछछ
छछछछछ, छछछछछछ 1857 छछछछ छछछछछ छछछ,
(छछछछछछछछछ
छछछछ छछ छछछछ छछछछ छछछ,
छछछछछ)
छछछछ छछछछ छछछछछ छछछ,
छछछछछछ छछछछ छछछ छछछ
छछछ

28 छछछछछछ
1876 छछछ छछछछ-
छछछछछछछ- छछछछछछछ छछ 1861 छछछ छछछछछ
छछछ छछछछछ 22 छछछछछ
छछछछछछछछछ छछछछछछछ छछ छछछछछ
1 छछछछछ 1901
छछछछछछछछछछ छछ
1877
छछछछ छछछ
छछछछछ छछ छछछछ छछछ,
छछछछछ
छछछछछछछ-छछछछछछछछछ
छछछछछछछ-छछछछछछ 22 छछछछछ
6 छछ 1910 छछछछछछछछछछछछछ (d. 20
छछछछछछ छछछछछ 1901
छछ. 1925)
छछछछछछछ-छछछछछछ 20 छछछछछ छछछछछछछ-छछछछछछछछछ
6 छछ 1910
छछछछछ छछछछ 1936 छछछछ (d. 24 छछछछछ. 1953)
छछछछछछछ-छछछछछछ 20 छछछछछ 11 छछछछछछ
none
छछछछछछ छछछछछ 1936 1936
15 छछछछछ
छछछछछछछ-छछछछछछछछछ
छछछछछछछ-छछछछछछ 11 छछछछछछ 1947
छछछछछछ छछछछछछछ छछछछछछछछ
छछछछछ छछछछछ 1936 छछछछछछछछछछ (d. 30 छछछछछ. 2002)
22 छछछ 1948
 छछछछछ छछछछ
छछ छछछ

भारि के राष्ट्रपति

http://hi.wikipedia.org/s/4b
मु क्त ज्ञानकोष विवकपीविया से

यहााँ जाएाँ : भ्रमण, खोज

भारि के राष्ट्रपति या भारिीर् राष्ट्रपति राष्ट्रप्रमु ख और भारत के प्रथम नागररक हैं , साथ ही
भारतीय सशस्त्र सेनाओं के प्रमुख सेनापवत भी हैं । वसद्धां तः राष्ट्रपवत के पास पयान प्त शस्तक्त
होती है । पर कुछ अपिादों के अलािा राष्ट्रपवत के पद में वनवहत अविकां श अविकार िािि
में प्रिानमंत्री की अध्यक्षता िाले मंवत्रपररषद के द्वारा उपयोग वकए जाते हैं ।

राष्ट्रपवत को भारत के सं सद के दोनो सदनों (लोक सभा और राज्य सभा) तथा साथ ही
राज्य वििावयकाओं (वििान सभाओं) के वनिान वचत सदस्यों द्वारा पााँ च िषन की अिवि के वलए
चुना जाता है । पदिारकों को पुनः चुनाि में खडे होने की अनुमवत दी गई है । िोट आिंवटत
करने के वलए एक फामूनला इिेमाल वकया गया है तावक हर राज्य की जनसंख्या और उस
राज्य से वििानसभा के सदस्यों द्वारा िोट िालने की संख्या के बीच एक अनुपात रहे और
राज्य वििानसभाओं के सदस्यों और राष्ट्रीय सां सदों के बीच एक समानुपात बनी रहे । अगर
वकसी उम्मीदिार को बहुमत प्राप्त नहीं होती है तो एक स्थावपत प्रणाली है वजससे हारने िाले
उम्मीदिारों को प्रवतयोवगता से हटा वदया जाता है और उनको वमले िोट अन्य उम्मीदिारों को
तबतक हिां तररत होता है , जबतक वकसी एक को बहुमत नहीं वमलती। उपराष्ट्रपवत को लोक
सभा और राज्य सभा के सभी (वनिान वचत और नामजद) सदस्यों द्वारा एक सीिे मतदान द्वारा
चुना जाता है ।

भारत के राष्ट्रपवत नई वदल्ली स्तस्थत राष्ट्रपवत भिन में रहते हैं , वजसे रायसीना वहल के नाम से
भी जाना जाता है । राष्ट्रपवत अविकतम दो कायन काल तक हीं पद पर रह सकते हैं । अब तक
केिल पहले राष्ट्रपवत िा. राजेंद्र प्रसाद ने हीं इस पद पर दो कायन काल पूरा वकया है ।

प्रवतभा पावटल भारत की 12िी ं तथा इस पद को सुशोभीत करने िाली पहली मवहला राष्ट्रपवत
हैं । [1] उन्ोंने 25 जुलाई, 2007 को पद ि गोपनीयता की शपथ ली थी।

अर्ुक्रम
[छु पाएाँ ]
  1 इवतहास
 2 राष्ट्रपवत का चुनाि
o 2.1 राष्ट्रपवत बनने के वलए आिश्क योग्यता
 3 राष्ट्रपवत पर महावभयोग
 4 राष्ट्रपवत की शस्तक्तयााँ
o 4.1 राष्ट्रपवत की संसदीय शस्तक्त
o 4.2 राष्ट्रपवत की वििेकािीन शस्तक्तयााँ
 5 संवििान के अन्तगनत राष्ट्रपवत की स्तस्थवत
 6 संदभन
 7 बाहरी कवडयााँ

इतिहास[संपातिि करें ]
15 अगि 1947 को भारत विटे न से स्वतंत्र हुआ था और अन्तररम व्यिस्था के तहत दे श
एक राष्ट्रमंिल अविराज्य बन गया। इस व्यिस्था के तहत भारत के गिननर जनरल को भारत
के राष्ट्रप्रमुख के रूप में स्थावपत वकया गया, वजन्ें भारत के अन्तररम राजा - जॉजन VI द्वारा
विवटश सरकार के बजाय भारत के प्रिानमंत्री की सलाह पर वनयुक्त करना था।

यह एक अस्थायी उपाय था, परन्तु भारतीय राजनीवतक प्रणाली में साझा राजा के अस्तित्व को
जारी रखना सही मायनों में संप्रभु राष्ट्र के वलए उपयुक्त विचार नहीं था। आजादी से पहले
भारत के आखरी विवटश िाइसराय लॉिन माउं टबेटन हीं भारत के पहले गिननर जनरल बने थे।
जल्द ही उन्ोंने सी.राजगोपालाचारी को यह पद सौंप वदया, जो भारत के इकलौते भारतीय
मूल के गिननर जनरल बने थे। इसी बीच िा. राजेंद्र प्रसाद के नेतृत्व में संवििान सभा द्नारा
26 निम्बर 1949 को भारतीय सविंिान का मसौदा तैयार हो चुका था और 26 जनिरी
1950 को औपचाररक रूप से संवििान को स्वीकार वकया गया था। इस तारीख का
प्रतीकात्मक महत्व था क्ोंवक 26 जनिरी 1930 को भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कां ग्रेस ने विटे न से
पहली बार पूणन स्वतंत्रता को आिाज़ दी थी। जब संवििान लागू हुआ और राजेंद्र प्रसाद ने
भारत के पहले राष्ट्रपवत का पद सभां ला तो उसी समय गिननर जनरल और राजा का पद एक
वनिान वचत राष्ट्रपवत द्वारा प्रवतस्थावपत हो गया।

इस कदम से भारत की एक राष्ट्रमंिल अविराज्य की स्तस्थवत समाप्त हो गया। लेवकन यह

गणतंत्र राष्ट्रों के राष्ट्रमंिल का सदस्य बना रहा। क्ोंवक भारत के प्रथम प्रिानमंत्री नेहरू ने
तकन वकया की यवद कोई भी राष्ट्र विवटश सम्राट को "राष्ट्रमंिल के प्रिान" के रूप में
स्वीकार करे पर ज़रूरी नहीं है की िह विवटश सम्राट को अपने राष्ट्रप्रिान की मान्यता दे , उसे
राष्ट्रमंिल में रहने की अनुमवत दी जानी चावहए। यह एक अत्यन्त महत्वपूणन वनणनय था वजसने
बीसिी ं सदी के उत्तराद्धन में नए-स्वतंत्र गणराज्य बने कई अन्य पूिन विवटश उपवनिेशों के
राष्ट्रमंिल में रहने के वलए एक वमसाल स्थावपत वकया।

राष्ट्रपति का चुर्ाव[संपातिि करें ]

भारत के राष्ट््पवत का चुनाि आनुपावतक प्रवतनीवित्व प्रणाली के एकल संिमणीय मत पद्धवत
के द्वारा होत है

राष्ट्रपति बर्र्े के तलए आवश्यक र्ोग्यिा[संपातिि करें ]

भारत का कोई नागररक वजसकी उम्र 35 साल या अविक हो िो एक राष्ट्रपवत बनने के वलए
उम्मीदिार हो सकता है । राष्ट्रपवत के वलए उम्मीदिार को लोकसभा का सदस्य बनने की
योग्यता होना चावहए और सरकार के अिीन कोई लाभ का पद िारण नहीं करना चावहए।
परन्तु वनम्नवलस्तखत कुछ कायान लय-िारकों को राष्ट्रपवत के उम्मीदिार के रूप में खडा होने की
अनुमवत दी गई है :

 ितनमान राष्ट्रपवत (अविकतम दो कायनकाल)

 ितनमान उपराष्ट्रपवत
 वकसी भी राज्य के राज्यपाल
 संघ या वकसी राज्य के मंत्री।

राष्ट्रपति पर महातभर्ोग[संपातिि करें ]

अनु 61 राष्ट्रपवत के महावभयोग से संबंवित है भारतीय संवििान के अंतनगत मात्र राष्ट्रपवत
महावभयोवजत होता है अन्य सभी पदाविकारी पद से हटाये जाते है । महावभयोजन एक
वििावयका संबंवित कायनिाही है िही पद से हटाना एक कायनपावलका संबंवित कायनिाही है ।
महावभयोजन एक किाई से पावलत वकया जाने िाला औपचाररक कृत्य है यह संवििान का
उल्लघंन करने पर ही होता है । यह उल्लघंन एक राजानैवतक कृत्य है वजसका वनिान रण संसद
करती है । िह तभी पद से हटे गा जब उसे संसद मे प्रिुत वकसी ऐसे प्रिाि से हटाया जाये
वजसे प्रिुत करते समय सदन के ¼ सदस्यॉ का समथनन वमले, प्रिाि पाररत करने से पूिन उस
को 14 वदन पहले नोवटस वदया जायेगा, प्रिाि सदन की कुल संख्या के 2/3 से अविक
बहुमत से पाररत होगा। वफर दू सरे सदन मे जाने पर इस प्रिाि की जााँ च एक सवमवत के
द्वारा होगी इस समय राष्ट्रपवत अपना पक्ष स्वंय अथिा िकील के माध्यम से रख सकता है
दू सरा स्दन भी उसे उसी 2/3 बहुमत से पाररत करे गा। दू सरे सदन द्वारा प्रिाि पाररत करने
के वदन से राष्ट्रपवत पद से हट जायेगा

अपने आप मे अद्धन न्यावयक कायन िाही होगी।

राष्ट्रपति की शक्तिर्ााँ[संपातिि करें ]

 न्यातर्क शक्तिर्ााँ --- संवििान का 72 िा अनु राष्ट्रपवत को न्यावयक शस्तक्तयााँ दे ता है वक
िह दं ि का उर्न्मूलन ,क्षमा, आहरण, पररहरण, पररितनन कर दे यह शस्तक्त सैन्य न्यायालय द्वारा
दी गई सजाऑ के विरूद्ध अथिा सजा दं ि जो ऐसी विवि के विरूद्ध वमली हो वजसे संसद ने
पाररत वकया हो। इस के प्रकार
  क्षमािार् -- वकसी व्यस्तक्त को वमली संपूणन सजा तथा दोष वसस्तद्ध और उत्पन हुई वनयोग्यताऑ
को समाप्त कर दे ना
तथा उसे उस स्तस्थवत मे रख दे ना मानो उअस्ने कोई अपराि वकया ही नही था

यह लाभ पूणनतः अथिा अंशत वमलता है तथा सजा दे ने के बाद अथिा उससे पहले भी वमल
सकती है

 लघु करण – दं ि की प्रकृवत कठोर से हटा कर नम्र कर दे ना उदाहरणाथन सश्रम कारािास को

सामान्य कारािास में बदल दे ना
 पररहार --- दं ि की अिवि घटा दे ना परं तु उस की प्रकृवत नही बदली जायेगी
 तवराम--- दं ि मे कमी ला दे ना यह विशेष आिार पर वमलती है जै से गभन िती मवहला की
सजा मे कमी लाना
 प्रतवलंबर् ---- दं ि प्रदान करने मे विलम्ब करना विशे षकर मृ त्यु दं ि के मामलॉ मे

राष्ट्रपवत की क्षमाकारी शस्तक्तयां पूणनतः उसकी इच्छा पर वनभनर करती है उन्ें एक अविकार के
रूप मे मां गा नही जा सकता है । ये शस्तक्तयां कायनपावलका प्रकृवत की है तथा राष्ट्रपवत इनका
प्रयोग मंवत्रपररषद की सलाह पर करे गा न्यायालय मे इन को चुनौती दी जा सकती है । इनक
लक्ष्य दं ि दे ने मे हुई भूल का वनराकरण करना है जो न्यायपावलका ने कर दी हो। शेरवसंह
बनाम पंजाब राज्य 1983 मे सुप्रीमकोटन ने वनणन य वदया की अनु 72, अनु 161 के अंतगनत दी
गई दया यावचका वजतनी शीघ्रता से हो सके उतनी जल्दी वनपटा दी जाये। राष्ट्रपवत न्यावयक
कायनिाही तथा न्यावयक वनणनय को नही बदलेगा िह केिल न्यावयक वनणन य से राहत दे गा
यावचकाकतान को यह भी अविकार नही होगा वक िह सुनिाई के वलये राष्ट्रपवत के समक्ष
उपस्तस्थत हो
राष्ट्रपति की वीर्ो शक्तिर्ां – वििावयका की वकसी कायनिाही को विवि बनने से रोकने की
शस्तक्त िीटॉ शस्तक्त कहलाती है संवििान राष्ट्रपवत को तीन प्रकार के िीटो दे ता है

 1 पू णन वीर्ो--- वनिान ररत प्रवकया से पास वबल जब राष्ट्रपवत के पास आये [संवििान संशोिन
वबल के अवतररक्त ] तो िह् अपनी स्वीकृवत या अस्वीकृवत की घोषणा कर सकता है वकंतु
यवद अनु 368 के अंतगनत कोई वबल आये तो िह अपनी अस्वीकृवत नही दे सकता है यिवप
भारत मे अब तक राष्ट्रपवत ने इस िीटो का प्रयोग वबना मं वत्रपररषद की सलाह के नही वकया
है माना जाता है वक िह ऐसा कर भी नही सकता[विटे न मे यही पंरपंरा है वजसका अनु सरण
भारत मे वकया गया है ]
 2 तर्लम्बर्कारी वीर्ो---- संवििान संशोिन अथिा िन वबल के अवतररक्त राष्ट्रपवत को भे जा
गया कोई भी वबल िह संसद को पुननविचार हे तु िावपस भे ज सकता है वकंतु संसद यवद इस
वबल को िावपस पास कर के भे ज दे तो उसके पास वसिाय इसके कोई विकि नही है उस
वबल को स्वीकृवत दे दे । इस िीटो को िह अपने वििेकाविकार से प्रयोग ले गा।

इस िीटो का प्रयोग अभी तक संसद सद् स्यॉ के िेतन वबल भत्ते तथा पेंशन वनयम संशोिन
1991 मे वकया गया था यह एक वित्तीय वबल था राष्ट्रपवत िेंकट रमण ने इस िीटो का प्रयोग
इस आिार पर वकया वक यह वबल लोकसभा मे वबना उनकी अनुमवत के लाया गया था।
  3 पाकेर् वीर्ो --- संवििान राष्ट्रपवत को स्वीकृवत अस्वीकृवत दे ने के वलये कोई समय सीमा
नही दे ता है यवद राष्ट्रपवत वकसी वबल पे कोई वनणनय ना दे [सामान्य न वक िन या संवििान
संशोिन ] तो माना जायेगा वक उस ने अपने पाकेट िीटो का प्रयोग वकया है यह भी उसकी
वििेकाविकार शस्तक्त के अन्दर आता है पेप्सू वबल 1956 तथा भारतीय िाक वबल 1984 मे
राष्ट्रपवत ने इस िीटो का प्रयोग वकया था।

राष्ट्रपति की संसिीर् शक्ति[संपातिि करें ]

राष्ट्रपवत संसद का अं ग है I कोई भी वबल वबना उसकी स्वीकृवत के पास नही हो सकता अथिा
सदन मे ही नही लाया जा सकता है I

राष्ट्रपति की तववेकािीर् शक्तिर्ााँ[संपातिि करें ]

1. अनु 74 के अनुसार
2. अनु 78 के अनुसार प्रिान मंत्री राष्ट्रपवत को समय समय पर वमल कर राज्य के मामलॉ
तथा भािी वििेयक़ो के बारे मे सूचना दे गा ,इस तरह अनु 78 के अनुसार राष्ट्रपवत सूचना
प्रास्तप्त का अविकार रखता है यह अनु प्रिान मंत्री पे एक संिैिावनक उत्तरदावयत्व रखता है
यह अविकार राष्ट्रपवत कभी भी प्रयोग ला सकता है इसके माध्यम से िह मंत्री पररषद को
वििेयक़ो वनणनयॉ के पररणामॉ की चेतािनी दे सकता है
3. जब कोई राजनैवतक दल लोकसभा मे बहुमत नही पा सके तब िह अपने वििेकानुसार
प्रिान्ंत्री की वनयुस्तक्त करे गा
4. वनलंबन िीटो/पाकेट िीटो भी वििेकी शस्तक्त है
5. संसद के सदनो को बैठक हे तु बुलाना
6. अनु 75 (3) मंत्री पररषद के सस्तम्मवलत उत्तरदावयत्व का प्रवतपादन करता है राष्ट्रपवत मंत्री
पररषद को वकसी वनणनय पर जो वक एक मंत्री ने व्यस्तक्तगत रूप से वलया था पर सस्तम्मवलत
रूप से विचार करने को कह सकता है
7. लोकसभा का विघटन यवद मंत्रीपररषद को बहुमत प्राप्त नही है तो लोकसभा का विघटन
उसकी वििेक शस्तक्त के दायरे मे आ जाता है
वकसी कायनिाह्क सरकार के पास लोकसभा का बहुमत नही होता इस प्रकार की सरकार
मात्र सामन्य वनणनय ही ले सकती है ना वक महत्वपूणन वनणनय यह राष्ट्रपवत वनिान ररत करे गा वक
वनणनय वकस प्रकृवत का है

संतविार् के अन्तगनि राष्ट्रपति की क्तस्थति[संपातिि करें ]

रामजस कपूर िाद तथा शेर वसंह िाद मे वनणनय दे ते हुए सुप्रीम कोटन ने कहा वक संसदीय
सरकार मे िािविक कायनपावलका शस्तक्त मंवत्रपररषद मे है । 42, 44 िें संशोिन से पूिन अनु
74 का पाठ था वक एक मंवत्रपररषद प्रिान मंत्री की अध्यक्षता मे होगी जो वक राष्ट्रपवत को
सलाह सहायता दे गी इस अनु मे यह नही कहा गया था वक िह इस सलाह को मानने हे तु
बाध्य होगा या नही केिल अंग्रेजी पंरपरा के अनुसार माना जाता था वक िह बाध्य है । 42 िे
संशोिन द्वारा अनु 74 का पाठ बदल वदया गया राष्ट्रपवत सलाह के अनुरूप काम करने को
बाध्य माना गया 44िें संशोिन द्वारा अनु 74 मे वफर बद् लाि वकया गया अब राष्ट्रपवत दी
गयी सलाह को पुननविचार हे तु लौटा सकता है वकंतु उसे उस सलाह के अनुरूप काम करना
होगा जो उसे दू सरी बार वमली हो।

संिभन[संपातिि करें ]
Educational Video - भारत के राष्ट्रपवत का चुनाि एिं वनिान चन प्रविया

1. ↑ Bibhudatta Pradhan (2007-07-19). "Patil Poised to Become India's First Female

President". Bloomberg.com.
http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601091&sid=aHJhXtWRZ4bA&refer=indi
a. अवभगमन वतवथ: 2007-07-20.

बाहरी कत़िर्ााँ[संपातिि करें ]

 हमें राष्ट्रपवत कैसा चावहए? – िॉ. िेदप्रताप िैवदक

वाइसरॉर्

http://hi.wikipedia.org/s/2cem
मु क्त ज्ञानकोष विवकपीविया से

यहााँ जाएाँ : भ्रमण, खोज

वाइसरॉर् एक शाही अविकारी होता है , जो एक दे श या प्रां त पर शासन करता है । यह

शासन वकसी मुख्य शासक के नाम पर होता है । यह शब्द बना है : िाइस अंग्रेज़ी से, अथान त
- उप, + फ्रेंछ शब्द रॉय, अथान त राजा। िाइस का अथन लैवटन में " के नाम पर" भी होता है ।
तो पूणन अथन हुआ " राजा के नाम पर"। इनकी पिी को िाइसराइन कहा जाता था।

अर्ुक्रम
[छु पाएाँ ]

 1 दे खें
 2 Spanish Empire
 3 British Empire and Commonwealth
 4 Portuguese Empire
 5 Other colonial viceroyalties
  6 Other Domestic Viceroys, including personal unions
 7 In fiction
 8 Non-Western counterparts
o 8.1 Ottoman empire
o 8.2 China
o 8.3 Sri Lankan and Southeast Asian tradition
 9 दे खें
 10 संदभन

िे खें[संपातिि करें ]
भारत के िाइसरॉय

Spanish Empire[संपातिि करें ]

See also

British Empire and Commonwealth[संपातिि करें ]

Portuguese Empire[संपातिि करें ]

Other colonial viceroyalties[संपातिि करें ]

Other Domestic Viceroys, including personal

unions[संपातिि करें ]
]</ref> and the Washington Post[1]as a "viceroy." -->

In fiction[संपातिि करें ]

Non-Western counterparts[संपातिि करें ]

Ottoman empire[संपातिि करें ]

China[संपातिि करें ]
Sri Lankan and Southeast Asian tradition[संपातिि करें ]

िे खें[संपातिि करें ]
[छछछछछछ]
छ • छछ • छ

अअअअ अअ अअअअअअ अअअअ

छछछछछछ छछछछछछछछछछ · छछछछछ

छछछछछछछछछछ · छछ छछछ छछछ · छछ
छछछछछछछछ छछछछछछछ · छछछछछ
अअअअअ अअअअअअ अअअअअअअअअअअ
छछछछछछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछछछछछछ · छछ
अअ अअअअअअ-अअअअ
छछछछछ छछछछछछछछ छछछछछछ · छछछछछ
(1774–1833)
छछछछछ · छछछछछछछछ छछछछ छछछछछछछछछछ
· छछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछछछछछ · छछछछछछ
छछछछछछछछ छछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछछछ

छछछछछ छछछछछछ छछछछछछछ · छछ छछछछछछछ

छछछछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछछ · छछछछछ
अअअअ अअ अअअअअअ-अअअअ
छछछछछछ · छछछछछछ छछछछछछछछछ छछछछ ·
(1833–1858)
छछ छछछछी छछछछछछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछछछ
· छछछछछ छछछछछछ

छछछछछ छछछछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछ · छछ

छछछछछछ छछछछछछ · छछ छछछछछछ छछछछछछ ·
छछ छछछ छछछछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछ · छछ छछछ
छछछछछछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछछ · छछछछछ
अअअअ अअ अअअअअअअ
अअअ अअअअअअ-अअअअ छछछछछछछछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछछ · छछछछछ
(1858–1947) छछछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछ · छछछछछ
छछछछछछछछछ · छछछछछछ छछछछछ · छछछछछ
छछछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछछछछ · छछछछछ
छछछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछछछछ · छछछछछ
छछछछछछछछछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछछ ·
छछछछछ छछछछछछ · छछछछछ छछछछछछछछछ ·
छछछछछछ छछछ · छछछछछ · छछछछछ
छछछछछछछछछ
 अअअअअअअअ अअअअ अअ छछछछछछछछछ • छछछछछछछछछ
(1947–1950) छछछछछछछछछछछछछछ

छछछछछछछ छछछ छछछछछछछ • छछछछछछ

अअअअअअअअअ अअ
छछछछछछछछछछ • छछछछछ छछछछछछछ •
(1947–1958)
छछछछछछछ छछछछछछ

छछछछछछछ छछछछछछछछछ • छछछछ छछ

छछछछछछ • छछछछछछ छछछछ • छछछछछछछछछ
छछ छछछछछछ छछछछ • छछछछछछ
छछछछछछछछछछ छछछछछछ • छछछछ छछ
छछछछछछछछछछ • छछछछछछछछछ छी
अअअअअअ अअ अअअअअ छछछछछछछछछछ • अअअअअअअ • छछछछछछछ
छछछ • छछछछ छछ छछछछछ छछछछ •
छछछछछछ छछछछछ छछछछछछ • छछछछ छछ
छछछछछछ • छछछछछछछछछछ छछ छछछछछछ •
छछछछ छछ छछछछछछ • छछछछछछछछछ छछ
छछछछछछ

संिभन[संपातिि करें ]
1. ↑ The Viceroy - washingtonpost.com

Indian Councils Act 1909

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Indian Councils Act 1909

 Parliament of the United Kingdom

Chapter 9 Edw. 7 c. 4

Dates

Royal Assent 25 May 1909

Other legislation

Repealing Government of India Act

legislation 1915

Status: Repealed

भारिीर् संतविार्
विवकपीविया, मुक्‍त ज्ञानकोशातून

येथे जा: सुचालन, शोियंत्र

भारतीय संवििान

भारिीर् संतविार् वकंिा भारिाची राज्यघर्र्ा ही भारतातील पायाभूत कायदा ( legal basis)
आहे . िॉ.बाबासाहे ब आं बेिकर हे राज्यघटनेचे वशल् पकार आहे त. भारतीय संवििानािर विविि
पाश्चात्य संवििानां चा प्रभाि आहे . नोव्हें बर २६ इ.स. १९४९ रोजी राज्यघटनेचा स्वीकार केला
गेला ि जानेिारी २६ १९५०पासून राज्यघटना अमलात आली. राज्यघटना इं ग्रजी भाषेत असून
वहची वहं दी भाषेतील प्रतही कायदे शीरदृष्ट्ट्या ग्राह्य आहे .

अर्ुक्रमतणका
[लपिा]

 १ इवतहास
 २ स्वरूप
 ३ तोंिओळख ि महत्त्वाची अंगे
o ३.१ उद्दे वशका
o ३.२ मू लभू त आविकार
o ३.३ सरकारसाठीची मागनदशन क तत्वे
o ३.४ सत्ता
o ३.५ संघराज्य प्रणाली
o ३.६ आविकृत भाषा
o ३.७ आणीबाणीविषयक तरतुदी
 ४ कलमां चा गोषिारा
 ५ घटनादु रूस्त्या
 ६ संदभन
 ७ सावहत्य
 ८ बाह्य दु िे
इतिहास[संपािर्]
तवतकपीतडर्ािील इतिहासतवषर्क ले खाि पाळावर्ाचे ले खर्संकेि[दाखिा]

छछ छछछछछछछछ छछछछछछछ छछछछछछछछछछ छछछ

छछछछ,छछछछछछछछछछछछछछ छछछछ छछछछछछछछछछ छछछ छछछछछ
छछछछछछछछछछ छछछछछछछ छछछछछछछछ छछछछछछछ छछछछ छछछछछछछछ
छछछ.*अअअअअअ अअअअ अअअअ अअअअअअअ अअअअअअअअ अअअअअअ,अअअअअअअअ
अअअ अअअअअअअअअअअअ अअअअअअ अअअअअअअ छछछछ छछछछछछछ छछछ छछछछ
छछछछ छछछछ छछछछछछछछछछछ छछछछछछछछछछछछछ छछछछछ छछछछछछछछ
छछछछछछ. *अअअअअअअअअअअअ अअअअअअ अअअअअ अअअअअअ अअअअअअ
अअअअअअ अअअअअअअअअअ अअअअ अअअअअअ अअअअअअ अअअअअअअअ अअअअअ
अअअअ अअअअअअअअ अअअअअअअअअअ अअअअअअअअअअ अअअअअअअअअअ
अअअअअअअअअ अअअअअअअअअअ अअअ अअअअअ.

 ऐऐऐऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐऐऐऐऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐऐऐ (ऐऐऐऐऐऐऐ/ऐऐऐऐऐऐऐ)ऐऐऐ ऐऐऐ

ऐऐऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐऐऐ ऐऐऐऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐऐ
ऐऐऐऐऐ.ऐऐ.[[ऐऐऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐऐऐऐऐऐऐ]] ऐऐऐऐऐऐ, ऐऐ ऐऐऐऐऐ
ऐऐऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐ ऐऐऐऐऐ;ऐऐऐ ऐऐऐ ऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐऐऐ.

१९५० साली अमलात आले ले भारतीय संवििान मुख्यत्वे १९३५च्या भारत सरकार कायद्यािर
(Government of India Act of 1935) िर आिाररत आहे . १९३५सालच्या या कायद्यान्वये
भारताच्या अंतगनत स्वशासनाचा पाया घातला गेला होता. विवटश पंतप्रिान क्ले मंट ऍटली यां च्या
वशष्ट्मंिळाच्या स्वतंत्र भारताच्या संवििानाची वनवमनती करण्यासाठी एका मसुदा सवमतीच्या
स्थापनेविषयीच्या कल् पनेस भारतीय स्वातंत्र्यलढ्याच्या नेत्यां नी सहमती दशनविली होती. १९४६च्या
उन्ाा़ळ्यात या सवमतीची स्थापना झाली ि वतची पवहली बैठक विसेंबर ९ १९४६ रोजी
सस्तिदानंद वसन्ा यां च्या अध्यक्षतेखाली पुणे येथे पार पिली. ऑगस्ट १५ १९४७ रोजी भारतास
स्वातंत्र्य वमळाल् यािर अल् पकाळ या सवमतीने भारताचे प्रवतवनिी रूपात काम केले होते .

ऑगस्ट २९ १९४७ रोजी िॉ.बाबासाहे ब आं बेिकर यां च्या नेतृत्वाखाली संवििान सवमती स्थापन
झाली. अनेक बैठकां नंतर या सवमतीने सादर केले ला अंवतम मसुदा नोव्हें बर २६ इ.स. १९४९
रोजी स्वीकारला गेला. यामुळे २६ नोव्हें बर हा वदिस "भारतीय संवििान वदन" म्हणून साजरा
केला जातो. [१].नागररकत्व, वनििणूका ि अंतररम संसदे विषयीचे आवण इतर काही तात्पुरत्या
बाबी तत्काळ लागू झाल् या. संवििान संपूणन रूपाने जानेिारी २६ १९५० रोजी लागू झाले .
त्यामुळे २६ जानेिारी हा वदिस "भारतीय प्रजासत्ताक वदन" म्हणून साजरा केला जातो.

स्वरूप[संपािर्]
भारताची राज्यघटना उद्दे वशका (Preamble), मुख्य भाग ि १२ पुरिण्या (पररवशष्ट्े) अशा
स्वरूपात विभागली आहे . मुख्य संवििानाचे २२ विभाग असून त्यां ची अनेक प्रकरणां मध्ये
विभागणी केले ली आहे . सुरूिातीच्या ३९५ कलमां पैकीची काही कलमे आता कालबाह्य झाली
आहे त.

सध्या राज्यघटनेत ४०० कलमे असून; भारतीय संवििान जगातल् या सिािं त मोठ्या संवििानां मध्ये
मोिते .

िोंडओळख व महत्त्वाची अंगे[संपािर्]

भारतीय संवििानात अनेक पाश्चात्य दे शां च्या उदारमतिादी राज्यघटनां चा विवटश िसाहतिादी
संवििानाच्या पायाभूत तत्त्वां शी मेळ घालण्यात आला आहे . भारताच्या व्हॉईसराय किे असले ले
प्रमुख पद नव्या व्यिस्थेत राष्ट्रपतीकिे सोपिण्यात आले ि व्हॉईसरायचे प्रशासकीय आविकार
पंतप्रिानाकिे दे ण्यात आले आहे त. राज्यघटनेच्या ७४व्या कलमानुसार राष्ट्रपतीचे आविकार
मयान वदत असून तो/ती केिळ मंत्रीमंिळास सल् ला दे ऊ शकतो/ते . राष्ट्रपती हा त्याचप्रमाणे
तीनही सैन्यदलां चा प्रमुख असतो. विवटश व्यिथेप्रमाणे भारतीय संसदही वद्वगृही (Bicameral)
आहे .

उद्दे तिका[संपािर्]

मु ख्य पान: भारतीय संवििान उद्देवशका

भारतीय संवििानाच्या उद्दे वशकेप्रमाणे भारत हे सािन भौम (Sovereign) , साम्िादी (Socialist),
िमनवनरपेक्ष (Secular), लोकशाही (Democratic) प्रजासत्ताक(Republic) आहे .[२]

उद्दे वशका फ्रेंच राज्यिां तीच्या आदशािं ना अनुसरून नागररकां स -

 सामावजक, आवथन क आवण राजकीय न्याय

 आचार,विचार,िमन,श्रद्धा यां चे स्वातंत्र्य
 आवण राजकीय समानता ि समान संिी दे ण्याचे

अवभिचन दे ते.

मूळ उद्दे वशकेत साम्िादी (Socialist) ि िमनवनरपेक्ष (Secular) हे शब्द नव्हते . राज्यघटनेच्या
४२व्या दु रूिीद्वारे ते उद्दे वशकेत घालण्यात आले .

मूलभूि आतिकार[संपािर्]

भारतीय राज्यघटनेच्या उदारमतिादी (liberal character) रूपाची प्रवचती विभाग ३ मिील

मूलभूत आविकारां च्या तरतुदीिरून येते. या आविकारां मध्ये सामान्य मानिी आविकारां चा
समािेश आहे जसे - कायद्यासमोर नागररकां ची समानता वकंिा िमन, िंश, जात, वलं ग िा प्रां त
आदी मुद्द्ां िारे न केला जाणारा भेदभाि (कलमे १२ -१८) दवलतां िरच्या अत्याचाराविरूद्धचे
कलम १७ विशेष महत्त्वाचे आहे . अस्पृश्यता पाळणे हा या कलमाने दं िनीय गुन्ा आहे .
घटनेत पाच मूलभूत प्रकारचे आविकार ओळखण्यात आले आहे त.

1. स्वातंत्र्य (कलम १९-२२): भाषणस्वातंत्र्य आवण अवभव्यस्तक्तस्वातंत्र्य सभा िा संघटना स्थापण्याचे

स्वातंत्र्य, पेशा वनििण्याचे स्वातंत्र्य (कलम १९)

कायदा (कलम २०), जीिीताचा आविकार (कलम २१), काही बाबींमध्ये अटक िा कैदीचे
स्वातंत्र्य (कलम २२)

1. शोषणाविरूद्ध संरक्षण (कलम २३ ि २४): बालमजूरी ि मानिी तस्करी (human trafficking)

पासून सं रक्षण
2. िमन स्वातंत्र्य (कलम २५-२८) : पूजा ि आचरणाचे स्वातंत्र्य
3. अल् पसंख्याकां चे आविकार (कलम २९ ि ३०): अल् पसंख्याकां ना संरक्षण ि स्वतःच्या
वशक्षणसंस्था स्थापण्याचे स्वातंत्र्य
4. घटनात्मक तिारींचा आविकार (कलम ३२-३५): मूलभू त आविकारां चे हनन झाले आहे असे
िाटल् यास कोणत्याही व्यक्तीस कलम ३२ अन्वये सिोि न्यायालयात तिार दाखल करण्याचा
हि आहे .

मालमत्ता बाळगण्याचा आविकार दे णारे कलम ३१ १९७८ साली िगळण्यात आले होते . ही
िगळण िादग्रि ठरली होती.

सरकारसाठीची मागनििनक ित्वे[संपािर्]

राज्यघटनेच्या चौर्थ्ा विभागात राज्य ि संघ िरािरील सरकारे तसेच संसदे /वििानसभा
यां च्यासाठी मागनदशनक तत्त्वे घालू न दे ण्यात आली आहे त. यात सामावजक आविकार - जसे
कामाचा आविकार, वशक्षण ि कल् याणाचा आविकार, जीिनाचा सािनवत्रक िर उं चािण्यासाठीची
सरकारची सामावजक दावयत्वे , मनुष्ां ना कामे करणे सुलभ होईल अशी कायान लये (human
working conditions and appropriate environment) आदी. कलम ४३ अन्वये समाविष्ट्
आहे त. कलम ४५ अन्वये १४ िषािं पयिंतच्या मुलां ना मोफत वशक्षण हे शासनाचे दावयत्व आहे .
कलम ४६ अन्वये समाजातील मागास घटकां च्या (विशेषतः आवदिासी ि दवलत घटकां ना)
उनतीस शासन बां िील आहे .

िरील सामावजक दावयत्वां वशिाय चौर्थ्ा विभागात न्यायालयीन (Judiciary) ि प्रशासकीय

(Executive) आविकारां चा कलम ५० मध्ये ि पंचायत स्थापण्याचा कलम ४०) मध्ये उल् ले ख
आहे .

वनसगनरक्षण (कलम ४८-अ), स्मारकेजतन (कलम ४९), आं तरराष्ट्रीय शां तता ि परस्पर
मैत्रीसंबंिां विषयीचे कलम (कलम ५१) आदी कलमे सरकारसाठीची इतर मागनदशन क तत्त्वे
आहे त. इतरत्र अवतशय सुस्पष्ट् ि तपशीलिार असणारे भारतीय संवििानाचे रूप या कलमां मध्ये
अवतशय ढोबळ(Vague) असे आहे . िरील पैकी कोणतीही कलमे सरकारसाठी सक्तीची
नाहीत. वकंबहुना तास्तत्वक मूल्ये (Moral values) असेच त्याचे स्वरूप आहे .
सिा[संपािर्]

सत्तेचे भारतात तीन प्रकारे विकेंद्रीकरण झाले आहे -

 प्रशासकीय (Executive)
 वििीमं िळे (Legislative)
 न्यायालयीन (Judicial)

प्रशासकीय सत्ता पंतप्रिान/मुख्यमंत्री ि मंत्रीमंिळाकिे असते . प्रशासकीय सत्ता संसदीय

अवििेशन चालू नसताना कायदे करू शकते ; परं तु त्यास संसदे ची मान्यता वमळणे बंिनकारक
असते. भारतात प्रशासकीय ि न्यायालयीन आविकारां च्या मयान दा सुस्पष्ट्पणे आखून दे ण्यात
आल् या आहे त. न्यायालयीन सत्तेचे सिोि केंद्र सिोि न्यायालय असते . भारतातील संसद ही
वद्वगृही (Bicameral) आहे . कलम १६८ अन्वये राज्यां ची वििीमंिळे एकगृही(Unicameral) िा
वद्वगृही(Bicameral) असू शकतात. वद्वगृही व्यिस्थेत वििानसभा हे खालील सभागृह (Lower
House) तर वििानपररषद हे िरील सभागृह(Upper House) असते .

संघराज्य प्रणाली[संपािर्]

भारत हे संघराज्य आहे . भारतीय संवििानाने केंद्र सरकारला आविकारां मध्ये झुकते माप वदले
आहे . विभाग ६ अन्वये राज्यां च्या सत्ता, हि, कतनव्ये वनस्तश्चत करण्यात आली आहे त. राज्य
सरकारचे स्वरूपही केंद्राप्रमाणेच असते . राज्यात पंतप्रिानाप्रमाणे मुख्यमंत्री हा सरकारचा
कायनकारी प्रमुख तर राज्यपाल हा राष्ट्रपतीप्रमाणे घटनात्मक प्रमुख असतो. गरज पिल् यास
राज्याचे शासन केंद्राद्वारे बरखाि केले जाऊ शकते . भारताची फाळणी, वहं दू-मुस्तिम दं गे अशा
कारणां मुळे केंवद्रय सरकार तुलनेने सशक्त ठे िण्याची गरज घटनाकारां स भासली. राज्ये
संघराज्यापासून फुटु नयेत यासाठी केंवद्रय सरकारकिे जादा आविकार दे ण्यात आले आहे त.
गाि ि तालु कािरां िरील स्थावनक स्वराज्य संस्थां ना पूणनतः स्वायत्तता दे ण्यास याच कारणािि
उवशर झाला.

आतिकृि भाषा[संपािर्]

संघराज्याची आविकृत भाषा कोणती असािी हा घटनासवमतीतील सिान विक िादाचा मुद्दा होता,
असे िॉ.आं बेंिकरां नी आपल् या आठिणीत नमूद केले आहे . राज्यघटनेच्या कलम ३४३ अन्वये
दे िनागरी वलपीत वलवहले ली वहं दी भाषा ही संघराज्याची आविकृत भाषा आहे . यासोबत इं ग्रजी
भाषेचा उपयोग सिन आविकृत कामां साठी करण्यात येईल. वहं दी भाषेस घटनेने राष्ट्रभाषा नव्हे
तर संघराज्याची आविकृत भाषा असा दजान वदले ला आहे . या सोबत इतर २२ भाषा भारताच्या
मान्यताप्राप्त भाषा आहे त. इं ग्रजी भाषेच्या िापराविषयी दर १५ िषान त पुनरािलोकन करािे अशी
तरतूद घटनेत आहे .

कलम ३४५ अन्वये राज्यां ना वहं दी िा एकाविक प्रादे वशक भाषा िापरण्याचा पयान य आहे . कलम
३४६ अन्वये केंद्र सरकार ि राज्य सरकार यां चे परस्परां शी ि राज्यां चे परस्परां शी दळणिळण
वहं दी िा इं ग्रजीत असािे अशी तरतूद आहे . सिोि न्यायालयाची भाषा इं ग्रजी आहे .
राष्ट्रपतीच्या अनुमतीने उि न्यायालयात वहं दी िा इतर प्रादे वशक भाषां च्या िापरास मुभा आहे .
जर वहं दी ि इं ग्रजी भाषेतील कोणत्याही कायदे शीर दिात मतभेद/फरक वदसल् यास इं ग्रजी
भावषक मजकूर ग्राह्य मानला जाईल असे कलम ३४८ सां गते .

आणीबाणीतवषर्क िरिुिी[संपािर्]

भारताच्या राज्यघटनेत आणीबाणीविषयकच्या अनेक तरतुदींचा उल् ले ख आहे . आणीबाणीचे तीन

प्रकार सां वगतले आहे त. यात -

 राष्ट्रीय आणीबाणी - जेव्हा राष्ट्र िा त्याचा मोठा वहस्सा आपदकालीन स्तस्थतीत असतो तेव्हा
 प्रादे वशक आणीबाणी - जेव्हा एखाद्या राज्यातील स्तस्थती वनयंत्रणाबाहे र जाते तेव्हा
 आवथन क आणीबाणी - जेव्हा भारताचे आवथन क स्थै यन िा पत िोक्ात असते तेव्हा

अशा तीन आणीबाणींचा समािेश आहे राज्यघटनेच्या ३५२व्या कलमानुसार भारताची अंतगनत िा
बाह्य सुरवक्षतता िोक्ात आली असता राष्ट्रपती राष्ट्रीय आणीबाणी घोवषत करू शकतो.३५३व्या
कलमानुसार आणीबाणीच्या पररस्तस्थतीत सारे आविकार संसदे किे एकटवितात. राज्यघटनेच्या
३५९व्या कलमानुसार राष्ट्रपती विभाग ३द्वारे नागररकां स वदले ल् या सिन मूलभूत आविकारां चा
प्रत्याहार (काढून घेणे) करू शकतो. ३५८व्या कलमानुसार कलम १९मिील नागररकां चे
आविकार आणीबाणीच्या काळात आपोआप समाप्त होतात. म्हणजेच व्यिस्थेचे इतर काळी
उदारमतिादी असले ले रूप या काळात अनुदार बनते . राज्यघटनेच्या ३५६व्या कलमानुसार
राज्याची पररस्तस्थती वनयंत्रणाबाहे र गेल्यास राज्याचा कारभार राष्ट्रपतींकिे दे ण्यात येतो. राज्याच्या
वििीमंिळाचे काम या काळात संसद करते . या स्तस्थतीस राष्ट्रपती राजिट असे म्हणतात.

कलमांचा गोषवारा[संपािर्]
(हा विभाग अपूणन आहे . कृपया भर घालािी.)

संवििानाच्या मूळ आिृत्तींचा गोषिारा -

 भाग १ - कलमे १-४ केंद्र आवण शासनाविषयी

 भाग २ - कलमे ५-११
 भाग ३ - कलमे १२-३५ मू लभू त हि
 कलमे १४-१८ समानतेचा हि,
 कलमे १९-२२ स्वातंत्र्याचा हि,
 कलमे २३-२४ शोषणाविरुद्धचा हि,
 कलमे २५-२८ िावमन क स्वातंत्र्याचा हि,
 कलमे २९-३१ सां स्कृवतक आवण शै क्षवणक हि,
 कलमे ३२-३५ सां वििावनक पररहाराचा हि.
 भाग ४ - सरकारी कामकाजाविषयीकची सां वििावनक कलमे ३६ - ५१
 कलम 40 -ग्रामपंचायतीचे संघटन
 कलम 41 - काम करण्याचा, वशक्षणाचा, गरजूं ना सरकारी मदत वमळण्याचा अविकार
 भाग ४(ऎ) कलम ५१ अ - प्रत्येक भारतीय नागररकावच मू लभू त कतनव्ये.
 भाग ५ -
 प्रकरण १ - कलमे ५२-७८
 कलमे ५२-७३ राष्ट्रपती आवण उपराष्ट्रपती यां च्याबाबत,
 कलमे ७४-७५ मं त्रीमंिळविषयक
 कलम ७६ भारताचे मु ख्य ऍटनी,
 कलमे ७७-७८ सरकारच्या व्यिहाराबाबत
 प्रकरण २ - कलमे ७९-१२२ संसदे बाबत.
 कलमे ७९-८८ संसदे च्या संवििानाबाबत,
 कलमे ८९-९८ संसदे च्या आविकारां बाबत,
 कलमे ९९-१००
 कलमे १०१-१०४ सदस्यत्व रद्द करण्याबाबत
 कलमे १०५-१०६ संसद ि खासदारां चे आविकार आवण विशे षाविकार यां च्या बाबत,
 कलमे १०७-१११ (law making process)
 कलमे ११२-११७ आवथन क बाबींबाबत,
 कलमे ११८-१२२
 प्रकरण ३ - कलम १२३
 कलम १२३ संसदे च्या विरामकाळात राष्ट्रपतींच्या आदे शाबाबत
 प्रकरण ४ - कलमे १२४-१४७
 कलमे १२४-१४७ सिोि न्यायालयची रचना आवण संवििान याबाबत
 प्रकरण ५ - कलमे १४८-१५१ भारताचे कंटर ोलर आवण ऑविटर जनरल यां चेबाबत.
 कलमे १४८ - १५१ कंटर ोलर आवण ऑविटर जनरल यां चे आविकार ि कतनव्ये यां बाबत
 भाग ६ - राज्यां च्याच्या बाबतची कलमे .
 प्रकरण १ - कलम १५२ भारताचे राज्यां ची सामान्य व्याख्या
 कलम १५२ - भारताचे राज्यां ची सामान्य व्याख्या - जम्मु आवण काश्मीर िगळू न
 प्रकरण २ - कलमे १५३-१६७ कायािं बाबत
 कलमे १५३-१६२ राज्यपालाच्या बाबत,
 कलमे १६३-१६४ मं त्रीमं िळािर,
 कलम १६५ राज्याच्या ऍि् व्होकेट-जनरल यां च्याबाबत.
 कलमे १६६-१६७ सरकारच्या व्यिहाररक गरजां बाबत.
 प्रकरण ३ - कलमे १६८ - २१२ राज्यां च्या शासनाशी वनगवित.
 कलमे १६८ - १७७ सामान्य मावहती
 कलमे १७८ - १८७ राराज्यां च्या शासनाचे आविकार
 कलमे १८८ - १८९ कायनकलापाविषयी
 कलमे १९० - १९३ सदस्यत्व रद्द करण्याबाबत
 कलमे १९४ - १९५ वििीमंिळ सदस्यां चे आविकार, सिलती, कायदे शीर संरक्षणे
 कलमे १९६ - २०१ कायनकलापाविषयी
 कलमे २०२ - २०७ अवथनक विषयासंबिी
 कलमे २०८ - २१२ इतर सामान्य विषयासंबिी
 प्रकरण ४ - कलम २१३ राज्यपालच्या आविकाराबाबत
 कलम २१३ - राष्ट्रपती ि अवििेशन काळातील वििेयके.
 प्रकरण ५ - कलमे २१४ - २३१ राज्यां च्या उिन्यायालयां च्या बाबत.
 कलमे २१४ - २३१ राज्यां च्या उिन्यायालयां च्या बाबत.
 प्रकरण ६ - कलमे २३३ - २३७ अिीन न्यायालयां च्या बाबत.
 कलमे २३३ - २३७ अिीन न्यायालयां च्या बाबत
 भाग ७ - राज्यां च्या बाबतील कलमे .
 कलम २३८ -
 भाग ८ - केंद्रशावसत प्रदे शां शी वनगिीत कलमे
 कलमे २३९ - २४२ मं त्रीमंिळ रचना आवण उिन्यायालयां च्या बाबत
 भाग ९ - पंचायती पद्धतीबाबतची कलमे
 कलमे २४३ - २४३ ओ ग्रामसभा आवण पंचायती पद्धतीबाबत
 भाग ९ऎ - नगरपावलकां बाबतची कलमे .
 कलमे २४३पी - २४३ झेि नगरपावलकां बाबत
 भाग १० -
 कलमे २४४ - २४४ऎ
 भाग ११ - केंद्र आवण राज्यां च्या संबंिां विषयी
 प्रकरण १ - कलमे २४५ - २५५ शासनाच्या आविकारां च्या वितरणाविषयी
 कलमे २४५ - २५५ शासनाच्या आविकारां च्या वितरणाविषयी
 प्रकरण २ - कलमे २५६ - २६३
 कलमे २५६ - २६१ - सामान्य
 कलमे २६२ - पाण्याचा वििादाबाबत.
 कलमे २६३ - राज्यां चे परस्पर संबंि.
 भाग १२ - संपत्ती, मालमत्ता ि वदिाणी दािे यां बाबत
 प्रकरण १ - कलमे २६४ - २९१ संपत्तीच्या बाबत
 कलमे २६४ - २६७ सामान्य
 कलमे २६८ - २८१
 कलमे २८२ - २९१ इतर
 प्रकरण २ - कलमे २९२ - २९३
 कलमे २९२ - २९३
 प्रकरण ३ - कलमे २९४ - ३००
 कलमे २९४ - ३००
 प्रकरण ४ - कलम ३००ऎ मालमत्ते च्या आविकाराविषयक
 कलम ३००ऎ -
 भाग १३ - भारताच्या व्यापार आवण िावणज्यविषयक कलमे
 कलमे ३०१ - ३०५
 कलम ३०६ -
 कलम ३०७ -
 भाग १४ -
 प्रकरण ५ - कलमे ३०८ - ३१४
 कलमे ३०८ - ३१३
 कलम ३१४ -
 प्रकरण २ - कलमे ३१५ - ३२३ लोकसेिा आयोगाबाबतचे कलम
 कलमे ३१५ - ३२३ लोकसेिा आयोगाबाबतचे कलम
 भाग १४ऎ - आयोगगळ च्या बाबत कलमे
 कलमे ३२३ऎ - ३२३बी
 भाग १५ - वनििणूक विषयक कलमे
 कलमे ३२४ - ३२९ वनििणूक विषयक कलमे
 कलम ३२९ ऎ -
 भाग १६ -
 कलमे ३३० -३४२
 भाग १७ - अविकृत भाषॆ बाबतची कलमे
 प्रकरण १ - कलमे ३४३ - ३४४ केंद्र भाषॆ बाबत
 कलमे ३४३ - ३४४ केंद्राच्या अविकृत भाषॆ बाबत
 प्रकरण २ - कलमे ३४५ - ३४७ प्रां तीय भाषॆ बाबत
 कलमे ३४५ -३४७ प्रां तीय भाषॆ बाबत
 प्रकरण ३ - कलमे ३४८ - ३४९ सिोि न्यायालय, उि न्यायालयां च्या भाषॆ बाबत, इत्यादी
 कलमे ३४८ - ३४९ सिोि न्यायालय, उि न्यायालयां च्या भाषॆ बाबत, इत्यावद
 प्रकरण ४ - कलमे ३५० - ३५१ विशे ष वनदे श
 कलम ३५० -
 कलम ३५० ऎ -
 कलम ३५०वब - भावषक अल् पसंख्यां काविषयीचे कलम
 कलम ३५१ - वहं दी भाषॆ विषयीक कलम
 भाग १८ - आणीबाणी पररस्तस्थतीबाबतची कलमे
 कलमे ३५२ - ३५९ - आणीबाणी पररस्तस्थतीबाबतची कलमे
 कलम ३५९ऎ -
 कलम ३६० - आवथन क आणीबाणी
 भाग १९ - इतर विषय
 कलमे ३६१ - ३६१ऎ - इतर विषय
 कलम ३६२ -
 कलमे ३६३ - ३६७ - इतर
 भाग २० -
 कलम ३६८ -
 भाग २१ -
 कलमे ३६९ -३७८ऎ
 कलमे ३७९ - ३९१ -
 कलम ३९२ - आणीबाणीच्या पररस्तस्थतीतील राष्ट्रपतींचे हि
 भाग २२ -
 कलमे ३९३ -३९५
भारिीर् संतविार् सभा

http://hi.wikipedia.org/s/wlk
मु क्त ज्ञानकोष विवकपीविया से

यहााँ जाएाँ : भ्रमण, खोज

भारतीय संवििान सभा का पहला वदन (११ वदशम्बर १९४६)। बैठे हुए दाएं से : बी जी खे र, सरदार
बल्लभ भाई पटे ल और के एम मुं शी

भारत की संतविार् सभा का चुनाि भारतीय संवििान की रचना वक वलए वकया गया था। ग्रेट
विटे न से स्वतंत्र होने के बाद संवििान सभा के सदस्य ही प्रथम संसद के सदस्य बने।

पररचर्[संपातिि करें ]
वद्वतीय विश्वयुद्ध की समास्तप्त के बाद जु लाई १९४५ में विटे न में एक नयी सरकार बनी। इस
नयी सरकार ने भारत संबन्धी अपनी नई नीवत की घोषणा की तथा एक संवििान वनमान ण करने
िाली सवमवत बनाने का वनणनय वलया। भारत की आज़ादी के सिाल का हल वनकालने के वलए
विवटश कैवबनेट के तीन मंत्री भारत भेजे गए। मंवत्रयों के इस दल को कैवबनेट वमशन के नाम
से जाना जाता है । १५ अगि, १९४७ को भारत के आज़ाद हो जाने के बाद यह संवििान
सभा पूणनतः प्रभुतासंपन हो गई। इस सभा ने अपना कायन ९ वदसम्बर १९४७ से आरि कर
वदया। संवििान सभा के सदस्य भारत के राज्यों की सभाओं के वनिान वचत सदस्यों के द्वारा चुने
गए थे। जिाहरलाल नेहरू, िॉ राजेन्द्र प्रसाद, सरदार िल्लभ भाई पटे ल, श्ामा प्रसाद मुखजी,
मौलाना अबुल कलाम आजाद आवद इस सभा के प्रमुख सदस्य थे। अनुसूवचत िगों से ३० से
ज्यादा सदस्य इस सभा में शावमल थे। श्री सस्तिदानन्द वसन्ा इस सभा के प्रथम सभापवत थे |
वकन्तु बाद में िॉ राजेन्द्र प्रसाद को सभापवत वनिान वचत वकया गया। भीमराि रामजी आं बेिकर
को वनमान त्री वसवमत का अध्यक्ष चुना गया था। संवििान सभा ने २ िषन, ११ माह, १८ वदन में
कुल १६६ वदन बैठक की। इसकी बैठकों में प्रेस और जनता को भाग लेने की स्वतन्त्रता थी।
संिभन[संपातिि करें ]
The Indian Councils Act 1909 (9 Edw. 7 c. 4), commonly known as the
Morley-Minto Reforms, was an Act of the Parliament of the United
Kingdom that brought about a limited increase in the involvement of
Indians in the governance of British India.

John Morley, the Liberal Secretary of State for India, and the
Conservative Governor-General of India, The Earl of Minto, believed
that cracking down on uprising in Bengal was necessary but not
sufficient for restoring stability to the British Raj after Lord Curzon's
partitioning of Bengal. They believed that a dramatic step was required
to put heart into loyal elements of the Indian upper classes and the
growing Westernised section of the population.

They produced the Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto

reforms), these reforms did not go any significant distance toward
meeting the Indian National Congress demand for 'the system of
government obtaining in Self-Governing British Colonies'.

The Act of 1909 was important for the following reasons:

 It effectively allowed the election of Indians to the various

legislative councils in India for the first time. Previously some
Indians had been appointed to legislative councils. The majorities
of the councils remained British government appointments.
Moreover the electorate was limited to specific classes of Indian
nationals;

 The introduction of the electoral principle laid the groundwork for

a parliamentary system even though this was contrary to the
intent of Morley. As stated by Burke and Quraishi -

“To Lord Curzon's apprehension that the new Councils could become
'parliamentary bodies in miniature', Morley vehemently replied that, 'if it
could be said that this chapter of reforms led directly or indirectly to the
establishment of a parliamentary system in India, I for one would have
nothing at all to do with it'. But he had already confessed in a letter to
Minto in June 1906 that while it was inconceivable to adapt English
political institutions to the 'nations who inhabit India...the spirit of
English institutions is a different thing and it is a thing that we cannot
escape, even if we wished...because the British constituencies are the
masters, and they will assuredly insist.. .all parties alike.. .on the spirit of
their own political system being applied to India.' He never got down to
explaining how the spirit of the British system of government could be
achieved without its body.”

 Muslims had expressed serious concern that a ‘first past the post’
British type of electoral system would leave them permanently
subject to Hindu majority rule. The Act of 1909 stipulated, as
demanded by the Muslim leadership

 that Indian Muslims be allotted reserved seats in the

Municipal and District Boards, in the Provincial Councils and
in the Imperial Legislature;
 that the number of reserved seats be in excess of their
relative population (25 percent of the Indian population);
and,
 that only Muslims should vote for candidates for the Muslim
seats ('separate electorates').

These concessions were a constant source of strife 1909-47. British

statesmen generally considered reserved seats as regrettable in that they
encouraged communal extremism as Muslim candidates did not have to
appeal for Hindu votes and vice versa. As further power was shifted
from the British to Indian politicians in 1919, 1935 and after, Muslims
were ever more determined to hold on to, and if possible expand,
reserved seats and their weightage. However, Hindu politicians
repeatedly tried to eliminate reserved seats as they considered them to be
undemocratic and to hinder the development of a shared Hindu-Muslim
Indian national feeling.

1. The number of the members of the Legislative Council at the Center

was increased from 16 to 60.

2. The number of the members of the Provincial Legislatives was also

increased. It was fixed as 50 in the provinces of Bengal, Madras and
Bombay, and for the rest of the provinces it was 30.

3. The member of the Legislative Councils, both at the Center and in the
provinces, were to be of four categories i.e. ex-officio members
(Governor General and the members of their Executive Councils),
nominated official members (those nominated by the Governor General
and were government officials), nominated non-official members
(nominated by the Governor General but were not government officials)
and elected members (elected by different categories of Indian people).

4. The right of separate electorate was given to the Muslims.

5. Official members were to form the majority but in provinces non-

official members would be in majority.

6. The members of the Legislative Councils were permitted to discuss

the budgets, suggest the amendments and even to vote on them;
excluding those items that were included as non-vote items. They were
also entitled to ask supplementary questions during the legislative
proceedings.

7. The Secretary of State for India was empowered to increase the

number of the Executive Councils of Madras and Bombay from two to
four.

8. Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State

for Indian Affairs.
9. The Governor General was empowered to nominate one Indian
member to his Executive Council.

In 1906, Lord Morley, the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs,

announced in the British parliament that his government wanted to
introduce new reforms for India, in which the locals were to be given
more powers in legislative affairs. With this, a series of correspondences
started between him and Lord Minto, the then Governor General of
India. A committee was appointed by the Government of India to
propose a scheme of reforms. The committee submitted its report, and
after the approval of Lord Minto and Lord Morley, the Act of 1909 was
passed by the British parliament. The Act of 1909 is commonly known
as the Minto-Morley Reforms. The following were the main features of
the Act of 1909:

Constitution of India

The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the
framework defining fundamental political principles, establishes the
structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions, and
sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of
citizens. It is the longest[1] written constitution of any sovereign country
in the world, containing 444[Note 1] articles in 22 parts, 12 schedules and
118 amendments. Besides the Hindi version, there is an official English
translation. Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar is widely known as the father
of the Indian Constitution.

The Constitution follows parliamentary system of government and the

executive is directly accountable to legislature. Article 74 provides that
there shall be a Prime Minister of India as the head of government. It
also states that there shall be a President of India and a Vice-President of
India under Articles 52 and 63. Unlike the Prime Minister, the President
largely performs ceremonial roles.
The Constitution is federal in nature. Each State and each Union
territory of India have their own government. Analogues to President
and Prime Minister, is the Governor in case of States, Lieutenant
Governor for Union territories and the Chief Minister. The 73rd and
74th Amendment Act also introduced the system of Panchayati raj in
villages and municipalities. Also, Article 370 of the Constitution gives
special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

The Constitution was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26

November 1949, and came into effect on 26 January 1950.[2] The date 26
January was chosen to commemorate the Purna Swaraj declaration of
independence of 1930. With its adoption, the Union of India officially
became the modern and contemporary Republic of India and it replaced
the Government of India Act 1935 as the country's fundamental
governing document. To ensure constitutional autochthony, the framers
of constitution inserted Article 395 in the constitution and by this Article
the Indian Independence Act, 1947 was repealed.[3] The Constitution
declares India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic,
assuring its citizens of justice, equality, and liberty, and endeavors to
promote fraternity among them.[4] The words "socialist" and "secular"
were added to the definition in 1976 by constitutional amendment (mini
constitution).[5] India celebrates the adoption of the constitution on 26
January each year as Republic Day.[6]

Contents

[hide]

 1 Background
o 1.1 Government of India Act 1935
o 1.2 The Cabinet Mission Plan
o 1.3 Indian Independence Act 1947
 2 Constituent Assembly
o 2.1 Drafting
 3 Structure
 o 3.1 Parts
o 3.2 Schedules
 4 Amendment
o 4.1 Limitations
 5 Adoptions from other constitutions
o 5.1 Judicial review
 6 See also
 7 Notes
 8 References
 9 Bibliography
 10 External links

Background[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Indian independence movement

The major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British colonial
rule from 1857 to 1947. The impact of economic, political and social
exploitation during this period helped the gradual rise of the Indian
independence movement to gain independence from foreign rule. The
movement culminated in the formation of the Dominion of India on 15
August 1947, along with the Dominion of Pakistan. The Constitution of
India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26
January 1950, proclaiming India to be a sovereign, democratic republic.
It contained the founding principles of the law of the land which would
govern India after its independence from British rule. On the day the
constitution came into effect, India ceased to be a dominion of the
British Crown. The Indian constitution is the world's longest
constitution. At the time of commencement, the constitution had 395
articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules. It consists of almost 80,000 words
and took 2 years 11 months and 18 days to build.

In the United Kingdom the office of the Secretary of State for India was
the authority through whom Parliament exercised its rule (along with the
Council of India), and established the office of Viceroy of India (along
with an Executive Council in India, consisting of high officials of the
British Government). The Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a
Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive council
and non-official members. The Indian Councils Act 1892 established
provincial legislatures and increased the powers of the Legislative
Council. Although these Acts increased the representation of Indians in
the government, their power still remained limited. The Indian Councils
Act 1909 and the Government of India Act 1919 further expanded
participation of Indians in the government.

Government of India Act 1935[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Government of India Act 1935

The provisions of the Government of India Act 1935, though never

implemented fully, had a great impact on the Constitution of India.
Many key features of the constitution are directly taken from this Act.
The federal structure of government, provincial autonomy, a bicameral
central legislature consisting of a federal assembly and a Council of
States and the separation of legislative powers between the centre and
states are some of the provisions of the Act which are present in the
Constitution of India.

The Cabinet Mission Plan[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: 1946 Cabinet Mission to India

In 1946, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee formulated a cabinet

mission to India to discuss and finalize plans for the transfer of power
from the British Raj to Indian leadership as well as provide India with
independence under Dominion status in the Commonwealth of
Nations.[7][8] The Mission discussed the framework of the constitution
and laid down in some detail the procedure to be followed by the
constitution drafting body. Elections for the 296 seats assigned to the
British Indian provinces were completed by August 1946. The
Constituent Assembly of India first met and began work on 26
November 1946.

The mission consisted of Lord Pethick-Lawrence, the Secretary of State

for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade, and A. V.
Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty. However, Lord Wavell, the
Viceroy of India, did not participate.

Indian Independence Act 1947[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Indian Independence Act 1947

The Indian Independence Act, passed by the British Parliament on 18

July 1947, divided British India into two new independent states, India
and Pakistan, which were to be dominions under the Commonwealth of
Nations until they had each finished drafting and enacted a new
constitution. The Constituent Assembly was divided into two for the
separate states, with each new Assembly having sovereign powers
transferred to it for the respective dominion. The Act also terminated
British suzerainty over the princely states, each of which was left to
decide whether to accede to one or other of the new dominions or to
continue as independent states in their own right. However, in most
cases the states were so dependent on central institutions that they were
widely expected to accede to a dominion.

When the Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950, it

repealed the Indian Independence Act. India ceased to be a dominion of
the British Crown and became a sovereign democratic republic. 26
November 1949 is also known as National Law Day.

Constituent Assembly[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Constituent Assembly of India

The Constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was

elected by the elected members of the provincial assemblies.[9] Dr B.R.
Ambedkar, Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari,
Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Kanaiyalal Munshi,
Purushottam Mavalankar, Sandipkumar Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Nalini Ranjan Ghosh, and Balwantrai
Mehta were some important figures in the Assembly. There were more
than 30 members of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented
the Anglo-Indian community, and the Parsis were represented by H. P.
Modi. The Chairman of the Minorities Committee was Harendra
Coomar Mookerjee, a distinguished Christian who represented all
Christians other than Anglo-Indians. Ari Bahadur Gururng represented
the Gorkha Community. Prominent jurists like Alladi Krishnaswamy
Iyer, Benegal Narsing Rau and K. M. Munshi, Ganesh Mavlankar were
also members of the Assembly. Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai
Deshmukh, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur and Vijayalakshmi Pandit were
important women members.

Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar is hailed as the prime architect of Indian

Constitution

The first temporary 2-day president of the Constituent Assembly was Dr

Sachidanand Sinha. Later, Rajendra Prasad was elected president of the
Constituent Assembly.[9] The members of the Constituent Assembly met
for the first time on 9 December 1946.[9]

Drafting[edit source | editbeta]

On the 14 August 1947 meeting of the Assembly, a proposal for forming

various committees was presented.[9] Such committees included a
Committee on Fundamental Rights, the Union Powers Committee and
Union Constitution Committee. On 29 August 1947, the Drafting
Committee was appointed, with Dr B. R. Ambedkar as the Chairman
along with six other members assisted by a constitutional advisor. These
members were Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi
(K M Munshi, Ex- Home Minister, Bombay), Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer
(Ex- Advocate General, Madras State), N Gopalaswami Ayengar (Ex-
Prime Minister, J&K and later member of Nehru Cabinet), B L Mitter
(Ex-Advocate General, India), Md. Saadullah (Ex- Chief Minister of
Assam, Muslim League member) and D P Khaitan (Scion of Khaitan
Business family and a renowned lawyer). The constitutional advisor was
Sir Benegal Narsing Rau (who became First Indian Judge in
International Court of Justice, 1950–54). Later B L Mitter resigned and
was replaced by Madhav Rao (Legal Advisor of Maharaja of Vadodara).
Owing to death of D P Khaitan, T T Krishnamachari was chosen to be
included in the drafting committee. A Draft Constitution was prepared
by the committee and submitted to the Assembly on 4 November 1947.
Draft constitution was debated and over 2000 amendments were moved
over a period of two years. Finally on 26 Nov. 1949, the process was
completed and Constituent assembly adopted the constitution. 284
members signed the document and the process of constitution making
was complete.[10]

The Assembly met in sessions open to the public, for 166 days, spread
over a period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 days before adopting the
Constitution, the 308 members of the Assembly signed two copies of the
document (one each in Hindi and English) on 24 January 1950. The
original Constitution of India is hand-written with beautiful calligraphy,
each page beautified and decorated by artists from Shantiniketan
including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose. Two days
later, on 26 January 1950, the Constitution of India became the law of all
the States and territories of India. Rs. 1,00,00,000 was official estimate
of expenditure on constituent assembly. The Constitution has undergone
many amendments since its enactment.[11]

Structure[edit source | editbeta]

The Constitution, in its current form (September 2012), consists of a

preamble, 22 parts containing 444 [Note 1] articles, 12 schedules, 2
appendices[12] and 98 amendments to date.[11]

Parts[edit source | editbeta]

The individual Articles of the Constitution are grouped together into the
following Parts:

 Preamble  Part XII – Finance, Property,

 Part I[13] – Union and its
Territory
 Part II[14] – Citizenship.
 Part III – Fundamental
Rights.
 Part IV[15] – Directive
Principles of State Policy.
 Part IVA – Fundamental
Duties.
 Part V[16] – The Union.
 Part VI[17] – The States.
 Part VII[18] – States in the B
part of the First
schedule(Repealed).
 Part VIII[19] – The Union
Territories
Contracts and Suits
 Part XIII – Trade and
Commerce within the territory
of India
 Part XIV – Services Under the
Union, the States.
 Part XIVA – Tribunals.
 Part XV – Elections
 Part XVI – Special Provisions
Relating to certain Classes.
 Part XVII – Languages
 Part XVIII – Emergency
Provisions
 Part XIX – Miscellaneous
 Part XX – Amendment of the
Constitution
  IX[20] – The Panchayats.
 Part IXA – The
Municipalities.
 IXB – The Cooperative
Societies
 Part X – The scheduled and
Tribal Areas
 Part XI – Relations between
the Union and the States.
 Part XXI – Temporary,
Transitional and Special
Provisions
 Part XXII – Short title, date of
commencement, Authoritative
text in Hindi and Repeals

Schedules[edit source | editbeta]

Schedules are lists in the Constitution that categorize and tabulate

bureaucratic activity and policy of the Government.

 First Schedule (Articles 1 and 4)- This lists the states and
territories of India, lists any changes to their borders and the laws
used to make that change.
 Second Schedule (Articles 59(3), 65(3), 75(6), 97, 125, 148(3),
158(3), 164(5), 186 and 221)- – This lists the salaries of officials
holding public office, judges, and Comptroller and Auditor General
of India.
 Third Schedule (Articles 75(4), 99, 124(6), 148(2), 164(3), 188 and
219)—Forms of Oaths – This lists the oaths of offices for elected
officials and judges.
 Fourth Schedule (Articles 4(1) and 80(2)) – This details the
allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha (the upper house of
Parliament) per State or Union Territory.
 Fifth Schedule (Article 244(1)) – This provides for the
administration and control of Scheduled Areas[Note 2] and
Scheduled Tribes[Note 3] (areas and tribes needing special
protection due to disadvantageous conditions).
  Sixth Schedule (Articles 244(2) and 275(1))— Provisions for the
administration of tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and
Mizoram.
 Seventh Schedule (Article 246)—The union (central government),
state, and concurrent lists of responsibilities.
 Eighth Schedule (Articles 344(1) and 351)—The official languages.
 Ninth Schedule (Article 31-B) – Originally Articles mentioned here
were immune from judicial review on the ground that they
violated fundamental rights. but in a landmark judgement in 2007,
the Supreme Court of India held in I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil
Nadu and others that laws included in the 9th schedule can be
subject to judicial review if they violated the fundamental rights
guaranteed under Article 14, 15, 19, 21 or the basic structure of
the Constitution {(ambiguous)}[21]
 Tenth Schedule (Articles 102(2) and 191(2))—"Anti-defection"
provisions for Members of Parliament and Members of the State
Legislatures.
 Eleventh Schedule (Article 243-D)—Panchayat Raj (rural local
government).
 Twelth Schedule (Article 243-W)—Municipalities (urban local
government).

Amendment[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Amendment of the Constitution of India

The process of re writing any part of the constitution is called

amendment.Amendments to the Constitution are made by the
Parliament, the procedure for which is laid out in Article 368. An
amendment bill must be passed by both the Houses of the Parliament by
a two-thirds majority and voting. In addition to this, certain amendments
which pertain to the federal nature of the Constitution must be ratified
by a majority of state legislatures.
As of July 2013 there have been 118 amendment bills presented in the
Parliament, out of which 98 have been passed to become Amendment
Acts.[22] Most of these amendments address issues dealt with by statute
in other democracies. However, the Constitution is so specific in
spelling out government powers that many of these issues must be
addressed by constitutional amendment. As a result, the document is
amended roughly twice a year.

In 2000 the National Commission to Review the Working of the

Constitution (NCRWC) was set up to look into updating the
constitution.[23]

Limitations[edit source | editbeta]

The Supreme Court has ruled in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala

case that not every constitutional amendment is permissible, the
amendment must respect the "basic structure" of the constitution, which
is immutable.

Adoptions from other constitutions[edit source | editbeta]

The architects of Indian constitution were most heavily influenced by

the British model of parliamentary democracy. In addition, a number of
principles were adopted from the Constitution of the United States of
America, including the separation of powers among the major branches
of government and the establishment of a supreme court. The principles
adopted from Canada were Unitary government with strong centre and
also distribution of powers between central government and state
governments along with placing residuary powers with central
government. From Ireland, directive principle of state policy was
adopted. From Germany, the principle of suspension of fundamental
rights during emergency was adopted. From Australia, the idea of
having a Concurrent list of shared powers was used as well and some of
the terminology was utilized for the preamble.[24]

Judicial review[edit source | editbeta]

See also: Judicial review

Judicial review is adopted in the Constitution of India from the

Constitution of the United States of America (see[25]). In the Indian
constitution, Judicial review is dealt with under Article 13. Judicial
Review refers that the Constitution is the supreme power of the nation
and all laws are under its supremacy. Article 13 states that:

1. All pre-constitutional laws, if in part or completely in conflict with

the Constitution, shall have all conflicting provisions deemed
ineffective until an amendment to the Constitution ends the
conflict. In such situation the provision of that law will again come
into force, if it is compatible with the constitution as amended.
This is called the Doctrine of Eclipse.[26]
2. In a similar manner, laws made after adoption of the Constitution
by the Constituent Assembly must be compatible with the
constitution, otherwise the laws and amendments will be deemed
to be void ab initio.
3. In such situations, the Supreme Court or High Court interprets the
laws to decide if they are in conformity with the Constitution. If
such an interpretation is not possible because of inconsistency,
and where a separation is possible, the provision that is
inconsistent with constitution is considered to be void. In addition
to article 13, articles 32, 226 and 227 provide a constitutional
basis to judicial review in India.[27]

छ. छछछछछ छछछछछछ छछ. छछछछछ

छ. छछछछछछछ छछछछछछ छछ. छछछछछ

छ. छछछछ छछ. छछछछछछ
छ. छछछछछछछछछ छछ. छछछछ छछछछछछ
छ. छछछछछ छछछछछछ छछ. छछछछछछछछछछ
छ. छछछछछ छछ. छछछछछछ
छ. छछछछछछछ छछ. छछछछछछ
छ. छछछछ छछ. छछछछछछछछ
छ. छछछछ छछ. छछछछछ छछछ छछछछछछछ
छछ. छछछछछछ छछ. छछछछछछ
छछ. छछछछछछछछछ छछ. छछछछछछछ
छछ. छछछछछछछछ छछ. छछछछछछ छछछछछछ
छछ. छछछछछछछछ छछ. छछछछछछछछ
छछ छछछछछछ छछछछछ छछ. छछछछछछछ

अअअअअअअअअअअअ अअअअअअ :

छ. छछछछछछ छछछ छछछछछछछ

छ. छछछछछछ
छ. छछछ छछछ छछछ
छ. छछछछछ छछछ छछछ-छछछछछ
छ. छछछछछछछछ
छ. छछछछछछछछछ छछछछछछछ छछछछछछ (छछछछछछ))
छ. छछछछछछछछछ

भारि के राज्य िथा केन्द्र-शातसि प्रिे श

http://hi.wikipedia.org/s/6jbk
मु क्त ज्ञानकोष विवकपीविया से

यहााँ जाएाँ : भ्रमण, खोज

भारत अनेक संघीय राज्यों का एक संघ है ।[1] इसमें अट्ठाईस राज्य और साि केन्द्र शावसत
प्रदे श हैं । ये राज्य और केन्द्र शावसत प्रदे श पुनः वजलों और अन्य क्षेत्रों में बां टे गए हैं ।[1].

अर्ुक्रम
[छु पाएाँ ]

 1 भारत के राज्य और प्रदे श

 2 १९५६ से पूिन
 3 १९५६ के बाद
 4 यह भी दे खें
 5 संदभन
 6 विदे श संबंि
भारि के राज्य और प्रिे श[संपातिि करें ]

भारत के राज्य और केंद्रशावसत प्रदे श, 28 राज्य और 7 केंद्रशावसत प्रदे श.

राज्य:

8. छछछछछछछ
1. छछछछछ 22. छछछछछछछछ
9. छछछछछछ
छछछछछछ 15. छछछछछछछछछछ 23. छछछछछछछ
छछछछछछ
2. छछछछछछछ 16. छछछछछछ 24. छछछछछछछछ
10. छछछछछ छछ
छछछछछछ 17. छछछछछछ 25. छछछछछछछछ
छछछछछछ
3. छछछ 18. छछछछछछछ 26. छछछछछ
11. छछछछछछछ
4. छछछछछ 19. छछछछछछछछछ छछछछछछ
12. छछछछछछछ
5. छछछछछछछछछ 20. छछछछछछ 27. छछछछछछछछछछ
13. छछछछ
6. छछछ 21. छछछछछ 28. छछछछछछ
14. छछछछ
7. छछछछछछ छछछछछ
छछछछछछ

केन्द्र शातसि प्रिे श:

A. छछछछछछछ छछ छछछछछछछ छछछछछछछछछ

B. छछछछछछछछ
C. छछछछछ छछ छछछ छछछछछ
D. छछछ छछ छछछ
E. छछछछछछछछछ
F. छछछछछछछछछ छछछछछछछ छछछछछछछ छछछछछछ
G. छछछछछछछछछछ
जम्मू और कश्मीर के कुछ क्षेत्र भारत, पावकिान और चीन द्वारा वििावदत समझे जाते हैं ।
इससे पहले हरे क दे श ने अपने आप को कश्मीर का एक अंग बताते हुए उस पर राज्य
करने का दािा भी वकया है ।

अरुणाचल प्रदे श के कुछ भाग को दवक्षण वतब्बत बता कर चीन द्वारा उसपर दािा वकया गया
है ।

१९५६ से पूवन[संपातिि करें ]

अअअअ
छछ छछछछछ छछ छछछ छछछछछछछ

छछछछछछछछछ

छछछछछछछछ

छछछछछछ छछछछछी

छछछछछछ

छछ छछछछछछ

छछछछछछछछछ छछछ

छछछछछछछछछ छछछछ छछ

छछछछछछछ

छछछछछछछछ छछ

छछछछछ

छछछछछछछछछछ

छछछछछछ छछ छछछछछ
 छछछ छछ छछछछछछछछछछछ

छछछछछछछछ छछछछछछछछ

छछछछछछ छछ छछछछ

छछछछछछछ छछछछछछछछ

छछछछ छछछछछछछछछ

छछछछछ छछछछछछछ छछछछछछ

छछ छछछछछ छछ: छछछछछ • छछछछछ • छछछछछछ

भारत के इवतहास में भारतीय उपमहाद्वीप पर विवभन जातीय समूहों ने शासन वकया और इसे
अलग-अलग प्रशासन-सं बन्धी भागों में विभावजत वकया। आिुवनक भारत के ितनमान प्रशासवनक
प्रभाग नए घटनािम हैं , जो विवटश औपवनिेवशक काल के दौरान विकवसत हुए। विवटश भारत
में, ितनमान भारत, पावकिान, और बंगलादे श, साथ ही अफ़्गावनिान प्रां त और उससे जुडे
संरवक्षत प्रां त, बाद में उपवनिेश बना, बमान (म्ां मार) आवद, सभी राज्य समावहत थे। इस अिवि
के दौरान, भारत के क्षेत्रों में या तो विवटशों का शासन था या उन पर स्थानीय राजाओं का
वनयंत्रण था। १९४७ में स्वतन्त्रता के बाद इन विभागों को संरवक्षत वकया गया और पंजाब तथा
बंगाल के प्रां तों को भारत और पावकिान के बीच विभावजत वकया गया। नए राष्ट्र के वलए
पहली चुनौती थी राजसी राज्यों का संघों में विलय।

स्वतन्त्रता के बाद, हालां वक, भारत में अस्तस्थरता आ गई। कई प्रां त औपवनिेवशकरण के उद्दे श्
से विवटशों द्वारा बनाए गए, पर इन पर भारतीय नागररकों की या राजसी राज्यों की कोई इच्छा
वदखाई नहीं दी। १९५६ में जातीय तनाि ने संसद का दरिाजा खटखटाया और राज्य पुनगनठन
अविवनयम के आिार पर दे श को जातीय और भाषाई आिार पर पुनवननमान ण करने के वलए
अविवनयम लाया गया।

१९५६ के बाि[संपातिि करें ]

भारत में वजस प्रकार पू िन में फ़्ां सीसी और पुतनगाली उपवनिेशों को गणराज्य में समावहत वकया
गया था, िैसे ही १९६२ में पां विचेरी, दादरा, नगर हिेली, गोआ, दमन, और वदयू को संघ राज्य
बनाया गया।

१९५६ के बाद कई नए राज्यों और संघ राज्यों को बनाया गया। बम्बई पुनगनठन अविवनयम के
द्वारा १ मई, १९६० को भाषाई आिार पर बंबई राज्य को गुजरात और महाराष्ट्र के रूप में
अलग वकया गया। १९६६ के पंजाब पुनगनठन अविवनयम ने भाषाई और िावमनक पै माने पर
पंजाब को हररयाणा के नए वहन्दू बहुल और वहन्दी भाषी राज्यों में बााँ टा और पंजाब के उत्तरी
वजलों को वहमाचल प्रदे श में स्थानां तररत कर वदया गया और एक वजले को चण्डीगढ का नाम
वदया जो पंजाब और हररयाणा की साझा राजिानी है । नागालैण्ड १९६२ में, मेघालय और
वहमाचल प्रदे श १९७१ में, वत्रपुरा और मवणपुर १९७२ में राज्य बनाए गए। १९७२ में अरुणाचल
प्रदे श को एक केंद्र शावसत प्रदे श बना वदया गया। वसस्तिम राज्य १९७५ में एक राज्य के
रूप में भारतीय संघ में सस्तम्मवलत हो गया। १९८६ में वमज़ोरम और १९८७ में गोआ और
अरुणाचल प्रदे श राज्य बने जबवक गोआ के उत्तरी भाग दमन और दीयु एक अलग संघ राज्य
बन गए। २००० में तीन नए राज्य बनाए गए। पूिी मध्य प्रदे श से छत्तीसगढ (१ निंबर,
२०००) में और उत्तरां चल (९ निंबर, २०००) बनाए गए जो अब उत्तराखण्ड है । उत्तर प्रदे श
के पहाडी क्षेत्रों के कारण झारखण्ड (१५ निंबर २०००) को वबहार के दवक्षणी वजलों में से
पृथक कर बनाया गया। दो केन्द्र शावसत प्रदे शों वदल्ली और पास्तण्डचेरी (जो बाद में पुदुचेरी
कहा गया) को वििानसभा सदस्यों का अविकार वदया गया और अब िे छोटे राज्यों के रूप
में वगने जाते हैं ।

र्ह भी िे खें[संपातिि करें ]

 भारत के उपविभाग
 भारत के स्वायत्त क्षे त्र
 भारत के राज्य
 भारत के केन्द्र शावसत प्रदे श

संिभन[संपातिि करें ]
1. ↑ Jump up to: 1.0 1.1 "States and union territories" (HTML).
http://www.india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php. अवभगमन वतवथ: 2007-09-07.

भारिीर् राष्ट्रीर्िा कार्ूर्

http://hi.wikipedia.org/s/18w4
मु क्त ज्ञानकोष विवकपीविया से

यहााँ जाएाँ : भ्रमण, खोज

भारिीर् र्ागररकिा और राष्ट्रीर्िा कार्ूर् के अनुसार: भारत का संवििान पू रे दे श के वलए

एकमात्र नागररकता उपलब्ध कराता है . संवििान के प्रारं भ में नागररकता से संबंवित प्राििानों
को भारत के संवििान के भाग II में अनुच्छेद 5 से 11 में वदया गया है . प्रासंवगक भारतीय
कानून नागररकता अविवनयम 1955 है , वजसे नागररकता (संशोिन) अविवनयम 1986,
नागररकता (संशोिन) अविवनयम 1992, नागररकता (संशोिन) अविवनयम 2003 और
नागररकता (संशोिन) अध्यादे श 2005 के द्वारा संशोवित वकया गया है , नागररकता (संशोिन)
अविवनयम 2003 को 7 जनिरी 2004 को भारत के राष्ट्रपवत के द्वारा स्वीकृवत प्रदान की
गयी और 3 वदसंबर 2004 को यह अस्तित्व में आया.नागररकता (संशोिन) अध्यादे श 2005
को भारत के राष्ट्रपवत द्वारा प्रख्यावपत वकया गया था और यह 28 जून 2005 को अस्तित्व में
आया.

इन सुिारों के बाद, भारतीय राष्ट्रीयता कानून जूस सोली (jus soli) (क्षेत्र के भीतर जर्न्म के
अविकार के द्वारा नागररकता) के विपरीत काफी हद तक जूस सेंवगनीस (jus sanguinis)
(रक्त के अविकार के द्वारा नागररकता) का अनुसरण करता है .

अर्ुक्रम
[छु पाएाँ ]

 1 क़ानू न
o 1.1 जर्न्म के द्वारा नागररकता
o 1.2 िंश के द्वारा नागररकता
o 1.3 पंजीकरण द्वारा नागररकता
o 1.4 समीकरण के द्वारा नागररकता
o 1.5 भारत के संवििान की शु रुआत में नागररकता
o 1.6 भारतीय नागररकता का त्याग
o 1.7 भारतीय नागररकता की स्वतः समास्तप्त
o 1.8 भारत की विदे शी नागररकता
o 1.9 भारतीय मू ल कािन (पीआईओ) के व्यस्तक्त
 2 विवटश राष्ट्रीयता और भारत
 3 ओसीआई के वलए आिेदन की प्रविया
o 3.1 मानक प्रविया का अभाि
 4 ओसीआई आउटसोसन
 5 यह भी दे खें
 6 संदभन
 7 बाहरी वलं क

कार्ूर्[संपातिि करें ]
जन्म के िारा र्ागररकिा[संपातिि करें ]

26 जनिरी 1950 के बाद परन्तु 1 जुलाई 1987 को 1986 अविवनयम के अविवनयमन से

पहले भारत में जर्न्मा कोई भी व्यस्तक्त जर्न्म के द्वारा भारत का नागररक है .
1 जुलाई 1987 को या इसके बाद भारत में जर्न्मा कोई भी व्यस्तक्त भारत का नागररक है
यवद उसके जर्न्म के समय उसका कोई एक अवभभािक भारत का नागररक था. 3 वदसंबर
2004 के बाद भारत में पैदा हुआ िह कोई भी व्यस्तक्त भारत का नागररक माना जाता है ,
यवद उसके दोनों अवभभािक भारत के नागररक हों अथिा यवद एक अवभभािक भारतीय हो
और दू सरा अवभभािक उसके जर्न्म के समय पर गैर कानूनी अप्रिासी न हो, तो िह नागररक
भारतीय या विदे शी हो सकता है .

वंश के िारा र्ागररकिा[संपातिि करें ]

26 जनिरी 1950 के बाद परन्तु 10 वदसंबर 1992 से पहले भारत के बाहर पैदा हुए
व्यस्तक्त िंश के द्वारा भारत के नागररक हैं यवद उनके जर्न्म के समय उनके वपता भारत के
नागररक थे.

10 वदसंबर 1992 को या इसके बाद भारत में पैदा हुआ व्यस्तक्त भारत का नागररक है यवद
उसके जर्न्म के समय कोई एक अवभभािक भारत का नागररक था.

3 वदसंबर 2004 के बाद से , भारत के बाहर जर्न्मे व्यस्तक्त को भारत का नागररक नहीं माना
जाएगा यवद जर्न्म के बाद एक साल की अिवि के भीतर उनके जर्न्म को भारतीय िावणज्य
दू तािास में पंजीकृत ना वकया गया हो. कुछ विशेष पररस्तस्थवतयों में केन्द्रीय सरकार के
अनुमवत के द्वारा 1 साल की अिवि के बाद पंजीकरण वकया जा सकता है . एक भारतीय
िावणज्य दू तािास में एक अियस्क बिे के जर्न्म के पंजीकरण के वलए आिेदन दे ने के साथ
अवभभािकों को वलस्तखत में उपिम को यह बताना होता है वक इस बिे के पास वकसी और
दे श का पासपोटन नहीं है .

पंजीकरण िारा र्ागररकिा[संपातिि करें ]

केन्द्रीय सरकार, आिेदन वकये जाने पर, नागररकता अविवनयम 1955 की िरा 5 के तहत
वकसी व्यस्तक्त (एक गैर क़ानूनी अप्रिासी न होने पर) को भारत के नागररक के रूप में
पंजीकृत कर सकती है यवद िह वनम्न में से वकसी एक श्रेणी के अंतगनत आता है :--

 भारतीय मूल का एक व्यस्तक्त जो पंजीकरण के वलए आिेदन करने से पहले पां च साल के वलए
भारत का वनिासी हो;
 भारतीय मूल का एक व्यस्तक्त जो अविभावजत भारत के बाहर वकसी भी दे श या स्थान में
सािारण वनिासी हो;
 एक व्यस्तक्त वजसने भारत के एक नागररक से वििाह वकया है और पंजीकरण के वलए आिेदन
करने से पहले सात साल के वलए भारत का सािारण वनिासी है ;
 उन व्यस्तक्तयों के अियस्क बिे जो भारत के नागररक हैं ;
 पूणन आयु और क्षमता से युक्त एक व्यस्तक्त वजसके माता वपता सात साल तक भारत में रहने
के कारण भारत के नागररक के रूप में पंजीकृत हैं .
  पूणन आयु और क्षमता से युक्त एक व्यस्तक्त, या उसका कोई एक अवभभािक, पहले स्वतंत्र भारत
का नागररक था, और पंजीकरण के वलए आिेदन दे ने से पहले एक साल से िह भारत में रह
रहा है .
 पूणन आयु और क्षमता से युक्त एक व्यस्तक्त जो पां च सालों के वलए भारत के एक विदे शी
नागररक के रूप में पंजीकृत है , और पंजीकरण के वलए आिेदन दे ने से पहले िह एक साल
से भारत में रह रहा है .

समीकरण के िारा र्ागररकिा[संपातिि करें ]

एक विदे शी नागररक समीकरण के द्वारा भारत की नागररकता प्राप्त कर सकता है जो बारह

साल से भारत में रह रहा हो. इसके वलए आिश्क है वक आिेदक 14 साल की अिवि में
कुल 11 साल के वलए भारत में रहा हो और आिेदन से पहले उसने 12 महीने का समय
भारत में व्यतीत वकया हो.

भारि के संतविार् की शुरुआि में र्ागररकिा[संपातिि करें ]

26 निम्बर, 1949 को भारत के राज्यक्षेत्र में अवििावसत व्यस्तक्त भारतीय संवििान के सां गत
प्राििानों के अनुसार स्वतः ही भारत के नागररक बन गये . (अविकां श संिैिावनक प्राििान 26
जनिरी 1950 को अस्तित्व में आये).भारतीय संवििान ने पावकिान के उन क्षेत्रों से आने
िाले अप्रिावसयों की नागररकता के सम्बन्ध में भी प्राििान बनाये हैं , जो विभाजन से पहले
भारत का वहस्सा थे .

भारिीर् र्ागररकिा का त्याग[संपातिि करें ]

नागररकता के त्याग को नागररकता अविवनयम 1955 की िारा 8 के तहत किर वकया जाता
है . यवद एक ियस्क भारतीय नागररकता के त्याग की घोषणा करता है , िह भारतीय
नागररकता खो दे ता है . इसके अलािा त्याग की वदनां क से ही ऐसे व्यस्तक्त का अियस्क बिा
भी भारतीय नागररकता खो दे ता है . जब बिा अठारह साल की उम्र में पहुं चता है , उसे वफर
से भारतीय नागररकता प्राप्त करने का अविकार होता है . भारतीय नागररकता कानून के तहत
त्याग की घोषणा के वलए आिश्क है वक घोषणा करने िाला व्यस्तक्त "पूणन आयु और क्षमता
से युक्त" हो.

भारिीर् र्ागररकिा की स्विः समाक्ति[संपातिि करें ]

वचत्र:IndianPassport-Dual-Citizenship.jpg

भारतीय उिायोग, ओटािा, कनािा के द्वारा जारी वकये गए भारतीय पासपोटन पर मु हर लगी चेतािनी.

नागररकता की समास्तप्त को नागररकता अविवनयम 1955 की िारा 9 में किर वकया गया है .
समास्तप्त के वलए प्राििान अलग हैं और त्याग की घोषणा के प्राििान से विभेवदत हैं .
अविवनयम की िारा 9 (1) के अनुसार भारत का कोई भी नागररक जो पंजीकरण या
समीकरण के द्वारा वकसी और दे श की नागररकता प्राप्त कर लेता है , उसकी भारतीय
नागररकता रद्द हो जाएगी. इसमें यह भी प्राििान है वक भारत का कोई भी नागररक जो
स्वेच्छा से वकसी दू सरे दे श की नागररकता प्राप्त कर लेता है , उसकी भारतीय नागररकता रद्द
हो जायेगी.विशेष रूप से , समास्तप्त का प्राििान त्याग के प्राििान से अलग है , क्ोंवक यह
"भारत के वकसी भी नागररक " पर लागू होता है और ियस्कों के वलए ही प्रवतबंवित नहीं
है . इसीवलए भारतीय बिे भी स्वतः ही अपनी भारतीय नागररकता को खो दे ते हैं यवद उनके
जर्न्म के बाद कभी भी िे वकसी और दे श की नागररकता प्राप्त कर लेते हैं , उदाहरण के वलए,
समीकरण या पंजीकरण के द्वारा- चाहे वकसी अन्य नागररकता का अविग्रहण बिे के
अवभभािकों की कारन िाई का पररणाम ही क्ों न हो.

नागररकता वनयम 1956 के अनुसार वकसी और दे श का पासपोटन प्राप्त करना भी उस दे श

की राष्ट्रीयता का स्वैस्तच्छक अविग्रहण है . नागररकता के वनयमों की अनु सूची III के वनयम 3 के
अनुसार, "यह तर्थ् वक भारत के एक नागररक ने वकसी वदनां क को वकसी अन्य दे श की
सरकार से पासपोटन प्राप्त वकया है , इस बात का वनणान यक प्रमाण होगा वक उसने उस दे श की
नागररकता को स्वै स्तच्छक रूप से प्राप्त वकया है ." एक बार वफर से, यह वनयम लागू होता है
यवद बिे के वलए उसके अवभभािकों के द्वारा विदे शी पासपोटन प्राप्त वकया गया है , और चाहे
इस तरह के पासपोटन को प्राप्त करना वकसी अन्य दे श के कानूनों के अनुसार आिश्क हो,
जो बिे को अपना एक नागररक मानता है (उदाहरण, भारतीय माता वपता का अमेररका में
जर्न्मा एक बिा जो अमेररकी कानूनों के अनुसार स्वतः ही अमेररकी नागररक हो जाता है ,
और इसीवलए उसे विदे श यात्रा के वलए अमेररकी कानूनों के अनुसार अमेररकी पासपोटन अवजनत
करना पडता है ). इससे कोई फकन नहीं पडता वक उस व्यस्तक्त के पास अभी भी भारतीय
पासपोटन है . िह व्यस्तक्त जो वकसी और नागररकता को प्राप्त कर लेता है िह उसी वदन से
भारतीय नागररकता खो दे ता है वजस वदन उसने वकसी और दे श की नागररकता या पासपोटन
अवजनत वकया. विवटश राजनवयक पदों के वलए एक प्रचवलत अभ्यास है , उदहारण के वलए, उस
आिेदकों से भारतीय पासपोटन को ज़ब्त कर भारतीय प्राविकरणों को लौटा वदया जाये , जो
विवटश पासपोटन के वलए आिेदन करते हैं , या वजन्ोंने इसे प्राप्त कर वलया है .

गोिा, दमन और दीि के सम्बन्ध में भारतीय नागररकों के वलए खास वनयम हैं . नागररकता
वनयम, 1956 की अनुसूची के वनयम 3A के अनुसार, "एक व्यस्तक्त जो नागररकता अविवनयम
1955 (1955 का 57) की िारा 7 के तहत जारी, दादरा और नगर हिेली (नागररकता)
आदे श 1962, अथिा गोिा, दमन और दीि (नागररकता) आदे श 1962 के आिार पर
भारतीय नागररक बन गया है , और उसके पास वकसी अन्य दे श के द्वारा जरी वकया या
पासपोटन है , तर्थ् वक उसने 19 जनिरी 1963 से पहले अपना पासपोटन नहीं लौटाया है , यह
इस बात का वनणान यक प्रमाण होगा वक उसने इस वदनां क से पहले स्वे च्छा से उस दे श की
नागररकता को प्राप्त कर वलया है .

16 फरिरी 1962 को, भारत के सिोि न्यायालय की न्यायपीठ ने इज़हार अहमद खान
बनाम भारत संघ के मामले में कहा वक "अगर ऐसा पाया जाता है वक व्यस्तक्त ने समीकरण
या पंजीकरण के द्वारा विदे शी नागररकता प्राप्त की है , तो इसमें कोई संदेह नहीं वक इस
प्रकार के समीकरण या पंजीकरण के पररणामस्वरूप िह भारत का नागररक नहीं रहे गा.

भारि की तविे शी र्ागररकिा[संपातिि करें ]

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एक ओसीआई पंजीकरण प्रमाणपत्र का फ्रंट किर नोट: यह ऐसा वदख सकता है ले वकन पासपोटन नहीं
है , नावह यह दोहरी नागररकता को दशान ता है .

यह भारतीय राष्ट्रीयता का एक रूप है , वजसके िारक को भारत का विदे शी नागररक कहा

जाता है . [1] भारतीय संवििान दोहरी नागररकता अथिा दोहरी राष्ट्रीयता को अस्वीकार करता
है , अियस्क इस दृवष्ट् से अपिाद हैं जहां दू सरी नागररकता अनायास ही प्राप्त हो जाती है .
भारतीय प्राविकरणों ने इस कानून की व्याख्या की है वक एक व्यस्तक्त वकसी दू सरे दे श का
पासपोटन नहीं रख सकता अगर उसके पास भारतीय पासपोटन है - यहां तक वक एक बिे के
मामले में वजसे अन्य दे श के द्वारा उसका नागररक होने का दािा वकया जाता है , और ऐसा हो
सकता है वक उस दे श के कानूनों के अनुसार उस बिे को विदे श यात्रा करने के वलए उस
दे श के पासपोटन की आिश्कता हो (उदहारण भारतीय माता वपता का अमेररका में जर्न्मा
एक बिा)- और भारतीय अदालतों ने इस मामले पर कायनकारी शाखा वििृत वििेक वदया
है . इसवलए, भारत की विदे शी नागररकता भारत की पूणन नागररकता नहीं है और इस प्रकार
से यह दोहरी नागररकता या दोहरी राष्ट्रीयता को अस्वीकार करता है .

भारत की केन्द्रीय सरकार एक व्यस्तक्त को आिेदन पर, भारत के एक विदे शी नागररक के

रूप में पंजीकृत कर सकती है यवद िह व्यस्तक्त भारतीय मूल का है और ऐसे दे श से है जो
वकसी एक या अन्य रूप में दोहरी नागररकता की अनुमवत दे ता है .व्यापक रूप से कहा जाये
तो "भारतीय मूल का एक व्यस्तक्त" वकसी अन्य दे श का नागररक है जो:

 26 जनिरी 1950 को या उसके बाद वकसी भी समय भारत का नागररक था; अथिा
 26 जनिरी 1950 को भारत का नागररक बनने के वलए पात्र था; अथिा
 एक ऐसे क्षे त्र से था जो 15 अगि 1947 के बाद भारत का वहस्सा बन गया; अथिा
 उपरोक्त िवणनत वकसी व्यस्तक्त का बिा या पोता है ; अथिा
 कभी भी पावकिान या बां ग्लादे श का नागररक नहीं रहा है .

ध्यान दें वक भारतीय माता वपता के बिे स्वतः ही इन आिश्कताओं को पूरा नहीं करते ,
और इसवलए स्वतः ओसीआई (भारत की विदे शी नागररकता) के पात्र नहीं हैं .
भारतीय वमशनों को ऐसे मामलों में 30 वदनों के भीतर भारत की विदे शी नागररकता दे ने के
वलए प्राविकृत वकया गया है जहां कोई गंभीर अपराि शावमल ना हो जै से नशीले पदाथों की
तस्करी, नैवतक अिमता, आतंकिादी गवतविवियां या ऐसी कोई गवतविवियां वजनके कारण एक
साल से ज्यादा की जेल हो सकती हो.

विदे शी भारतीय नागररकता उन लोगों को नहीं दी जा सकती, वजन्ोंने विदे शी राष्ट्रीयता को

प्राप्त वकया है , या प्राप्त करने की योजना बना रहें हैं , अथिा उनके पास भारतीय पासपोटन भी
है .इस कानून के अनुसार आिश्क है वक भारतीय नागररक जो विदे शी राष्ट्रीयता लेता है , उसे
तुरंत अपना भारतीय पासपोटन लौटा दे ना चावहए.जो लोग इसके वलए पात्र हैं , िे विदे शी
भारतीय नागररकता के पं जीकरण के वलए आिेदन कर सकते हैं .

भारत के विदे शी नागररकों को भारतीय पासपोटन करने की कोई योजना नहीं है , हालां वक
पंजीकरण का प्रमाणपत्र पासपोटन जैसी पुस्तिका में होगा (नीचे वदए गए भारतीय मूल के
व्यस्तक्त के कािन के समान) मंवत्रपररषद ने भारत के पंजीकृत विदे शी नागररकों को बायोमैवटर क
स्माटन कािन दे ने के प्रिाि पर काम करने के वलए भारतीय विदे श मंत्रालय को वदशावनदे श भी
वदए हैं .

भारत का एक विदे शी नागररक समता के आिार पर गैर-प्रिासी भारतीयों के वलए उपलब्ध

सभी अविकारों और विशेषाविकारों का लाभ उठा सकता है . इसमें कृवष एिं िृक्षारोपण संपवत्त
में वनिेश करने या सािनजवनक कायान लय रखने का अविकार शावमल नहीं है .[2] व्यस्तक्त को
अपना मौजूदा विदे शी पासपोटन रखना होता है वजसमें नया िीजा शावमल होना चावहए जो 'यू '
िीजा कहलाता है , जो एक बहु प्रयोजन, बहु प्रिे श, िीजा है और जीिन भर चलता है . इसके
साथ भारत का विदे शी नागररक कभी भी, वकसी भी प्रयोजन के वलए, वकतनी भी समय अिवि
के वलए दे श का दौरा कर सकता है .

भारत का एक विएशी नागररक भारत में रहते हुए भी वनम्नवलस्तखत अविकारों का लाभ नहीं
उठा पायेगा: (i) मतदान का अविकार, (ii) राष्ट्रपवत कायान लय, उप राष्ट्रपवत कायान लय, सिोि
न्यायालय और उि न्यायालय के न्यायािीश, लोक सभा, राज्य सभा, वििान सभा या वििान
पररषद में सदस्य बनने का अविकार, (iii) सािनजवनक सेिाओं (सरकारी सेिाओं) में वनयुस्तक्त का
अविकार.साथ ही भारत के विदे शी नागररक भीतरी रे खा के परवमट के वलए पात्र नहीं हैं ,
अगर िे भारत के कुछ विशेष स्थानों की यात्रा करना चाहते हैं तो उन्ें उन्ें एक संरवक्षत
क्षेत्र परवमट के वलए आिेदन दे ना होगा.

एक वदलचस्प सिाल यह है वक भारत के विदे शी नागररक के रूप में पं जीकृत एक व्यस्तक्त

भारत में रहते हुए अपने दे श के राजनवयक संरक्षण का अविकार खो दे गा.1930 के राष्ट्रीयता
कानून के संघषन से सम्बंवित विशेष सिालों पर हे ग सम्मलेन का अनुच्छेद 4 कहता है वक
"एक राज्य अपने वकसी व्यस्तक्त को ऐसे राज्य के स्तखलाफ राजनवयक सं रक्षण प्रदान नहीं कर
सकता वजसकी राष्ट्रीयता ऐसे व्यस्तक्तयों के पास भी हो. यह मामला दो चीजों पर वनभनर करता
है : पहला, क्ा भारत की सरकार भारत के विदे शी नागररकता को सिी नागररकता मानती है
और इस आिार पर दू सरे दे श के द्वारा राजनवयक संरक्षण का अविकार समाप्त हो जाता है ;
और दू सरा, क्ा व्यस्तक्त का अपना दे श इसे पहचानता है और भारत की अस्वीकृवत को
स्वीकार करता है . दोनों ही वबंदु संवदग्ध हैं . भारत विदे शी नागररकों को एक स्वतंत्र यात्रा
दिािेज नहीं दे ता है परन्तु इसके बजाय दू सरे दे श के पासपोटन में एक िीजा रख दे ता है .
यवद व्यस्तक्त केिल दू सरे दे श का पासपोटन रखने के वलए पात्र है परन्तु भारतीय यात्रा दिािेज
के वकसी भी रूप को नहीं रख सकता, तो इस वनष्कषन से बच पाना मुस्तिल है वक िह
व्यस्तक्त राजनवयक संरक्षण के प्रयोजन के वलए अन्य दे श का एकमात्र नागररक है .

भारत की विदे शी नागररकता प्राप्त करने पर, विवटश नागररक 1981 के विवटश राष्ट्रीयता
अविवनयम की िारा 4B के तहत पूणन विवटश नागररक के रूप में पंजीकरण नहीं करिा
सकते . (वजसके वलए आिश्क है वक व्यस्तक्त के पास पंजीकरण के वलए कोई और
नागररकता नहीं है .) यह उन्ें एक अलग तरीके से पूणन विवटश नागररकता प्राप्त करने से
नहीं रोक सकता और यह उनकी विवटश नागररकता को रद्द नहीं करता यवद िे िारा 4B के
तहत पहले से पंजीकृत हैं . [2] [3][4]

भारत के लोक सूचना ब्यूरो ने एक प्रेस विज्ञस्तप्त जारी की जो 29 जून 2005 को भारत की
विदे शी नागररकता की योजना का स्पष्ट्ीकरण करती है .

ओसीआई योजना का पूणन वििरण भारत सरकार के गृह मंत्रालय िेब पे ज पर उपलब्ध है .

[5]

कई अन्य लेख भी वलखे गए हैं , इनमें शावमल हैं :

 फूल'स गोल्ड् वलटल इस्तण्डया में वदसंबर 2004 में प्रकावशत

 ि् िेल वसवटज़नवशप ओर िु प्ली वसटी? नारायणन कोमेरथ के द्वारा, 28 जनिरी 2005 को
प्रकावशत.
 भारतीय विदे शी नागररकता के प्रिाि पर छोटे वप्रंट को पढें , िािन विवटश इवमग्रेशन एनजीओ
अप्रिावसयों के कल्याण के वलए संयुक्त पररषद, 10 अगि 2005 को जारी.

 भारत की विदे शी नागररकता/दोहरी राष्ट्रीयता- अमे ररकी दू तािास, नई वदल्ली

 भारत की विदे शी नागररकता (ओसीआई); गृह मंत्रालय, भारत सरकार

ओसीआई कािन भारतीय िीजा का विकि नहीं है और इसवलए ओसीआई िारकों को भारत
में यात्रा करते समय िह पासपोटन अपने पास रखना चावहए जो जीिन भर के िीजा को
दशान ता है .[3]

हालां वक एक दोहरी नागररकता पूणन रूप से विकवसत नहीं है ,[4] एक ओसीआई कािन िारक
के पास एक विशेषाविकार होता है वक ितनमान में मल्टीनेशनल कम्पवनयां ओसीआई कािन
िारक को काम पर रखना पसंद करती हैं जो भारत के दौरे के वलए बहु प्रयोजन और बहु
प्रिेश िाला जीिन भर का िीजा रखते हैं . यह कािन िारक को एक आजीिन िीजा प्रदान
करता है , इसके अलािा िे अलग से काम करने का परवमट भी प्राप्त कर लेते हैं . ओसीआई
िारकों के साथ आवथनक, वित्तीय और शैक्षवणक मामलों में एनआरआई जैसा व्यिहार वकया
जाता है , और उनके पास केिल राजनैवतक अविकार नहीं होते , उनके पास कृवष और
िृक्षारोपण संपवत्त को खरीदने या सािनजवनक कायान लय रखने का अविकार नहीं होता.[5] उन्ें
दे श में आगमन पर विदे शी क्षेत्रीय पंजीकरण अविकारी (FRRO) के साथ पवनकणन भी नहीं
करिाना पडता, और िे जब तक चाहें तब तक यहां रह सकते हैं . ओसीआई कािन िारक
आराम से यात्रा कर सकते हे इम और भारत में काम ले सकते हैं , जबवक अन्य को रोजगार
िीजा पर ब्यूरोिेवटक दे री होने पर पकडा जा सकता है . कई कम्पवनयां अपने कारोबार के
वििार के वलए PIO प्रिास की एक सविय नीवत का अनुसरण कर रही हैं . भारतीय वमशन
ओसीआई आिेदनों के साक्षी हैं , पूरी दु वनया में िावणज्य दू तािास के द्वारा जारी वकये गए
असंख्य ओसीआई कािन भारतीय िावणज्य दू तािास के साथ तेजी से बढ रहें हैं , इसमें काफी
संख्या में आिेदन वकये जा रहे हैं .[6]

भारिीर् मूल काडन (पीआईओ) के व्यक्ति[संपातिि करें ]

वचत्र:PIOCARD.png

एक पीआईओ कािन का फ्रंट किर

कोई भी व्यस्तक्त वजसके पास ितनमान में गैर-भारतीय पासपोटन है , जो तीन पीढी पहले तक
अपनी भारतीयता को प्रमावणत कर सकता है . यही वनयम एक भारतीय नागररक के जीिन
साथी पर और भारतीय मूल के व्यस्तक्तयों पर लागू होता है . जैसा वक केन्द्रीय सरकार के
द्वारा वनवदन ष्ट् वकया गया है पवकिान, बां ग्लादे श और अन्य दे शों के नागररक भारतीय मूल का
कािन प्राप्त करने के पात्र नहीं हैं . [7]

एक पीआईओ कािन आम तौर पर जारी होने की वतवथ से पंद्रह िषन की अिवि तक िैद्य
होता है . इससे िारक को वनस्त्न्िस्तखत फायदे होते हैं .

 180 वदन से कम की स्टे अिवि के वलए विदे शी क्षेत्रीय पंजीकरण कायान लय पर पंजीकरण से
छूट.
 आवथन क, वित्तीय और शै वक्षक क्षे त्रों में अवनिासी भारतीयों के साथ समता का लाभ.
 भारत में कृवष सम्पवत्त के अलािा, वकसी भी अचल संपवत्त को रखने , प्राप्त करने, स्थानां तररत
करने , या वनपटान करने की छूट.
 खु ला रुपया बैंक खाते, भारतीय वनिावसयों को उिार दे पाना, और भारत में वनिेश करना
आवद.
 भारतीय जीिन बीमा वनगम (एलआईसी) या केन्द्रीय अथिा राज्य सरकारों के तहत विवभन
आिास योजनाओं के वलए पात्र होना.
  उनके बिे भारत के वशक्षा संस्थानों में अवनिासी भारतीयों के वलए सामान्य श्रे णी कोटा में
प्रिेश पा सकते हैं .

एक पीआईओ कािन िारक:

 वकसी भी राजनीवतक अविकारों के उपयोग का पात्र नहीं होगा.

 वबना अनु मवत के प्रवतबंवित या संरवक्षत क्षे त्रों का दौरा नहीं कर पायेगा.
 वबना अनु मवत के पिनतारोहण, शोि, और वमशनरी कायन नहीं कर पायेगा.

तितर्श राष्ट्रीर्िा और भारि[संपातिि करें ]

1 जनिरी 1949 से पहले, भारतीय संयुक्त राष्ट्र के कानून के तहत विवटश के अिीन थे . दे खें
विवटश राष्ट्रीयता कानून. 1 जनिरी 1949 और 25 जनिरी 1950 के बीच, भारतीय
नागररकता के वबना विवटश के अिीन रहते थे, जब तक िे पहले से संयुक्त राष्ट्र और
उपवनिेशों या अन्य राष्ट्रमंिल दे शों की नागररकता प्राप्त नहीं कर लेते थे .

26 जनिरी 1950 को भारतीय संवििान के लागू होने पर, विवटश राष्ट्रीयता कानून के तहत,
एक व्यस्तक्त जो भारतीय नागररक बन जाता था, उसके पास राष्ट्रमंिल की भारतीय सदस्यता
और उनकी भारतीय नागररकता के सन्दभन में राष्ट्रमंिल नागररक का दजान भी होता था (उसे
राष्ट्रमंिल नागररकता के साथ विवटश के अिीन कहा जाता था, यह दजान व्यस्तक्त को विवटश
पासपोटन काम में लेने की अनुमवत नहीं दे ता). हालां वक, असंख्य भारतीयों को भारतीय संवििान
के लागू होने पर भारतीय नागररकता प्राप्त नहीं हुई और िे नागररकता के दजे के वबना
विवटश के अिीन बने रहे (जो एक व्यस्तक्त को विवटश पासपोटन दे ता है ) जब तक उन्ोंने
वकसी अन्य राष्ट्रमंिल दे श की नागररकता प्राप्त नहीं कर ली. कोई भी व्यस्तक्त जो केिल एक
विवटश के अिीन है (आयरलैंि के गणतं त्र के साथ जुडे होने के बजाय) िह भारतीय
नागररकता या भारतीय विदे शी नागररकता सवहत वकसी भी अन्य राष्ट्रीयता को प्राप्त कर लेने
के बाद विवटश की अिीनता को स्वतः ही खो दे गा.

विवटश के अिीन लोग संयुक्त राष्ट्र में न रहते हुए भी विवटश राष्ट्रीयता अविवनयम की िरा
4B के तहत विवटश नागररक के रूप में पंजीकरण करिा सकते हैं यवद उनके पास कोई
और राष्ट्रीयता या नागररकता नहीं है और उन्ोंने 4 जुलाई 2002 के बाद वकसी नागररकता
या राष्ट्रीयता का स्वे च्छा से त्याग नहीं वकया है . यह सुवििा 30 अप्रैल 2003 के बाद से
उपलब्ध है . िे लोग जो संयुक्त राष्ट्र में प्रिावसत हो गए हैं , उनके पास विवटश नागररकता
प्राप्त करने का एक अवतररक्त विकि होता है , वजसे आमतौर पर प्राथवमकता दी जाती है
क्ोंवक िे स्थानान्तरण योग्य विवटश नागररकता उपलब्ध दे ते हैं .

1949 से विवटश अिीनता शब्द का अथन बदल गया, अब यह वकसी व्यस्तक्त के द्वारा राष्ट्रमंिल
दे श की नागररकता रखने से कुछ अविक है . केिल उसी व्यस्तक्त को विवटश पासपोटन वदया
जाता था जो वबना नागररकता के विवटश के अिीन है .
दे खें विवटश सब्जेक्ट

ओसीआई के तलए आवेिर् की प्रतक्रर्ा[संपातिि करें ]

ितनमान में प्रत्येक दू तािास के अपने मानक और वनयम हैं , वजनका वनयंत्रण नयी वदल्ली में
वकया जाता है , इसके वलए प्रविया समान है .

मार्क प्रतक्रर्ा का अभाव[संपातिि करें ]

ओसीआई के वलए आिेदन प्रविया में स्पष्ट्ता की कमी है . ऐसा कोई वनिान ररत प्रकावशत
समय नहीं है जब आिेदक को अनुमोदन वमल जाएगा या उसे आिेदन की सही स्तस्थवत का
ज्ञान हो जाएगा. ऑनलाइन आिेदन बुवनयादी प्रविया है , पूछी गयी जानकारी दे कर सम्बंवित
िि भरें , आिेदन फॉमन का वप्रंट लें, जब आप सबवमट बटन को स्तक्लक करें गे, यह पेज गायब
हो जायेगा और आपको फॉमन को वफर से भरना होगा. सभी िि भरने के बाद फॉमन पर
हिाक्षर करें , इसके बाद आिेदन को ओसीआई प्रभाग, वदल्ली या एफआरआरओ या वनकटतम
दू तािास / िावणज्य दू तािास / उि आयोग को भेज दें . आमतौर पर अगर आप वदल्ली में
आिेदन करें तो एक माह में आपको यह वमल जाता है .

दू तािासों में यह वभन हो सकता है , क्ोंवक सभी आिेदन अंत में वदल्ली में गृह मंत्रालय के
द्वारा अनुमोवदत वकये जाते हैं .कई मामलों में समय लग सकता है क्ोवक अगर अविकाररयों
को जरुरत महसूस हो तो ओसीआई को गहन सत्यापन के बाद ही जारी वकया जाता
है .लेवकन आमतौर पर इसमें संयुक्त राज्य अमेररका/ संयुक्त राष्ट्र या अन्य पविमी दे शों के
अप्रिासी िीजा अनुमोदन समय से कम समय लगता है .

ओसीआई आउर्सोसन[संपातिि करें ]

अमेररका में भारत के िावणज्य दू तािास जनरल (केिल िॉवशंगटन िीसी अविकार क्षेत्र में रहने
िाले व्यस्तक्तयों के वलए) ने ओसीआई आिेदनों की हैं िवलंग को मैससन को आउटसोसन करने
का फैसला वकया है टर ाविसा आउटसोवसिंग की इस प्रविया के बेहतर होने की उम्मीद है .

र्ह भी िे खें[संपातिि करें ]

 फ्रेंच राष्ट्रीयता कानू न, जो ऐसे अवभभािकों के बिों को फ़्ां वससी नागररकता दे ता है , जो अपने
वकसी विदे शी वनभन र क्षे त्रों में या -सीवमत पररस्तस्थवतयों में - इसकी वकसी पूिन कॉलोवनयों में पैदा
हुए थे .
  उन लोगों के सम्बन्ध में , पुतनगाली राष्ट्रीयता कानू न जो 1961 से पहले पुतनगाली भारत के
नागररक थे .

संिभन[संपातिि करें ]
1. ↑ भारत की विदे शी नागररकता (ओसीआई); गृह मं त्रालय, भारत सरकार की िेबसाइट,
िायस्पोरा सेिाएं : भारतीय योजना की विदे शी नागररकता; भारतीय विदे श मं त्रालय (MOIA),
भारत सरकार की िेबसाईट
2. ↑ एक एनआरआई /पीआईओ / पीआईओ कािन िारक और एक ओसीआई के बीच मू ल
अंतर क्ा है ? प्रिासी भारतीय सुवििा केन्द्र, प्रिासी भारतीय मं त्रालय की सािनजवनक वनजी पहल
के लाभ के वलए नहीं है और भारतीय उद्योग संघ की शु रुआत 28 मई 2007 को की गयी
थी; भारत सरकार की आविकाररक पोटन ल
3. ↑ [1]
4. ↑ ओसीआई केिल भारतीय जडों की एक पहचान: िायलर; रमा नागराजन के द्वारा, टीएनएन;
29 वसतम्बर 2006; िी टाइम्स ऑफ़ इस्तण्डया.
5. ↑ एक एनआरआई /पीआईओ / पीआईओ कािन िारक और एक ओसीआई के बीच मू ल
अंतर क्ा है ? प्रिासी भारतीय सुवििा केन्द्र, प्रिासी भारतीय मं त्रालय की सािनजवनक वनजी पहल
के लाभ के वलए नहीं है और भारतीय उद्योग संघ की शु रुआत 28 मई 2007 को की गयी
थी; भारत सरकार की आविकाररक पोटन ल
6. ↑ ओसीआई कािन िारकों अत्यविक भारतीय कायन प्राप्त करते हैं ; 15 निम्बर 2009, इशानी
दत्तागुप्ता, ईटी ब्यूरो, िी इकोनोवमक्स टाइम्स; भारत, भारत के विदे शी नागररक बनने के वलए
एन आर आई की बढती मां ग; 24 माचन 2009, आईएएनएस, िी इकोनोवमक्स टाइम्स, भारत
7. ↑ पीआईओ कािन पात्रता, लाभ एनआरआई/ पीआईओ समाचार, MyNRIClub

बाहरी तलंक[संपातिि करें ]

 नागररकता अविवनयम 1955 का सार-गृह मं त्रालय का भारतीय मंत्रालय
 संिैिावनक प्राििान - भारतीय नागररकता
 नागररकता अविवनयम 1955 और नागररकता वनयम 1956 का पीिीएफ संस्करण
 ओसीआई कािन
 25 वसतम्बर 2006 की दवक्षण चीनी मॉवनिं ग पोस्ट, हां गकां ग में लीम्बो में भारतीय जातीय
अिसंख्यक बी एन (ओ) की दु दनशा पर प्रकाश िालता है .
 23 अक्टू बर 2006 की दवक्षण चीनी मॉवनिं ग पोस्ट, हां गकां ग में भारतीय मू ल के जातीय
अिसंख्यक विवटश नागररकों के विवटश नागररकता आिेदन की प्रविया की विफलता की
आलोचना करता है .
 दोहरी राष्ट्रीयता - अमे ररकी दू तािास, नई वदल्ली
 भारतीय टू ररस्ट िीजा
भारिीर् संतविार् में वतणनि मौतलक अतिकार, तर्िे शक तसद्ांि और मौतलक
किन व्य

http://hi.wikipedia.org/s/6ll
मु क्त ज्ञानकोष विवकपीविया से

यहााँ जाएाँ : भ्रमण, खोज

भारत के संवििान की प्रिािना - भारत के मौवलक और सिोि कानू न

मौतलक अतिकार , राज्य के र्ीति तर्िे शक तसद्ांि और मौतलक किनव्य भारत के

संवििान के अनुच्छेद हैं वजनमें अपने नागररकों के प्रवत राज्य के दावयत्वों और राज्य के प्रवत
नागररकों के कतनव्यों का िणनन वकया गया है ।[note 1] इन अनुच्छेदों में सरकार के द्वारा नीवत-
वनमान ण तथा नागररकों के आचार एिं व्यिहार के संबंि में एक संिैिावनक अविकार वििेयक
शावमल है । ये अनुच्छेद संवििान के आिश्क तत्व माने जाते हैं , वजसे भारतीय संवििान सभा
द्वारा 1947 से 1949 के बीच विकवसत वकया गया था।
मौवलक अविकारों को सभी नागररकों के बुवनयादी मानि अविकार के रूप में पररभावषत वकया
गया है । संवििान के भाग III में पररभावषत ये अविकार नस्ल, जर्न्म स्थान, जावत, पंथ या वलंग के
भेद के वबना सभी पर लागू होते हैं । ये विवशष्ट् प्रवतबंिों के अिीन अदालतों द्वारा प्रितननीय हैं ।

राज्य के नीवत वनदे शक वसद्धां त सरकार द्वारा कानून बनाने के वलए वदशावनदे श हैं । संवििान
के भाग IV में िवणनत ये प्राििान अदालतों द्वारा प्रितननीय नहीं हैं , लेवकन वजन वसद्धां तों पर ये
आिाररत हैं , िे शासन के वलए मौवलक वदशावनदे श हैं वजनको राज्य द्वारा कानून तैयार करने
और पाररत करने में लागू करने की आशा की जाती है ।

मौवलक कतनव्यों को दे शभस्तक्त की भािना को बढािा दे ने तथा भारत की एकता को बनाए

रखने के वलए भारत के सभी नागररकों के नैवतक दावयत्वों के रूप में पररभावषत वकया गया
है । संवििान के चतुथन भाग में िवणनत ये कतनव्य व्यस्तक्तयों और राष्ट्र से संबंवित हैं । वनदे शक
वसद्धां तों की तरह, इन्ें कानूनी रूप से लागू नहीं वकया जा सकता।

अर्ुक्रम
[छु पाएाँ ]

 1 इवतहास
 2 मौवलक अविकार
o 2.1 समानता का अविकार
o 2.2 स्वतंत्रता का अविकार
o 2.3 शोषण के स्तखलाफ अविकार
o 2.4 िमन की स्वतंत्रता का अविकार
o 2.5 सां स्कृवतक और शै वक्षक अविकार
o 2.6 संिैिावनक उपचारों का अविकार
 3 राज्य के नीवत वनदे शक वसद्धां त
 4 मौवलक कतनव्य
 5 आलोचना और विश्लेषण
 6 मौवलक अविकारों, वनदे शक वसद्धां तों और मौवलक कतनव्यों के बीच संबंि
 7 इन्ें भी दें खें
 8 वटप्पणी
 9 पादवटप्पणी
 10 संदभन
 11 आगे पढें
 12 बाहरी कवडयााँ

इतिहास[संपातिि करें ]
इन्ें भी दे खें: भारतीय स्वतंत्रता आं दोलन एिं भारतीय संवििान सभा
मौवलक अविकारों और वनदे शक वसद्धां तों का मूल भारतीय स्वतंत्रता आं दोलन में था, वजसने
स्वतंत्र भारत के लक्ष्य के रूप में समाज कल्याण और स्वतंत्रता के मूल्यों को प्राप्त करने के
वलए संघषन वकया।[1] भारत में संिैिावनक अविकारों का विकास इं ग्लैंि के अविकार वििेयक,
अमेररका के अविकार वििेयक तथा फ्रां स द्वारा मनुष् के अविकारों की घोषणा से प्रेररत
हुआ।[2] विवटश शासकों और उनकी भारतीय प्रजा के बीच भेदभाि का अंत करने के
भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कां ग्रेस (आईएनसी (INC)) के एक उद्दे श् के साथ-साथ नागररक अविकारों
की मां ग भारतीय स्वतं त्रता आं दोलन का एक महत्वपूणन वहस्सा थी। आईएनसी (INC) द्वारा
1917 से 1919 के बीच अपनाए गए संकिों में इस मां ग का स्पष्ट् उल्लेख वकया गया
था।[3] इन संकिों में व्यक्त की गई मां गों में भारतीयों को कानूनी रूप से बराबरी का
अविकार, बोलने का अविकार, मुकदमों की सुनिाई करने िाली जूरी में कम से कम आिे
भारतीय रखने , रीजनीवतक शस्तक्त तथा विवटश नागररकों के समान हवथयार रखने का अविकार
दे ना शावमल था।[4]

प्रथम विश्व युद्ध के अनुभिों, 1919 के असंतोषजनक मोंटेग-चेम्सफोिन सुिारों सुिार और

भारतीय स्वतंत्रता आं दोलन में एम।के। गां िी उभरते प्रभाि के कारण नागररक अविकारों के
वलए मां गें तय करने के संबंि में उनके नेताओं के दृवष्ट्कोण में उल्लेखनीय पररितनन आया।
उनका ध्यान भारतीयों और अंग्रेजों के बीच समानता का अविपकार मां गने से हट कर सभी
भारतीयों के वलए स्वतं त्रता सुवनवित करने पर केंवद्रत हो गया।[5] 1925 में एनी बीसेंट द्वारा
तैयार वकए गए भारत के राष्ट्रमंिल वििेयक में सात मौवलक अविकारों की विशेष रूप से
मां ग की गई थी - व्यस्तक्तगत स्वतंत्रता, वििेक की स्वतंत्रता, अवभव्यस्तक्त की स्वतंत्रता, एकत्र होने
की स्वतंत्रता, वलंग के आिार पर भेद-भाि न करने , अवनिायन प्राथवमक वशक्षा और सािनजवनक
स्थलों के उपयोग की स्वतंत्रता।[6] 1927 में, कां ग्रेस ने उत्पीडन के स्तखलाफ वनगरानी प्रदान
करने िाले अविकारों की घोषणा के आिार पर, भारत के वलए स्वराज सं वििान का मसौदा
तैयार करने के वलए एक सवमवत के गठन का सं कि वलया। 1928 में मोतीलाल नेहरू के
नेतृत्व में एक 11 सदस्यीय सवमवत का गठन वकया गया। अपनी ररपोटन में सवमवत ने सभी
भारतीयों के वलए की मौवलक अविकारों की गारं टी सवहत अनेक वसफाररशें की थीं। ये
अविकार अमेररकी संवििान और युद्ध के बाद यू रोपीय दे शों द्वारा अपनाए गए अविकारों से
वमलते थे तथा उन में से कई 1925 के वििेयक से अपनाए गए थे। इन प्राििानों के अनेकों
को बाद में मौवलक अविकारों एिं वनदे शक वसद्धां तों सवहत भारत के संवििान के विवभन भागों
में ज्यों का त्यों शावमल कर वलया गया था।[7]

1931 में भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कां ग्रेस ने अपने कराची अवििेशन में शोषण का अंत करने ,
सामावजक सुरक्षा प्रदान करने और भूवम सुिार लागू करने के घोवषत उद्दे श्ों के साथ स्वयं
को नागररक अविकारों तथा आवथनक स्वतंत्रता की रक्षा करने के प्रवत समवपनत करने का एक
संकि पाररत वकया। इस संकि में प्रिावित अन्य नए अविकारों में राज्य के स्वावमत्व का
वनषेि, सािनभौवमक ियस्क मताविकार, मृत्युदंि का उर्न्मूलन तथा तथा आिागमन की स्वतं त्रता
शावमल थे।[8] जिाहरलाल नेहरू द्वारा तैयार वकए गए संकि के मसौदे , जो बाद में कई
वनदे शक वसद्धां तों का आिार बना, में सामावजक सुिार लागू करने की प्राथवमक वजम्मेदारी राज्य
पर िाली गई और इसी के साथ स्वतंत्रता आं दोलन पर समाजिाद तथा गां िी दशनन के बढते
प्रभाि के वचह्न वदखाई दे ने लगे थे।[9] स्वतंत्रता आं दोलन के अंवतम चरण में 1930 के दशक
के समाजिादी वसद्धां तों की पुनरािृवत्त वदखाई दे ने के साथ ही मुख्य ध्यान का केंद्र
अिसंख्यक अविकार - जो उस समय तक एक बडा राजनीवतक मुद्दा बन चुका था - बन
गए वजन्ें 1945 में सप्रू ररपोटन में प्रकावशत वकया गया था। ररपोटन में अिसंख्यकों के
अविकारों की रक्षा करने पर जोर दे ने के अलािा "वििावयकाओं, सरकार और अदालतों के
वलए ऐचरण के मानक" वनिान ररत करने की भी मां ग की गई थी।[10]

अंग्रेजी राज के अंवतम चरण के दौरान, भारत के वलए 1946 के कैवबनेट वमशन ने सत्ता
हिां तरण की प्रविया के भाग के रूप में भारत के भारत के वलए संवििान का मसौदा तैयार
करने के वलए संवििान सभा का एक मसौदा तै यार वकया।[11] विवटश प्रां तों तथा राजसी
ररयासतों से परोक्ष रूप से चुने हुए प्रवतवनवियों से बनी भारत की संवििान सभा ने वदसंबर
1946 में अपनी कायनिाही आरं भ की और निंबर 1949 में भारत के संवििान का मसौदा
पूणन वकया।[12] कैवबनेट वमशन की योजना के मुतावबक, मौवलक अविकारों की प्रकृवत और
सीमा, अिसंख्यकों की रक्षा तथा आवदिासी क्षेत्रों के प्रशासन के वलए सलाह दे ने हे तु सभा
को सलाह दे ने के वलए एक सलाहकार सवमवत का गठन होना था। तदनुसार, जनिरी 1947
में एक 64 सदस्यीय सलाहकार सवमवत का गठन वकया गया, इनमें से ही फरिरी 1947 में
मौवलक अविकारों पर जे । बी। कृपलानी की अध्यक्षता में एक 12 सदस्यीय उप-सवमवत का
गठन वकया गया।[13] उप सवमवत ने मौवलक अविकारों का मसौदा तैयार वकया और सवमवत
को अप्रैल 1947 तक अपनी ररपोटन प्रिुत करदी और बाद में उसी महीने सवमवत ने इसको
सभा के सामने प्रिुत कर वदया, वजसमें अगले िषन तक बहस और चचान एं हुईं तथा वदसंबर
1948 मे अविकां श मसौदे को स्वाकार कर वलया गया।[14] मौवलक अविकारों का आलेखन
संयुक्त राष्ट्र महासंघ द्वारा मानि अविकारों की सािनभौवमक घोषणा को स्वीकार करने , संयुक्त
राष्ट्र मानिाविकार आयोग की गवतविवियों[15] के साथ ही साथ अमेररकी संवििान में अविकार
वििेयक की व्याख्या में अमेररकी सिोि न्यायालय द्वारा वदए गए वनणनयों से प्रभावित हुआ
था।[16] वनदे शक वसद्धां तों का मसौदे , वजसे भी मौवलक अविकारों पर बनी उप सवमवत द्वारा ही
तैयार वकया गया था, में भारतीय स्वतंत्रता आं दोलन के समाजिादी उपदे शों का समािेश वकया
गया था और िह आयररश संवििान में विद्यमान ऐसे ही वसद्धां तों से प्रेररत था।[17] मौवलक
कतनव्य बाद में 1976 में संवििान के 42िें संशोिन द्वारा जोडे गए थे।[18]

मौतलक अतिकार[संपातिि करें ]

मु ख्य ले ख : भारत के नागररकों का मौवलक अविकार

संवििान के भाग III में सवनवहत मौवलक अविकार, सभी भारतीयों के वलए नागररक अविकार
सुवनवित करते हैं और सरकार को व्यस्तक्तगत स्वतंत्रता का अवतिमण करने से रोकने के
साथ-साथ नागररकों के अविकारों की समाज द्वारा अवतिमण से रक्षा करने का दावयत्व भी
राज्य पर िालते हैं ।[19] संवििान द्वारा मूल रूप से सात मौवलक अविकार प्रदान वकए गए
थे - समानता का अविकार, स्वतंत्रता का अविकार, शोषण के विरुद्ध अविकार, िमन, संस्कृवत एिं
वशक्षा की स्वतंत्रता का अविकार, संपवत्त का अविकार तथा संिैिावनक उपचारों का
अविकार।[20] हालां वक, संपवत्त के अविकार को 1978 में 44िें संशोिन द्वारा संवििान के
तृतीय भाग से हटा वदया गया था।[21][note 2]

मौवलक अविकारों का उद्दे श् व्यस्तक्तगत स्वतंत्रता तथा समाज के सभी सदस्यों की समानता पर
आिाररत लोकतां वत्रक वसद्धां तों की रक्षा करना है ।[22] िे, अनुच्छेद 13 के अंतगनत वििावयका
और कायनपावलका की शस्तक्तयों की पररसीमा के रूप में कायन करते हैं [note 3] और इन
अविकारों का उल्लंघन होने पर भारत के सिोि न्यायालय तथा राज्यों के उि न्यायालयों को
यह अविकार है वक ऐसे वकसी वििायी या कायन कारी कृत्य को असंिैिावनक और शून्य घोवषत
कर सकें।[23] ये अविकार राज्य, वजसमें अनुच्छेद 12 में दी गई व्यापक पररभाषा के अनुसार
न केिल संघीय एिं राज्य सरकारों की वििावयका एिं कायनपावलका स्कंिों बस्ति स्थानीय
प्रशासवनक प्राविकाररयों तथा सािनजवनक कायन करने िाली या सरकारी प्रकृवत की अन्य
एजेंवसयों ि संस्थाओं के विरुद्ध बडे पैमाने पर प्रितननीय हैं ।[24] हालां वक, कुछ अविकार - जैसे
वक अनुच्छेद 15, 17, 18, 23, 24 में - वनजी व्यस्तक्तयों के विरुद्ध भी उपलब्ध हैं ।[25] इसके
अलािा, कुछ मौवलक अविकार - जो अनुच्छेद 14, 20, 21, 25 में उपलब्ध हैं , उन सवहत -
भारतीय भूवम पर वकसी भी राष्ट्रीयता िाले व्यस्तक्त पर लागू होते हैं , जबवक अन्य - जैसे जो
अनुच्छेद 15, 16, 19, 30 के अंतगनत उपलब्ध है - केिल भारतीय नीगररकों पर लागू होते
हैं ।[26][27]

मौवलक अविकार संपूणन नहीं होते तथा िे सािनजवनक वहतों की रक्षा के वलए आिश्क उवचत
प्रवतबंिों के अिीन होते हैं ।[24] 1973 में केशिानंद भारती बनाम केरल सरकार के मामले
में[note 4] सिोि न्यायालय ने अपने 1967 के पू िन वनणनय को रद्द करते हुए वनणनय वदया वक
मौवलक अविकारों में सं शोिन वकया जा सकता है , यवद इस तरह के वकसी संशोिन से
संविघान के बुवनयादी ढां चे का उल्लंघन होता हो, तो न्यावयक समीक्षा के अिीन।[28] मौवलक
अविकारों को संसद के प्रत्येक सदन में दो वतहाई बहुमत से पाररत संिैिावनक संशोिन के
द्वारा बढाया, हटाया जा सकता है या अन्यथा सं शोवित वकया जा सकता है ।[29] आपात स्तस्थवत
लागू होने की स्तस्थवत में अनुच्छेद 20 और 21 को छोडकर शेष मौवलक अविकारों में से
वकसी को भी राष्ट्रपवत के आदे श द्वारा अस्थाई रूप से वनलंवबत वकया जा सकता है ।[30]
आपातकाल की अिवि के दौरान राष्ट्रपवत आदे श दे कर संिैिावनक उपचारों के अविकारों को
भी वनलंवबत कर सकते हैं , वजसके पररणामस्वरूप वसिाय अनुच्छेद 20 ि 21 के वकसी भी
मौवलक अविकार के प्रितनन हे तु नागररकों के सिोि न्यायालय में जाने पर रोक लग जाती
है ।[31] संसद भी अनुच्छेद 33 के अंतगनत कानून बना कर, उनकी सेिाओं का समुवचत वनिनहन
सुवनवित करने तथा अनुशासन के रखरखाि के वलए भारतीय सशस्त्र सेनाओं और पुवलस बल
के सदस्यों के मौवलक अविकारों के अनुप्रयोग को प्रवतबंवित कर सकती है ।[32]

समार्िा का अतिकार[संपातिि करें ]

समानता का अविकार सं वििान की प्रमुख गारं वटयों में से एक है । यह अनुच्छेद 14-16 में
सवनवहत हैं वजसमें सामूवहक रूप से कानून के समक्ष समानता तथा गैर-भेदभाि के सामान्य
वसद्धां त शावमल हैं ,[33] तथा अनुच्छेद 17-18 जो सामूवहक रूप से सामावजक समानता के
दशनन को आगे बढाते हैं ।[34] अनुच्छेद 14 कानून के समक्ष समानता की गारं टी दे ता है , इसके
साथ ही भारत की सीमाओं के अंदर सभी व्यस्तक्तयों को कानून का समान संरक्षण प्रदान
करता है ।[note 5] इस में कानून के प्राविकार की अिीनता सबके वलए समान है , साथ ही
समान पररस्तस्थवतयों में सबके साथ समान व्यिहार।[35] उत्तरिती में राज्य िैि प्रयोजनों के वलए
व्यस्तक्तयों का िगीकरण कर सकता है , बशते इसके वलए यथोवचत आिार मौजूद हो, वजसका
अथन है वक िगीकरण मनमाना न हो, िगीकरण वकये जाने िाले लोगों में सुगम विभेदन की
एक विवि पर आिाररत हो, साथ ही िगीकरण के द्वारा प्राप्त वकए जाने िाले प्रयोजन का
तकनसंगत संबंि होना आिश्क है ।[36]

अनुच्छेद 15 केिल िमन, मूलिंश, जावत, वलंग, जर्न्म स्थान, या इनमें से वकसी के ही आिार पर
भेदभाि पर रोक लगाता है । अंशतः या पूणनतः राज्य के कोष से संचावलत सािनजवनक मनोरं जन
स्थलों या सािनजवनक ररसोटन में वनशुि प्रिेश के संबंि में यह अविकार राज्य के साथ-साथ
वनजी व्यस्तक्तयों के स्तखलाफ भी प्रितननीय है ।[37] हालां वक, राज्य को मवहलाओं और बिों या
अनुसूवचत जावत ि अनुसूवचत जनजावत सवहत सामावजक और शैवक्षक रूप से वपछडे िगों के
नागररकों के वलए विशेष प्राििान बनाने से राज्य को रोका नहीं गया है । इस अपिाद का
प्राििान इसवलए वकया गया है क्ोंवक इसमें िवणन त िगो के लोग िंवचत माने जाते हैं और
उनको विशेष संरक्षण की आिस्यकता है ।[38] अनुच्छेद 16 सािनजवनक रोजगार के संबंि में
अिसर की समानता की गारं टी दे ता है और राज्य को वकसी के भी स्तखलाफ केिल िमन, नस्ल,
जावत, वलंग, िंश, जर्न्म स्थान या इनमें से वकसी एक के आिार पर भेदभाि करने से रोकता
है । वकसी भी वपछडे िगन के नागररकों का सािनजवनक सेिाओं में पयान प्त प्रवतवनवित्व सुनुवित
करने के वलए उनके लाभाथन सकारात्मक कारन िाई के उपायों के कायान न्वयन हे तु अपिाद बनाए
जाते हैं , साथ ही वकसी िावमनक संस्थान के एक पद को उस िमन का अनुसरण करने िाले
व्यस्तक्त के वलए आरवक्षत वकया जाता है ।[39]

अस्पृश्ता की प्रथा को अनुच्छेद 17 के अंतगनत एक दं िनीय अपराि घोवषत कर वकया गया

है , इस उद्दे श् को आगे बढाते हुए नागररक अविकार संरक्षण अविवनयम 1955 संसद द्वारा
अविवनयवमत वकया गया है ।[34] अनुच्छेद 18 राज्य को सैन्य या शैक्षवणक विवशष्ट्ता को
छोडकर वकसी को भी कोई पदिी दे् ने से रोकता है तथा कोई भी भारतीय नागररक वकसी
विदे शी राज्य से कोई पदिी स्वीकार नहीं कर सकता। इस प्रकार, भारतीय कुलीन उपावियों
और अंग्रेजों द्वारा प्रदान की गई और अवभजात्य उपावियों को समाप्त कर वदया गया है ।
हालां वक, भारत रि पुरस्कारों जैसे, भारतरि को सिोि न्यायालय द्वारा इस आिार पर मान्य
घोवषत वकया गया है वक ये पुरस्कार मात्र अलंकरण हैं और प्रप्तकतान द्वारा पदिी के रूप में
इिेमाल नहीं वकया जा सकता।[40][41]

स्विंत्रिा का अतिकार[संपातिि करें ]

संवििान के वनमान ताओं द्वारा महत्वपूणन माने गए व्यस्तक्तगत अविकारों की गारं टी दे ने की दृवष्ट्
से स्वतंत्रता के अविकार को अनुच्छेद 19-22 में शावमल वकया गया है और इन अनुच्छेदों में
कुछ प्रवतबंि भी शावमल हैं वजन्ें विशेष पररस्तस्थवतयों में राज्य द्वारा व्यस्तक्तगं स्वतंत्रता पर लागू
वकया जा सकता है । अनुच्छेद 19 नागररक अविकारों के रूप में छः प्रकार की स्वतंत्रताओं
की गारं टी दे ता है जो केिल भारतीय नागररकों को ही उपलब्ध हैं ।[42] इनमें शावमल हैं भाषण
और अवभव्यस्तक्त की स्वतंत्रता, एकत्र होने की स्वतंत्रता, हवथयार रखने की स्वतंत्रता, भारत के
राज्यक्षेत्र में कहीं भी आने -जाने की स्वतंत्रतता, भारत के वकसी भी भाग में बसने और वनिास
करने की स्वतं त्रता तथा कोई भी पेशा अपनाने की स्वतंत्रता। ये सभी स्वतंत्रताएं अनुच्छेद 19
में ही िवणनत कुछ उवचत प्रवतबंिों के अिीन होती हैं , वदन्ें राज्य द्वारा उन पर लागू वकया जा
सकता है । वकस स्वतंत्रता को प्रवतबंवित वकया जाना प्रिावित है , इसके आिार पर प्रवतबंिों
को लागू करने के आिार बदलते रहते हैं , इनमें शावमल हैं राष्ट्रीय सुरक्षा, सािनजवनक व्यिस्था,
शालीनता और नैवतकता, न्यायालय की अिमानना, अपरािों को भडकाना और मानहावन। आम
जनता के वहत में वकसी व्यापार, उद्योग या सेिा का नागररकों के अपिजनन के वलए
राष्ट्रीयकरण करने के वलए राज्य को भी सशक्त वकया गया है ।[43]

अनुच्छेद 19 द्वारा गारं टीशुदा स्वतंत्रताओं की आगे अनुच्छेद 20-22 द्वारा रक्षा की जाती
है ।[44] इन अनुच्छेदों के वििार, विशेष रूप से वनिान ररत प्रविया के वसद्धां त के संबंि में, पर
संवििान सभा में भारी बहस हुई थी। विशेष रूप से बेनेगल नरवसंह राि ने यह तकन वदया
वक ऐसे प्राििान को लागू होने से सामावजक कानूनों में बािा आएगी तथा व्यिस्था बनाए
रखने में प्रवियात्मक कवठनाइयां उत्पन होंगी, इसवलए इसे पूरी तरह संवििान से बाहर ही रखा
जाए।[45] संवििान सभा ने 1948 में अंततः "वनिान ररत प्रविया" शब्दों को हटा वदया और
उनके स्थान पर “कानून द्वारा स्थावपत प्रविया” को शावमल कर वलया।[46] पररणाम के रूप में
एक, अनुच्छेद 21, जो विवि द्वारा स्थावपत प्रविया के अनुसार होने िाली कायनिाही को छोड
कर, जीिन या व्यस्तक्तगत संितंत्रता में राज्य के अवतिमण से बचाता है ,[note 6] के अथन को
1978 तक कायनकारी कायनिाही तक सीवमत समझा गया था। हालां वक, 1978 में, मेनका गां िी
बनाम भारत संघ के मामले में सिोि न्यायालय ने अनुच्छेद 21 के संरक्षण को वििाई
कायनिाही तक बढाते हुए वनणनय वदया वक वकसी प्रविया को वनिान ररत करने िाला कानून
उवचत, वनष्पक्ष और तकनसंगत होना चावहए,[47] और अनुच्छेद 21 में वनिान ररत प्रविया को
प्रभािी ढं ग से पढा।[48] इसी मामले में सुप्रीम कोटन ने यह भी कहा वक अनुच्छेद 21 के
अंतगनत "जीिन" का अथन मात्र एक "जीि के अस्तित्व" से कहीं अविक है ; इसमें मानिीय
गररमा के साथ जीने का अविकार तथा िे सब पहलू जो जीिन को "अथनपूणन, पूणन तथा जीने
योग्य" बनाते हैं , शावमल हैं ।[49] इस के बाद की न्यावयक व्याख्याओं ने अनुच्छेद 21 के अंदर
अनेक अविकारों को शावमल करते हुए इसकी सीमा का वििार वकया है वजनमें शावमल हैं
आजीविका, स्वच्छ पयान िरण, अच्छा स्वास्थ्य, अदालतों में तेिररत सुनिाई तथा कैद में मानिीय
व्यिहार से संबंवित अविकार। [50] प्राथवमक िर पर वशक्षा के अविकार को 2002 के 86िें
संिैिावनक संशोिन द्वारा अनुच्छेद 21ए में मौवलक अविकार बनाया गया है ।[51]

अनुच्छेद 20 अपरािों के वलए दोषवसस्तद्ध के संबंि में संरक्षण प्रदान करता है , वजनमें शावमल
हैं पूिनव्यापी कानून ि दोहरे दं ि के विरुद्ध अविकार तथा आत्म-दोषारोपण से स्वतंत्रता प्रदान
करता है ।[52] अनुच्छेद 22 वगरफ्तार हुए और वहरासत में वलए गए लोगों को विशेष अविकार
प्रदान करता है , विशेष रूप से वगरफ्तारी के आिार सूवचत वकए जाने , अपनी पसंद के एक
िकील से सलाह करने , वगरफ्तारी के 24 घंटे के अंदर एक मवजस्टर े ट के समक्ष पेश वकए जाने
और मवजस्टर े ट के आदे श के वबना उस अिवि से अविक वहरासत में न रखे जाने का
अविकार।[53] संवििान राज्य को भी अनुच्छेद 22 में उपलब्ध रक्षक उपायों के अिीन, वनिारक
वनरोि के वलए कानून बनाने के वलए अविकृत करता है ।[54] वनिारक वनरोि से संबंवित
प्राििानों पर संशयिाद तथा आशंकाओं के साथ चचान करने के बाद संवििान सभा ने कुछ
संशोिनों के साथ 1949 में अवनच्छा के साथ अनुमोदन वकया था।[55] अनुच्छेद 22 में
प्राििान है वक जब एक व्यस्तक्त को वनिारक वनरोि के वकसी भी कानून के तहत वहरासत में
वलया गया है , ऐसे व्यस्तक्त को राज्य केिल तीन महीने के वलए परीक्षण के वबना वगरफ्तार कर
सकता है , इससे लंबी अिवि के वलए वकसी भी वनरोि के वलए एक सलाहकार बोिन द्वारा
अविकृत वकया जाना आिश्क है । वहरासत में वलए गए व्यस्तक्त को भी अविकार है वक उसे
वहरासत के आिार के बारे में सूवचत वकया जाएगा, और इसके विरुद्ध वजतना जल्दी अिसर
वमले अभ्यािेदन करने की अनुमवत दी जाएगी।[56]

शोषण के क्तखलाफ अतिकार[संपातिि करें ]

राइट् स के अंतगनत शोषण के स्तखलाफ बाल श्रम और वभक्षु क वनवषद्ध हो गए।

शोषण के विरुद्ध अविकार, अनुच्छेद 23-24 में वनवहत हैं , इनमें राज्य या व्यस्तक्तयों द्वारा समाज
के कमजोर िगों का शोषण रोकने के वलए कुछ प्राििान वकए गए हैं ।[57] अनुच्छेद 23 के
प्राििान के अनुसार मानि तस्करी को प्रवतबस्तन्धत है , इसे कानून द्वारा दं िनीय अपराि बनाया
गया है , साथ ही बेगार या वकसी व्यस्तक्त को पाररश्रवमक वदए वबना उसे काम करने के वलए
मजबूर करना जहां कानूनन काम न करने के वलए या पाररश्रवमक प्राप्त करने के वलए
हकदार है , भी प्रवतबंवित वकया गया है । हालां वक, यह राज्य को सािनजवनक प्रयोजन के वलए
सेना में अवनिायन भती तथा सामुदावयक सेिा सवहत, अवनिायन सेिा लागू करने की अनुमवत दे ता
है ।[58][59] बंिुआ श्रम व्यिस्था (उर्न्मूलन) अविवनयम, 1976, को इस अनुच्छेद में प्रभािी
करने के वलए संसद द्वारा अविवनयवमत वकया गया है ।[60] अनुच्छेद 24 कारखानों, खानों और
अन्य खतरनाक नौकररयों में 14 िषन से कम उम्र के बिों के रोजगार पर प्रवतबंि लगाता है ।
संसद ने बाल श्रम (वनषे ि और विवनयमन) अविवनयम, 1986 अविवनयवमत वकया है , वजसमें
उर्न्मूलन के वलए वनयम प्रदान करने , और बाल श्रवमक को रोजगार दे ने पर दं ि के तथा पूिन
बाल श्रवमकों के पुनिान स के वलए भी प्राििान वदए गए हैं ।[61]

िमन की स्विंत्रिा का अतिकार[संपातिि करें ]

 इन्ें भी दे खें: भारत में िमन वनरपेक्षता

िमन की स्वतं त्रता का अविकार अनुच्छेद 25-28 में वनवहत है , जो सभी नागररकों को िावमनक
स्वतंत्रता प्रदान करता है और भारत में िमनवनरपे क्ष राज्य सुवनवित करता है । संवििान के
अनुसार, यहां कोई आविकाररक राज्य िमन नहीं है और राज्य द्वारा सभी िमों के साथ
वनष्पक्षता और तटस्थता से व्यिहार वकया जाना चावहए।[62] अनुच्छेद 25 सभी लोगों को
वििेक की स्वतंत्रता तथा अपनी पसंद के िमन के उपदे श, अभ्यास और प्रचार की स्वतंत्रता की
गारं टी दे ता है । हालां वक, यह अविकार सािनजवनक व्यिस्था, नैवतकता और स्वास्थ्य तथा राज्य की
सामावजक कल्याण और सुिार के उपाय करने की शस्तक्त के अिीन होते हैं ।[63] हालां वक,
प्रचार के अविकार में वकसी अन्य व्यस्तक्त के िमािं तरण का अविकार शावमल नहीं है , क्ोंवक
इससे उस व्यस्तक्त के वििेक के अविकार का हनन होता है ।[64] अनुच्छेद 26 सभी िावमनक
संप्रदायों तथा पंथों को सािनजवनक व्यिस्था, नैवतकता तथा स्वास्थ्य के अिीन अपने िावमनक
मामलों का स्वयं प्रबंिन करने , अपने िर पर िमान थन या िावमनक प्रयोजन से संस्थाएं स्थावपत
करने और कानून के अनुसार संपवत्त रखने , प्राप्त करने और उसका प्रबंिन करने के अविकार
की गारं टी दे ता है । ये प्राििान राज्य की िावमनक संप्रदायों से संबंवित सं पवत्त का अविग्रहण
करने की शस्तक्त को कम नहीं करते।[65] राज्य को िावमनक अनुसरण से जुडी वकसी भी
आवथनक, राजनीवतक या अन्य िमनवनरपेक्ष गवतविवि का विवनयमन करने की शस्तक्त दी गई
है ।[62] अनुच्छेद 27 की गारं टी दे ता है वक वकसी भी व्यस्तक्त को वकसी विशेष िमन या िावमनक
संस्था को बढािा दे ने के वलए टै क्स दे ने के वलए मजबूर नहीं वकया जा सकता।[66] अनुच्छेद
28 पूणनतः राज्य द्वारा वित्तपोवषत शैवक्षक संस्थाओं में िावमनक वशक्षा का वनषेि करता है तथा
राज्य से वित्तीय सहायता लेने िाली शैवक्षक संस्थाएं , अपने वकसी सदस्य को उनकी (या उनके
अवभभािकों की) स्वाकृवत के वबना िावमनक वशक्षा प्राप्त करने या िावमनक पूजा में भाग लेने के
वलए मजबूर नहीं कर सकतीं।[62]

सांस्कृतिक और शैतक्षक अतिकार[संपातिि करें ]

अनुच्छेद 29 ि 30 में वदए गए सां स्कृवतक और शैवक्षक अविकार, उन्ें अपनी विरासत का
संरक्षण करने और उसे भेदभाि से बचाने के वलए सक्षम बनाते हुए सां स्कृवतक, भाषाई और
िावमनक अिसंख्यकों के अविकारों की रक्षा के उपाय हैं ।[67] अनुच्छेद 29 अपनी विवशष्ट्
भाषा, वलवप और संस्कृवत रखने िाले नागररकों के वकसी भी िगन को उनका संरक्षण और
विकास करने का अविकार प्रदान करता है , इस प्रकार राज्य को उन पर वकसी बाह्य संस्कृवत
को थोपने से रोकता है ।[67][68] यह राज्य द्वारा चलाई जा रही या वित्तपोवषत शैवक्षक संस्थाओं
को, प्रिेश दे ते समय वकसी भी नागररक के साथ केिल िमन, मूलिंश, जावत, भाषा या इनमें से
वकसी के आिार पर भे दभाि करने से भी रोकता है । हालां वक, यह सामावजक और शैवक्षक
रूप से वपछडे िगों के वलए राज्य द्वारा उवचत संख्या में सीटों के आरक्षण तथा साथ ही एक
अिसंख्यक समुदाय द्वारा चलाई जा रही शैवक्षक संस्था में उस समुदाय से संबंविक नागररकों
के वलए 50 प्रवतशत तक सीटों के आरक्षण के अिीन है ।[69]

अनुच्छेद 30 सभी िावमनक और भाषाई अिसंख्यकों को अपनी स्वयं की संस्कृवत को बनाए

रखने और विकवसत करने के वलए अपनी पसंद की शैवक्षक संस्थाएं स्थावपत करने और चलाने
का अविकार प्रदान करता है और राज्य को, वित्तीय सहायता दे ते समय वकसी भी संस्था के
साथ इस आिार पर वक उसे एक िावमनक या सां स्कृवतक अिसंख्यक द्वारा चलाया जा रहा
है , भेदभाि करने से रोकता है ।[68] हालां वक शब्द "अिसंख्यक" को संवििान में पररभावषत
नहीं वकया गया है , सिोि न्यायालय द्वारा की गई व्याख्या के अनुसार इसका अथन है कोई भी
समुदाय वजसके सदस्यों की संख्या, वजस राज्य में अनुच्छेद 30 के अंतगनत अविकार चावहए,
उस राज्य की जनसंख्या के 50 प्रवतशत से कम हो। इस अविकार का दािा करने के वलए,
यह जरूरी है वक शैवक्षक संस्था को वकसी िावमनक या भाषाई अिसंख्यक द्वारा स्थावपत और
प्रशावसत वकया गया हो। इसके अलािा, अनुच्छेद 30 के तहत अविकार का लाभ उठाया जा
सकता है , भले ही स्थावपत की गई शैवक्षक संस्था स्वयं को केिल सं बंवित अिसंख्यक समुदाय
के िमन या भाषा के वशक्षण तक सीवमत नहीं रखती, या उस संस्था के अविसंख्य छात्र सं बंवित
अिसंख्यक समुदाय से संबंि नहीं रखते हों।[70] यह अविकार शैवक्षक मानकों, कमनचाररयों की
सेिा की शतों, शुि संरचना और दी गई सहायता के उपयोग के संबंि में उवचत विवनयमन
लागू करने की राज्य की शस्तक्त के अिीन है ।[71]

संवैिातर्क उपचारों का अतिकार[संपातिि करें ]

संिैिावनक उपचारों का अविकार नागररकों को अपने मौवलक अविकारों के प्रितनन या उल्लंघन

के विरुद्ध सुरक्षा के वलए भारत के सिोि न्यायालय में जाने की शस्तक्त दे ता है ।[72] अनुच्छेद
32 स्वयं एक मौवलक अविकार के रूप में, अन्य मौवलक अविकारों के प्रितनन के वलए गारं टी
प्रदान करता है , संवििान द्वारा सिोि न्यायालय को इन अविकारों के रक्षक के रूप में नावमत
वकया गया है ।[73] सिोि न्यायालय को मौवलक अविकारों के प्रितनन के वलए बंदी
प्रत्यक्षीकरण , परमादे श , वनषेि , उत्प्रेषण और अविकार पृच्छा प्रादे श (ररट, writ) जारी करने
का अविकार वदया गया है , जबवक उि न्यायालयों को अनुच्छेद 226 - जो एक मैवलक
अविकार नहीं है - मौवलक अविकारों का उल्लं घन न होने पर भी इन विशेषाविकार प्रादे शों
को जारी करने का अविकार वदया गया है ।[74] वनजी संस्थाओं के स्तखलाफ भी मौवलक
अविकार को लागू करना तथा उल्लंघन के मामले में प्रभावित व्यस्तक्त को समुवचत मुआिजे का
आदे श जारी करना भी सिोि न्यायालय के क्षेत्राविकार में है । सिोि न्यायालय द्वारा स्वप्रेरणा
से या जनवहत यावचका के आिार पर अपने क्षेत्राविकार का प्रयोग कर सकता है ।[72]
अनुच्छेद 359 के प्राििानों जबवक आपातकाल लागू हो, को छोडकर यह अविकार कभी भी
वनलंवबत नहीं वकया जा सकता।[73]

राज्य के र्ीति तर्िे शक तसद्ांि[संपातिि करें ]

मु ख्य ले ख : भारतीय संवििान में नीवत वनदे शक तत्त्व

संवििान के चतुथन भाग में सवनवहत राज्य के नीवत वनदे शक वसद्धां तों, में संवििान की प्रिािना
में प्रिावित आवथनक और सामावजक लोकतं त्र की स्थापना हे तु मागनदशनन के वलए राज्य को
वनदे श वदए गए हैं ।[75] िे संवििान सभा द्वारा भारत में पररकस्तित सामावजक िां वत के लक्ष्य
रहे मानिीय और समाजिादी वनदे शों को बताते हैं ।[76] राज्य से यह अपेक्षा की गई है वक
हालां वक ये प्रकृवत में न्यायोवचत नहीं हैं , कानून और नीवतयां बनाते समय इन वसद्धां तों को ध्यान
में रखा जाएगा। वनदे शक वसद्धां तों को वनम्नवलस्तखत श्रेवणयों के अंतगनत िगीकृत वकया जा सकता
है : िे आदशन वजन्ें प्राप्त करने के वलए राज्य को प्रयास करने चावहएं ; वििायी और कायनकारी
शस्तक्तयों के प्रयोग के वलए वनदे श और नागररकों के अविकार वजनकी सुरक्षा करना राज्य का
लक्ष्य होना चावहए।[75]

न्यायोवचत न होने के बािजूद वनदे शक वसद्धां त राज्य पर एक रोक का काम करते हैं ; इन्ें
मतदाताओं एिं विपक्ष के हाथों में एक मानदं ि के रूप में माना गया है वजससे िे चुनाि के
समय सरकार के कायनप्रदशनन को माप सकें।[77] अनुच्छेद 37, यह बताते हुए वक वनदे शक
वसद्धां त कानून की वकसी भी अदालत में प्रितननीय नहीं हैं , उन्ें "दे श के शासन के वलए
बुवनयादी" घोवषत करता है और वििान के मामलों में इन्ें लागू करने का दावयत्व भी राज्य
पर िालता है ।[78] इस प्रकार िे संवििान के कल्याणकारी राज्य के मॉिल पर जोर दे ने का
काम करते हैं और सामावजक, आवथनक और राजनीवतक न्याय को स्वीकार करते हुए लोगों के
कल्याण को प्रोत्साहन दे ने के वलए, साथ ही अनुच्छेद 38 के अनुसार आय असमानता से लडने
और व्यस्तक्तगत गररमा को सुवनवित करने के वलए राज्य के सकारात्मक कतनव्यों पर जोर दे ते
हैं ।[79][80]

अनुच्छेद 39 राज्य द्वारा अपनाई जाने िाली नीवतयों के कुछ वसद्धां त तय करता है , वजनमें सभी
नागररकों के वलए आजीविका के पयान प्त सािन प्रदान करना, स्त्री और पुरुषों के वलए समान
कायन के वलए समान िेतन, उवचत कायन दशाएं , कुछ ही लोगों के पास िन तथा उत्पादन के
सािनों के संकेंद्रन में कमी लाना और सामुदावयक संसािनों का “सािनजवनक वहत में सहायक
होने” के वलए वितरण करना शावमल हैं ।[81] ये िाराएं , राज्य की सहायता से सामावजक िां वत
लाकर, एक समतािादी सामावजक व्यिस्था बनाने तथा एक कल्याणकारी राज्य की स्थापना
करने के संिैिावनक उद्दे श्ों को वचह्नां वकत करती हैं और इनका खवनज संसािनों के साथ-
साथ सािनजवनक सुवििाओं के राष्ट्रीयकरण को समथनन दे ने के वलए उपयोग वकया गया है ।[82]
इसके अलािा, भूसंसािनों के न्यायसंगत वितरण के सुवनवित करने के वलए, संघीय एिं राज्य
सरकारों द्वारा कृवष सुिारों और भूवम पट्टों के कई अविवनयम बनाए गए हैं ।[83]

अनुच्छेद 41-43 जनादे श राज्य को सभी नागररकों के वलए काम का अविकार, न्यूनतम
मजदू री, सामावजक सुरक्षा, मातृत्व राहत और एक शालीन जीिन िर सुरवक्षत करने के प्रयास
करने के अविकार दे ते हैं ।[84] इन प्राििानों का उद्दे श् प्रिािना में पररकस्तित एक
समाजिादी की राज्य की स्थापना करना है ।[85] अनुच्छेद 43 भी राज्य को कुटीर उद्योगों को
प्रोत्साहन दे ने की वजम्मेदारी दे ता है और इसको आगे बढाते हुए संघीय सरकार ने राज्य
सरकारों के समन्वय से खादी, हैं िलूम आवद को प्रोत्साहन दे ने के वलए अनेक बोिों की
स्थापना की है ।[86] अनु च्छेद 39ए के अनुसार राज्य को आवथनक अथिा अन्य अयोग्यताओं पर
ध्यान वदए वबना वनशुि कानूनी सहायता उपलब्ध करिाकर यह सुवनवित करना है वक सभी
नागररकों को न्याय प्राप्त करने के अिसर वमलें।[87] अनुच्छेद 43ए राज्य को उद्योगों के
प्रबंिन में श्रवमकों की भागीदारी सुवनवित करने की वदशा में काम करने के वलए अविकार
दे ता है ।[85] अनुच्छेद 46 के तहत, राज्य को अनुसूवचत जावतयों ि अनुसूवचत जनजावतयों के
वहतों को प्रोत्साहन दे ने और उनके आवथनक िर को ऊपर उठाने के वलए काम करने और
उन्ें भैद-भाि तथा शोषण से बचाने का अविकार वदया गया है । इस प्राििान को प्रभािी
बनाने के वलए दो संवििान संशोिनों सवहत कई अविवनयम बनाए गए हैं ।[88]

अनुच्छेद 44 दे श में ितन मान में लागू विवभन वनजी कानूनों में विसंगवतयों को दू र करके सभी
नागररकों के वलए समान नगगररक संवहता बनाने के वलए राज्य को प्रोत्सावहत करता है ।
हालां वक, सिोि न्यायालय द्वारा प्राििानों को लागू करने के वलए अनेक अनुस्मारक वदए जाने
के बािजूद यह एक अं िपत्र होकर रह गया है ।[89] अनुच्छेद 45 द्वारा मूल रूप में राज्य को
6 से 14 िषन की आयु के बिों को वनशुि तथा अवनिायन वशक्षा प्रदान करने का अविकार
वदया गया था;[90] लेवकन बाद में 2002 में 86िें संवििान संशोिन के बाद इसे मौवलक
अविकार में पररिवतनत कर वदया गया है और छः िषन तक की आयु के बिों के बचपन की
दे खभाल सुवनवित करने का दावयत्व राज्य पर िाला गया है ।[51] अनुच्छेद 47 जीिन िर
ऊंचा उठाने , सािनजवनक स्वास्थ्य में सुिार करने तथा स्वास्थ्य के वलए हावनकारक नशीले पेय
और दिाओं के सेिन पर रोक लगाने की प्रवतबद्धता राज्य को सौंपी गई है ।[91] पररणाम के
रूप में कई राज्यों में आं वशक या संपूणन वनषेि लागू कर वदया गया है , लेवकन वित्तीय
मजबूररयों ने इसको पूणन रूप से लागू करने से रोक रखा है ।[92] अनुच्छेद 48 के द्वारा भी
राज्य को नस्ल सुिार कर तथा पशुिि पर रोक लगा कर आिुवनक एिं िैज्ञावनक तरीके से
कृवष और पशुपालन को संगवठत करने की वजम्मेदारी दी गई है ।[93] अनुच्छेद 48ए राज्य को
पयान िरण की रक्षा और िनों तथा िन्यजीिों के संरक्षण का आदे श दे ता है , जबवक अनुच्छेद 49
राष्ट्रीय महत्त्व के स्मारकों और ििुओं का संरक्षण सुवनवित करने का दावयत्व राज्य को सौंपता
है ।[94] अनुच्छेद 50 के अनुसार राज्य को न्यावयक स्वतंत्रता सुवनवित करने के वलए
सािनजवनक सेिाओं में न्यायपावलका का कायनपावलका से अलगाि सुवनवित करना है और संघीय
कानून बनाकर इस उद्दे श् को प्राप्त कर वलया गया है ।[95][96] अनुच्छेद 51 के अनुसार,
राज्य को अंतरराष्ट्रीय शां वत और सुरक्षा के संििनन हे तु प्रयास करने चावहएं तथआ अनुच्छेद
253 के द्वारा संसद को अं तरान ष्ट्रीय संवियां लागू करने के वलए कानून बनाने का अविकार
वदया गया है ।[97]

मौतलक किनव्य[संपातिि करें ]

भारतीय राष्ट्रीय ध्वज के प्रवत कोई भी अनादर कायन गैर कानू नी है ।

नागररकों के मौवलक कतनव्य 1976 में सरकार द्वारा गवठत स्वणनवसंह सवमवत की वसफाररशों
पर, 42िें संशोिन द्वारा संवििान में जोडे गए थे।[18][98] मूल रूप से सं ख्या में दस, मौवलक
कतनव्यों की संख्या 2002 में 86िें संशोिन द्वारा ग्यारह तक बढाई गई थी, वजसमें प्रत्येक
माता-वपता या अवभभािक को यह सुवनवित करने का कतनव्य सौंपा गया वक उनके छः से
चौदह िषन तक के बिे या िािन को वशक्षा का अिसर प्रदान कर वदया गया है ।[51] अन्य
मौवलक कतनव्य नागररकों को कतनव्यबद्ध करते हैं वक संवििान सवहत भारत के राष्ट्रीय प्रतीकों
का समेमान करें , इसकी विरासत को संजोएं , इसकी वमवश्रत संस्कृवत का संरक्षण करें तथा
इसकी सुरक्षा में सहायता दें । िे सभी भारतीयों को सामान्य भाईचारे की भािना को बढािा
दे ने, पयान िरण और सािनजवनक संपवत्त की रक्षा करने , िैज्ञावनक सोच का विकास करने , वहं सा को
त्यागने , और जीिन के सभी क्षेत्रों में उत्कृष्ट्ता की वदशा में प्रयास करने के कतनव्य भी सौंपते
हैं ।[99] नागररक इन कतन व्यों का पालन करने के वलए संवििान द्वारा नैवतक रूप से बाध्य हैं ।
हालां वक, वनदे शक वसद्धां तों की तरह, ये भी न्यायोवचत नहीं हैं , उल्लंघन या अनुपालना न होने
पर कोई कानूनी कायनिाही नहीं हो सकती।[98][100] ऐसे कतनव्यों का उल्लेख मानि अविकारों
की सािनभौवमक घोषणा तथा नागररक एिं राजनीवतक अविकारों पर अंतरान ष्ट्रीय प्रवतज्ञापत्र जैसे
अंतरान ष्ट्रीय लेखपत्रों में है , अनुच्छेद 51ए भारतीय संवििान को इन संवियों के अनुरूप लाता
है ।[98]

आलोचर्ा और तवश्लेषण[संपातिि करें ]

अब कम ही बिे खतरनाक िातािरण में कायनरत हैं , लेवकन गैर खतरनाक नौकररयों में उनका
रोजगार, घरे लू नौकर के रूप में प्रचलन, कई आलोचकों और मानि अविकार अवििक्ताओं की
नजरों में संवििान की भािना का उल्लंघन करता है । एक करोड पैंसठ लाख से अविक बिे
रोजगार में हैं ।[101] सरकारी अविकाररयों और राजनीवतज्ञों में मौजूद भ्रष्ट्ाचार के िर के
अनुसार 2005 में भारत 159 दे शों की सूची में 88िें स्थान पर था।[102] िषन 1990-1991
को बीआर अम्बेिकर की स्मृवत में "सामावजक न्याय िषन " घोवषत वकया गया था।[103] सरकार
वचवकत्सा एिं अवभयां वत्रकी पाठ्यिमों के अनुसूवचत जावत एिं जनजावत के छात्रों को वनशुि
पाठ्यपुिकें प्रदान करती है । 2002-2003 के दौरान रुपये 4।77 करोड (477 लाख) इस
उद्दे श् के वलए जारी वकए गए थे।[104] अनुसूवचत जावतयों और जनजावतयों को भेदभाि से
बचाने के वलए, सरकार ने ऐसे कृत्यों के वलए कडे दं िों का प्राििान करते हुए 1995 में
अत्याचार वनिारण अविवनयम अविवनयवमत वकया था।[105]

1948 का न्यूनतम मजदू री अविवनयम सरकार को संपूणन आवथनक क्षेत्र में काम कर रहे लोगों
की न्यूनतम मजदू री तय करने का अविकार दे ता है ।[106] उपभोक्ता संरक्षण अविवनयम 1986
उपभोक्ताओं को बेहतर सुरक्षा प्रदान करता है । अविवनयम का उद्दे श् उपभोक्ताओं की
वशकायतों का सरल, त्वररत और सिा समािान प्रदान करना और जहां उपयुक्त पाया जाए
राहत और मुआिजा वदलाना हैं ।[कृपया उद्धरण जोडें ] समान पाररश्रवमक अविवनयम 1976 मवहलाओं
और पुरुषों दोनों को समान कायन के वलए समान िेतन प्रदान करता है ।[107] सम्पूणन ग्रामीण
रोजगार योजना (यूवनिसनल ग्रामीण रोजगार कायन िम) 2001 में ग्रामीण गरीबों को लाभदायक
रोजगार प्रदान करने के उद्दे श् से शुरू वकया गया था। कायनिम पंचायती राज संस्थाओं के
माध्यम से कायान स्तन्वत वकया गया था।[108]

वनिान वचत ग्राम पररषदों का एक तंत्र पंचायती राज के नाम से जाना जाता है , यह लगभग भारत
के सभी राज्यों और केंद्रशावसत प्रदे शों में लागू है ।[109] पंचायती राज में प्रत्येक िर पर कुल
सीटों की संख्या की एक वतहाई मवहलाओं के वलए आरवक्षत की गई हैं , वबहार के मामले में
आिी सीटें मवहलाओं के वलए आरवक्षत हैं ।[110][111] जम्मू एिं काश्मीर तथा नागालैंि को
छोड कर सभी राज्यों और प्रदे शों में न्यायपावलका को कायनपावलका से अलग कर वदया गया
है ।[104] भारत की विदे श नीवत वनदे शक वसद्धां तों से प्रभावित है । भारतीय सेना द्वारा संयुक्त
राष्ट्र के शां वत कायम करने के 37 अवभयानों में भाग लेकर भारत ने संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघ के
शां वत प्रयासों में सहयोग वदया है ।[112]

सभी नागररकों के वलए एक समान नागररक संवहता का कायान न्वयन राजनैवतक दलों और
विवभन िावमनक समूहों के बडे पैमाने पर विरोि के कारण हावसल नहीं वकया जा सका है ।
शाह बानो मामले (1985-1986) ने भारत में एक राजनीवतक तूफान भडका वदया था जब
सिोि न्यायालय ने कहा वक एक मुस्तस्लम मवहला शाह बानो वजसे 1978 में उसके पवत द्वारा
तलाक दे वदया गया था, सभी मवहलाओं के वलए लागू भारतीय विवि के अनुसार अपने पूिन
पवत से गुजारा भत्ता प्राप्त करने की हकदार थी। इस फैसले ने मुस्तस्लम समुदाय में नाराजगी
पैदा कर दी वजसने मुस्तस्लम पसननल लॉ लागू करने की मां ग की और प्रवतविया में संसद ने
सिोि न्यायालय के फैसले को उलटते हुए मुस्तस्लम मवहला (तलाक पर अविकार संरक्षण)
अविवनयम 1986 पाररत कर वदया।[113] इस अविवनयम ने आगे आिोश भडकाया, न्यायविदों,
आलोचकों और नेताओं ने आरोप लगाया वक िमन या वलंग के बािजूद सभी नागररकों के वलए
समानता के मौवलक अविकार की विवशष्ट् िावमनक समुदाय के वहतों की रक्षा करने के वलए
अिहे लना की गई थी। फैसला और कानून आज भी गरम बहस के स्रोत बने हुए हैं , अनेक
लोग इसे मौवलक अविकारों के कमजोर कायान न्वयन का एक प्रमुख उदाहरण बताते हैं ।[113]

मौतलक अतिकारों, तर्िे शक तसद्ांिों और मौतलक किनव्यों

के बीच संबंि[संपातिि करें ]
वनदे शक वसद्धां तों को मौवलक अविकारों के साथ वििाद की स्तस्थवत में कानून की संिैिावनक
िैिता को बनाए रखने के वलए इिेमाल वकया गया है । 1971 में 25िें संशोिन द्वारा जोडे
गए अनुच्छेद 31सी में प्राििान है वक अनुच्छेद 39(बी)-(सी) में वनदे शक वसद्धां तों को
प्रभािी बनाने के वलए बनाया गया कोई भी कानून इस आिार पर अिैि नहीं होगा वक िे
अनुच्छेद 14, 19 और 31 द्वारा प्रदत्त मौवलक अविकारों से अिमूस्तल्यत हैं । 1976 में 42िें
संशोिन द्वारा इस अनुच्छेद का सभी वनदे शक वसद्धां तों पर वििार वकया गया था लेवकन ने
इस वििार को शून्य घोवषत कर वदया क्ोंवक इससे संवििान के बुवनयादी ढां चे में पररितनन
होता था।[114] मौवलक अविकार और वनदे शक वसद्धां त दोनों का संयुक्त इिेमाल सामावजक
कल्याण के वलए कानूनों का आिार बनाने में वकया गया है ।[115] केशिानंद भारती मामले में
फैसले के बाद सिोि न्यायालय ने यह दृवष्ट्कोण अपना वलया है वक मौवलक अविकार और
वनदे शक वसद्धां त एक दू सरे के पूरक हैं , दोनों एक कल्याणकारी राज्य बनाने के वलए
सामावजक िां वत के एक ही लक्ष्य के वलए कायन करते हैं ।[116] इसी प्रकार, सिोि न्यायालय
ने मौवलक कतनव्यों का प्रयोग मौवलक कतनव्यों मे वदए गए उद्दे श्ों को प्रोत्सावहत करने िाले
कानूनों की संिैिावनक िैिता बनाए रखने के वलए वकया है ।[117] इन कतनव्यों को सभी
नागररकों के वलए अवनिायन ठहराया गया है , बशते राज्य द्वारा उनका प्रितनन एक िैि कानून
के द्वारा वकया जाए।[99] सिोि न्यायालय ने एक नागररक को अपने कतनव्य के उवचत पालन
के वलए प्रभािी और सक्षम बनाने हे तु प्राििान करने की दृवष्ट् से राज्य को इस संबंि में
वनदे श जारी वकए हैं ।[117]

Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of

India
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The Preamble (original text, i.e. before the 42nd Amendment) of the Constitution of India – India's
fundamental and supreme law
The Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Duties are
sections of the Constitution of India that prescribe the fundamental obligations of the State to its
citizens and the duties of the citizens to the State.[note 1] These sections comprise a constitutional
bill of rights for government policy-making and the behavior and conduct of citizens. These
sections are considered vital elements of the constitution, which was developed between 1947
and 1949 by the Constituent Assembly of India.

The Fundamental Rights are defined as the basic human rights of all citizens. These rights,
defined in Part III of the Constitution, apply irrespective of race, place of birth, religion, caste,
creed or sex. They are enforceable by the courts, subject to specific restrictions.

The Directive Principles of State Policy are guidelines for the framing of laws by the
government. These provisions, set out in Part IV of the Constitution, are not enforceable by the
courts, but the principles on which they are based are fundamental guidelines for governance that
the State is expected to apply in framing and passing laws.

The Fundamental Duties are defined as the moral obligations of all citizens to help promote a
spirit of patriotism and to uphold the unity of India. These duties, set out in Part IV–A of the
Constitution (under a constitutional amendment) concern individuals and the nation. Like the
Directive Principles, they are not legally enforceable.

Contents
[hide]

 1 History
 2 Fundamental Rights
o 2.1 Right to Equality
o 2.2 Right to Freedom
o 2.3 Right against Exploitation
o 2.4 Right to Freedom of Religion
o 2.5 Cultural and Educational Rights
o 2.6 Right to constitutional remedies
 3 Directive Principles of State Policy
 4 Fundamental Duties
 5 Criticism and analysis
 6 Relationship between the Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties
 7 See also
 8 Notes
 9 Footnotes
 10 References
 11 Further reading
 12 External links

History[edit source | editbeta]

See also: Indian independence movement and Constituent Assembly of India

The Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles had their origins in the Indian independence
movement, which strove to achieve the values of liberty and social welfare as the goals of an
independent Indian state.[1] The development of constitutional rights in India was inspired by
historical documents such as England's Bill of Rights, the United States Bill of Rights and
France's Declaration of the Rights of Man.[2] The demand for civil liberties formed an important
part of the Indian independence movement, with one of the objectives of the Indian National
Congress (INC) being to end discrimination between the British rulers and their Indian subjects.
This demand was explicitly mentioned in resolutions adopted by the INC between 1917 and
1919.[3] The demands articulated in these resolutions included granting to Indians the rights to
equality before law, free speech, trial by juries composed at least half of Indian members,
political power, and equal terms for bearing arms as British citizens.[4]

The experiences of the First World War, the unsatisfactory Montague-Chelmsford reforms of
1919, and the rise to prominence of M. K. Gandhi in the Indian independence movement marked
a change in the attitude of its leaders towards articulating demands for civil rights. The focus
shifted from demanding equality of status between Indians and the British to assuring liberty for
all Indians.[5] The Commonwealth of India Bill, drafted by Annie Beasant in 1925, specifically
included demands for seven fundamental rights – individual liberty, freedom of conscience, free
expression of opinion, freedom of assembly, non-discrimination on the ground of sex, free
elementary education and free use of public spaces.[6] In 1927, the INC resolved to set up a
committee to draft a "Swaraj Constitution" for India based on a declaration of rights that would
provide safeguards against oppression. The 11-member committee, led by Motilal Nehru, was
constituted in 1928. Its report made a number of recommendations, including proposing
guaranteed fundamental rights to all Indians. These rights resembled those of the American
Constitution and those adopted by post-war European countries, and several of them were
adopted from the 1925 Bill. Several of these provisions were later replicated in various parts of
the Indian Constitution, including the Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles.[7]

In 1931, the Indian National Congress, at its Karachi session, adopted a resolution committing
itself to the defence of civil rights and economic freedom, with the stated objectives of putting an
end to exploitation, providing social security and implementing land reforms. Other new rights
proposed by the resolution were the prohibition of State titles, universal adult franchise, abolition
of capital punishment and freedom of movement.[8] Drafted by Jawaharlal Nehru, the resolution,
which later formed the basis for some of the Directive Principles, placed the primary
responsibility of carrying out social reform on the State, and marked the increasing influence of
socialism and Gandhian philosophy on the independence movement.[9] The final phase of the
Independence movement saw a reiteration of the socialist principles of the 1930s, along with an
increased focus on minority rights – which had become an issue of major political concern by
then – which were published in the Sapru Report in 1945. The report, apart from stressing on
protecting the rights of minorities, also sought to prescribe a "standard of conduct for the
legislatures, government and the courts".[10]

During the final stages of the [British Raj], the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India proposed a
Constituent Assembly to draft a Constitution for India as part of the process of transfer of
power.[11] The Constituent Assembly of India, composed of indirectly elected representatives
from the British provinces and Princely states, commenced its proceedings in December 1946,
and completed drafting the Constitution of India by November 1949.[12] According to the Cabinet
Mission plan, the Assembly was to have an Advisory Committee to advise it on the nature and
extent of fundamental rights, protection of minorities and administration of tribal areas.
Accordingly, the Advisory Committee was constituted in January 1947 with 64 members, and
from among these a twelve-member sub-committee on Fundamental Rights was appointed under
the chairmanship of J.B. Kripalani in February 1947.[13] The sub-committee drafted the
Fundamental Rights and submitted its report to the Committee by April 1947, and later that
month the Committee placed it before the Assembly, which debated and discussed the rights
over the course of the following year, adopting the drafts of most of them by December 1948.[14]
The drafting of the Fundamental Rights was influenced by the adoption of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights by the U.N. General Assembly and the activities of the United
Nations Human Rights Commission,[15] as well as decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court in
interpreting the Bill of Rights in the American Constitution.[16] The Directive Principles, which
were also drafted by the sub-committee on Fundamental Rights, expounded the socialist precepts
of the Indian independence movement, and were inspired by similar principles contained in the
Irish Constitution.[17] The Fundamental Duties were later added to the Constitution by the 42nd
Amendment in 1976.[18]

Fundamental Rights[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Fundamental Rights in India

The Fundamental Rights, embodied in Part III of the Constitution, guarantee civil rights to all
Indians, and prevent the State from encroaching on individual liberty while simultaneously
placing upon it an obligation to protect the citizens' rights from encroachment by society.[19]
Seven fundamental rights were originally provided by the Constitution – right to equality, right
to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational
rights, right to property and right to constitutional remedies.[20] However, the right to property
was removed from Part III of the Constitution by the 44th Amendment in 1978.[21][note 2]

The purpose of the Fundamental Rights is to preserve individual liberty and democratic
principles based on equality of all members of society.[22] They act as limitations on the powers
of the legislature and executive, under Article 13,[note 3] and in case of any violation of these
rights the Supreme Court of India and the High Courts of the states have the power to declare
such legislative or executive action as unconstitutional and void.[23] These rights are largely
enforceable against the State, which as per the wide definition provided in Article 12, includes
not only the legislative and executive wings of the federal and state governments, but also local
administrative authorities and other agencies and institutions which discharge public functions or
are of a governmental character.[24] However, there are certain rights – such as those in Articles
15, 17, 18, 23, 24 – that are also available against private individuals.[25] Further, certain
Fundamental Rights – including those under Articles 14, 20, 21, 25 – apply to persons of any
nationality upon Indian soil, while others – such as those under Articles 15, 16, 19, 30 – are
applicable only to citizens of India.[26][27]
 Rights

Theoretical distinctions

 Claim rights and liberty rights

 Individual and group rights
 Natural and legal rights
 Negative and positive rights

Human rights

 Civil and political

 Economic, social and cultural
 Three generations

Rights by claimant

 Animals
 Authors
 Children
 Consumers
 Fathers
 Fetuses
 Humans
 Natives
 Kings
 LGBT
 Men
 Minorities
 Mothers
 Plants
 Students
 Women
 Workers
 Youth
 Disabled persons
 Other groups of rights

 Civil liberties
 Digital
 Linguistic
 Reproductive

 v
 t
 e

The Fundamental Rights are not absolute and are subject to reasonable restrictions as necessary
for the protection of public interest.[24] In the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case in
1973,[note 4] the Supreme Court, overruling a previous decision of 1967, held that the
Fundamental Rights could be amended, subject to judicial review in case such an amendment
violated the basic structure of the Constitution.[28] The Fundamental Rights can be enhanced,
removed or otherwise altered through a constitutional amendment, passed by a two-thirds
majority of each House of Parliament.[29] The imposition of a state of emergency may lead to a
temporary suspension any of the Fundamental Rights, excluding Articles 20 and 21, by order of
the President.[30] The President may, by order, suspend the right to constitutional remedies as
well, thereby barring citizens from approaching the Supreme Court for the enforcement of any of
the Fundamental Rights, except Articles 20 and 21, during the period of the emergency.[31]
Parliament may also restrict the application of the Fundamental Rights to members of the Indian
Armed Forces and the police, in order to ensure proper discharge of their duties and the
maintenance of discipline, by a law made under Article 33.[32]

Right to Equality[edit source | editbeta]

The Right to Equality is one of the chief guarantees of the Constitution. It is embodied in
Articles 14–16, which collectively encompass the general principles of equality before law and
non-discrimination,[33] and Articles 17–18 which collectively further the philosophy of social
equality.[34] Article 14 guarantees equality before law as well as equal protection of the law to all
persons within the territory of India.[note 5] This includes the equal subjection of all persons to the
authority of law, as well as equal treatment of persons in similar circumstances.[35] The latter
permits the State to classify persons for legitimate purposes, provided there is a reasonable basis
for the same, meaning that the classification is required to be non-arbitrary, based on a method of
intelligible differentiation among those sought to be classified, as well as have a rational relation
to the object sought to be achieved by the classification.[36]

Article 15 prohibits discrimination on the grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of
birth, or any of them. This right can be enforced against the State as well as private individuals,
with regard to free access to places of public entertainment or places of public resort maintained
partly or wholly out of State funds.[37] However, the State is not precluded from making special
provisions for women and children or any socially and educationally backward classes of
citizens, including the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This exception has been provided
since the classes of people mentioned therein are considered deprived and in need of special
protection.[38] Article 16 guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of public employment and
prevents the State from discriminating against anyone in matters of employment on the grounds
only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, place of residence or any of them. It
creates exceptions for the implementation of measures of affirmative action for the benefit of any
backward class of citizens in order to ensure adequate representation in public service, as well as
reservation of an office of any religious institution for a person professing that particular
religion.[39]

The practice of untouchability has been declared an offence punishable by law under Article 17,
and the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 has been enacted by the Parliament to further this
objective.[34] Article 18 prohibits the State from conferring any titles other than military or
academic distinctions, and the citizens of India cannot accept titles from a foreign state. Thus,
Indian aristocratic titles and titles of nobility conferred by the British have been abolished.
However, awards such as the Bharat Ratna have been held to be valid by the Supreme Court on
the ground that they are merely decorations and cannot be used by the recipient as a title.[40][41]

Right to Freedom[edit source | editbeta]

The Right to Freedom is covered in Articles 19–22, with the view of guaranteeing individual
rights that were considered vital by the framers of the Constitution, and these Articles also
include certain restrictions that may be imposed by the State on individual liberty under specified
conditions. Article 19 guarantees six freedoms in the nature of civil rights, which are available
only to citizens of India.[42][[43]] These include the freedom of speech and expression, freedom of
assembly, freedom of association without arms, freedom of movement throughout the territory of
India,freedom to reside and settle in any part of the country of India and the freedom to practice
any profession. All these freedoms are subject to reasonable restrictions that may imposed on
them by the State, listed under Article 19 itself. The grounds for imposing these restrictions vary
according to the freedom sought to be restricted, and include national security, public order,
decency and morality, contempt of court, incitement to offences, and defamation. The State is
also empowered, in the interests of the general public to nationalise any trade, industry or service
to the exclusion of the citizens.[44]

The freedoms guaranteed by Article 19 are further sought to be protected by Articles 20–22.[45]
The scope of these articles, particularly with respect to the doctrine of due process, was heavily
debated by the Constituent Assembly. It was argued, especially by Benegal Narsing Rau, that the
incorporation of such a clause would hamper social legislation and cause procedural difficulties
in maintaining order, and therefore it ought to be excluded from the Constitution altogether.[46]
The Constituent Assembly in 1948 eventually omitted the phrase "due process" in favour of
"procedure established by law".[47] As a result, Article 21, which prevents the encroachment of
life or personal liberty by the State except in accordance with the procedure established by
law,[note 6] was, until 1978, construed narrowly as being restricted to executive action. However,
in 1978, the Supreme Court in the case of Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India extended the
protection of Article 21 to legislative action, holding that any law laying down a procedure must
be just, fair and reasonable,[48] and effectively reading due process into Article 21.[49] In the same
case, the Supreme Court also ruled that "life" under Article 21 meant more than a mere "animal
existence"; it would include the right to live with human dignity and all other aspects which
made life "meaningful, complete and worth living".[50] Subsequent judicial interpretation has
broadened the scope of Article 21 to include within it a number of rights including those to
livelihood, clean environment, good health, speedy trial and humanitarian treatment while
imprisoned.[51] The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the Fundamental
Rights under Article 21A by the 86th Constitutional amendment of 2002.[52]

Article 20 provides protection from conviction for offences in certain respects, including the
rights against ex post facto laws, double jeopardy and freedom from self-incrimination.[53]
Article 22 provides specific rights to arrested and detained persons, in particular the rights to be
informed of the grounds of arrest, consult a lawyer of one's own choice, be produced before a
magistrate within 24 hours of the arrest, and the freedom not to be detained beyond that period
without an order of the magistrate.[54] The Constitution also authorises the State to make laws
providing for preventive detention, subject to certain other safeguards present in Article 22.[55]
The provisions pertaining to preventive detention were discussed with skepticism and misgivings
by the Constituent Assembly, and were reluctantly approved after a few amendments in 1949.[56]
Article 22 provides that when a person is detained under any law of preventive detention, the
State can detain such person without trial for only three months, and any detention for a longer
period must be authorised by an Advisory Board. The person being detained also has the right to
be informed about the grounds of detention, and be permitted to make a representation against it,
at the earliest opportunity.[57]

Right against Exploitation[edit source | editbeta]

Child labour and Begar is prohibited under the Right against Exploitation.

The Right against Exploitation, contained in Articles 23–24, lays down certain provisions to
prevent exploitation of the weaker sections of the society by individuals or the State.[58] Article
23 provides prohibits human trafficking, making it an offence punishable by law, and also
prohibits forced labour or any act of compelling a person to work without wages where he was
legally entitled not to work or to receive remuneration for it. However, it permits the State to
impose compulsory service for public purposes, including conscription and community
service.[59][60] The Bonded Labour system (Abolition) Act, 1976, has been enacted by Parliament
to give effect to this Article.[61] Article 24 prohibits the employment of children below the age of
14 years in factories, mines and other hazardous jobs. Parliament has enacted the Child Labour
(Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, providing regulations for the abolition of, and penalties
for employing, child labour, as well as provisions for rehabilitation of former child labourers.[62]

Right to Freedom of Religion[edit source | editbeta]

See also: Secularism in India

Any person can change their religion according to their wish no person can force a person to
change his/her religion. The Right to Freedom of Religion, covered in Articles 25–28, provides
religious freedom to all citizens and ensures a secular state in India. According to the
Constitution, there is no official State religion, and the State is required to treat all religions
impartially and neutrally.[63] Article 25 guarantees all persons the freedom of conscience and the
right to preach, practice and propagate any religion of their choice. This right is, however,
subject to public order, morality and health, and the power of the State to take measures for
social welfare and reform.[64] The right to propagate, however, does not include the right to
convert another individual, since it would amount to an infringement of the other's right to
freedom of conscience.[65] Article 26 guarantees all religious denominations and sects, subject to
public order, morality and health, to manage their own affairs in matters of religion, set up
institutions of their own for charitable or religious purposes, and own, acquire and manage
property in accordance with law. These provisions do not derogate from the State's power to
acquire property belonging to a religious denomination.[66] The State is also empowered to
regulate any economic, political or other secular activity associated with religious practice.[63]
Article 27 guarantees that no person can be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of any
particular religion or religious institution.[67] Article 28 prohibits religious instruction in a wholly
State-funded educational institution, and educational institutions receiving aid from the State
cannot compel any of their members to receive religious instruction or attend religious worship
without their (or their guardian's) consent.[63]

Cultural and Educational Rights[edit source | editbeta]

See also: Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act

Every person has the right to get education no person can discriminate against going to
school.The Cultural and Educational rights, given in Articles 29 and 30, are measures to protect
the rights of cultural, linguistic and religious minorities, by enabling them to conserve their
heritage and protecting them against discrimination.[68] Article 29 grants any section of citizens
having a distinct language, script culture of its own, the right to conserve and develop the same,
and thus safeguards the rights of minorities by preventing the State from imposing any external
culture on them.[68][69] It also prohibits discrimination against any citizen for admission into any
educational institutions maintained or aided by the State, on the grounds only of religion, race,
caste, language or any of them. However, this is subject to reservation of a reasonable number of
seats by the State for socially and educationally backward classes, as well as reservation of up to
50 percent of seats in any educational institution run by a minority community for citizens
belonging to that community.[70]
Article 30 confers upon all religious and linguistic minorities the right to set up and administer
educational institutions of their choice in order to preserve and develop their own culture, and
prohibits the State, while granting aid, from discriminating against any institution on the basis of
the fact that it is administered by a religious or cultural minority.[69] The term "minority", while
not defined in the Constitution, has been interpreted by the Supreme Court to mean any
community which numerically forms less than 50% of the population of the state in which it
seeks to avail the right under Article 30. In order to claim the right, it is essential that the
educational institution must have been established as well as administered by a religious or
linguistic minority. Further, the right under Article 30 can be availed of even if the educational
institution established does not confine itself to the teaching of the religion or language of the
minority concerned, or a majority of students in that institution do not belong to such
minority.[71] This right is subject to the power of the State to impose reasonable regulations
regarding educational standards, conditions of service of employees, fee structure, and the
utilisation of any aid granted by it.[72]

Right to constitutional remedies[edit source | editbeta]

Right to constitutional remedies empowers the citizens to move to a court of law in case of any
denial of the fundamental rights. For instance, in case of imprisonment, the citizen can ask the
court to see if it is according to the provisions of the law of the country. If the court finds that it
is not, the person will have to be freed. This procedure of asking the courts to preserve or
safeguard the citizens' fundamental rights can be done in various ways. The courts can issue
various kinds of writs. These writs are habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and
certiorari. When a national or state emergency is declared, this right is suspended by the central
government.[73]

Directive Principles of State Policy[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Directive Principles in India

The Directive Principles of State Policy, embodied in Part IV of the Constitution, are directions
given to the State to guide the establishment of an economic and social democracy, as proposed
by the Preamble.[74] They set forth the humanitarian and socialist instructions that were the aim
of social revolution envisaged in India by the Constituent Assembly.[75] The State is expected to
keep these principles in mind while framing laws and policies, even though they are non-
justiciable in nature. The Directive Principles may be classified under the following categories:
ideals that the State ought to strive towards achieving; directions for the exercise of legislative
and executive power; and rights of the citizens which the State must aim towards securing.[74]

Despite being non-justiciable, the Directive Principles act as a check on the State; theorised as a
yardstick in the hands of electorate and the opposition to measure the performance of a
government at the time of an election.[76] Article 37, while stating that the Directive Principles
are not enforceable in any court of law, declares them to be "fundamental to the governance of
the country" and imposes an obligation on the State to apply them in matters of legislation.[77]
Thus, they serve to emphasise the welfare state model of the Constitution and emphasise the
positive duty of the State to promote the welfare of the people by affirming social, economic and
political justice, as well as to fight income inequality and ensure individual dignity, as mandated
by Article 38.[78][79] s, in order to ensure equitable distribution of land resources.[80]

Article 39 lays down certain principles of policy to be followed by the State, including providing
an adequate means of livelihood for all citizens, equal pay for equal work for men and women,
proper working conditions, reduction of the concentration of wealth and means of production
from the hands of a few, and distribution of community resources to "subserve the common
good".[81] These clauses highlight the Constitutional objectives of building an egalitarian social
order and establishing a welfare state, by bringing about a social revolution assisted by the State,
and have been used to support the nationalisation of mineral resources as well as public
utilities.[82] Further, several legislations pertaining to agrarian reform and land tenure have been
enacted by the federal and state governments, in order to ensure equitable distribution of land
resources.[80]

Articles 41–43 mandate the State to endeavour to secure to all citizens the right to work, a living
wage, social security, maternity relief, and a decent standard of living.[83] These provisions aim at
establishing a socialist state as envisaged in the Preamble.[84] Article 43 also places upon the
State the responsibility of promoting cottage industries, and the federal government has, in
furtherance of this, established several Boards for the promotion of khadi, handlooms etc., in
coordination with the state governments.[85] Article 39A requires the State to provide free legal
aid to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are available to all citizens irrespective of
economic or other disabilities.[86] Article 43A mandates the State to work towards securing the
participation of workers in the management of industries.[84] The State, under Article 46, is also
mandated to promote the interests of and work for the economic uplift of the scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes and protect them from discrimination and exploitation. Several enactments,
including two Constitutional amendments, have been passed to give effect to this provision.[87]

Article 44 encourages the State to secure a uniform civil code for all citizens, by eliminating
discrepancies between various personal laws currently in force in the country. However, this has
remained a "dead letter" despite numerous reminders from the Supreme Court to implement the
provision.[88] Article 45 originally mandated the State to provide free and compulsory education
to children between the ages of six and fourteen years,[89] but after the 86th Amendment in 2002,
this has been converted into a Fundamental Right and replaced by an obligation upon the State to
secure childhood care to all children below the age of six.[52] Article 47 commits the State to
raise the standard of living and improve public health, and prohibit the consumption of
intoxicating drinks and drugs injurious to health.[90] As a consequence, partial or total prohibition
has been introduced in several states, but financial constraints have prevented its full-fledged
application.[91] The State is also mandated by Article 48 to organise agriculture and animal
husbandry on modern and scientific lines by improving breeds and prohibiting slaughter of
cattle.[92] Article 48A mandates the State to protect the environment and safeguard the forests
and wildlife of the country, while Article 49 places an obligation upon the State to ensure the
preservation of monuments and objects of national importance.[93] Article 50 requires the State to
ensure the separation of judiciary from executive in public services, in order to ensure judicial
independence, and federal legislation has been enacted to achieve this objective.[94][95] The State,
according to Article 51, must also strive for the promotion of international peace and security,
and Parliament has been empowered under Article 253 to make laws giving effect to
international treaties.[96]

Fundamental Duties[edit source | editbeta]

Any act of disrespect towards the Indian National Flag is illegal.

The Fundamental Duties of citizens were added to the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment in
1976, upon the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee that was constituted by the
government earlier that year.[18][97] Originally ten in number, the Fundamental Duties were
increased to eleven by the 86th Amendment in 2002, which added a duty on every parent or
guardian to ensure that their child or ward was provided opportunities for education between the
ages of six and fourteen years.[52] The other Fundamental Duties obligate all citizens to respect
the national symbols of India, including the Constitution, to cherish its heritage, preserve its
composite culture and assist in its defense. They also obligate all Indians to promote the spirit of
common brotherhood, protect the environment and public property, develop scientific temper,
abjure violence, and strive towards excellence in all spheres of life.[98] Citizens are morally
obligated by the Constitution to perform these duties. However, like the Directive Principles,
these are non-justifiable, without any legal sanction in case of their violation or non-
compliance.[97][99] There is reference to such duties in international instruments such as the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,
and Article 51A brings the Indian Constitution into conformity with these treaties.[97]

Criticism and analysis[edit source | editbeta]

Fewer children are now unemployed in hazardous environments, but their employment in non-
hazardous jobs, prevalently as domestic help, violates the spirit of the constitution in the eyes of
many critics and human rights advocates. More than 16.5 million children are in
employment.[100] India was ranked 88 out of 159 countries in 2005, according to the degree to
which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians.[101] The year 1990–
1991 was declared as the "Year of Social Justice" in the memory of B.R. Ambedkar.[102] The
government provides free textbooks to students belonging to scheduled castes and tribes
pursuing medicine and engineering courses. During 2002–2003, a sum of Rs. 4.77 crore (47.7
million) was released for this purpose.[103] In order to protect scheduled castes and tribes from
discrimination, the government enacted the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of
Atrocities) Act, 1989, prescribing severe punishments for such actions.[104]

The Minimum Wages Act of 1948 empowers government to fix minimum wages for people
working across the economic spectrum.[105] The Consumer Protection Act of 1986 provides for
the better protection of consumers. The Equal Remuneration Act of 1976 provides for equal pay
for equal work for both men and women.[106] The Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana
(Universal Rural Employment Programme) was launched in 2001 to attain the objective of
providing gainful employment for the rural poor. The programme was implemented through the
Panchayati Raj institutions.[107]

A system of elected village councils, known as Panchayati Raj covers almost all states and
territories of India.[108] One-third of the total number of seats have been reserved for women in
Panchayats at every level; and in the case of Bihar, half the seats have been reserved for
women.[109][110] The judiciary has been separated from the executive "in all the states and
territories except Jammu and Kashmir and Nagaland."[103] India's foreign policy has been
influenced by the Directive Principles. India supported the United Nations in peace-keeping
activities, with the Indian Army having participated in 37 UN peace-keeping operations.[111]

The implementation of a uniform civil code for all citizens has not been achieved owing to
widespread opposition from various religious groups and political parties. The Shah Bano case
(1985–86) provoked a political firestorm in India when the Supreme Court ruled that Shah Bano,
a Muslim woman who had been divorced by her husband in 1978 was entitled to receive alimony
from her former husband under Indian law applicable for all Indian women. This decision
evoked outrage in the Muslim community, which sought the application of the Muslim personal
law and in response the Parliament passed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce)
Act, 1986 overturning the Supreme Court's verdict.[112] This act provoked further outrage, as
jurists, critics and politicians alleged that the fundamental right of equality for all citizens
irrespective of religion or gender was being jettisoned to preserve the interests of distinct
religious communities. The verdict and the legislation remain a source of heated debate, with
many citing the issue as a prime example of the poor implementation of Fundamental Rights.[112]

Relationship between the Fundamental Rights, Directive

Principles and Fundamental Duties[edit source | editbeta]
The Directive Principles have been used to uphold the Constitutional validity of legislations in
case of a conflict with the Fundamental Rights. Article 31C, added by the 25th Amendment in
1971, provided that any law made to give effect to the Directive Principles in Article 39(b)–(c)
would not be invalid on the grounds that they derogated from the Fundamental Rights conferred
by Articles 14, 19 and 31. The application of this article was sought to be extended to all the
Directive Principles by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, but the Supreme Court struck down the
extension as void on the ground that it violated the basic structure of the Constitution.[113] The
Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles have also been used together in forming the basis
of legislation for social welfare.[114] The Supreme Court, after the judgment in the Kesavananda
Bharati case, has adopted the view of the Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles being
complementary to each other, each supplementing the other's role in aiming at the same goal of
establishing a welfare state by means of social revolution.[115] Similarly, the Supreme Court has
used the Fundamental Duties to uphold the Constitutional validity of statutes which seeks to
promote the objects laid out in the Fundamental Duties.[116] These Duties have also been held to
be obligatory for all citizens, subject to the State enforcing the same by means of a valid law.[98]
The Supreme Court has also issued directions to the State in this regard, with a view towards
making the provisions effective and enabling a citizens to properly perform their duties.[116]

संवैिातर्क अथनशास्त्र

http://hi.wikipedia.org/s/t3g
मु क्त ज्ञानकोष विवकपीविया से

यहााँ जाएाँ : भ्रमण, खोज

संवैिातर्क अथनशास्त्र , अथनशास्त्र और संवििानिाद के क्षेत्र में एक अनु संिान कायनिम है

वजसे महज 'संिैिावनक कानून के आवथनक विश्लेषण' की पररभाषा से परे "आवथनक और
राजनीवतक एजेंटों के विकिों और गवतविवियों को बावित करने िाले कानूनी-संस्थागत-
संिैिावनक वनयमों के िै कस्तिक समूहों से संबंवित विकि" के रूप में िवणनत वकया गया है .
यह उन वनयमों के भीतर आवथनक और राजनीवतक एजेंटों के विकिों की व्याख्या से अलग
है , जो एक "रूवढिादी" अथनशास्त्र का विषय है .[1] संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र "मौजूदा संिैिावनक
ढां चे और सीमाओं या उस ढां चे द्वारा बनाई गयी अनुकूल पररस्तस्थवतयों के साथ प्रभािी आवथनक
फैसलों की सं गतता" का अध्ययन करता है .[2] इसका िणनन संिैिावनक मामलों पर अथनशास्त्र
के सािनों का प्रयोग करने के वलए एक व्यािहाररक दृवष्ट्कोण के रूप में वकया गया है . [3]
उदाहरण के वलए, प्रत्येक दे श की एक प्रमुख वचंता, उपलब्ध राष्ट्रीय आवथन क और वित्तीय
संसािनों के समुवचत रूप से आिंटन के संबंि होती है . इस समस्या का कानूनी समािान
संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र के दायरे के भीतर आता है .

संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र "वबिी योग्य" सामानों और सेिाओं के वितरण की गवतशीलता के कायों

के रूप में आवथनक संबंिों को सीवमत करने िाले विश्लेषण के विपरीत, राजनीवतक आवथनक
फैसलों के महत्वपूणन प्रभािों पर ध्यान दे ता है . "राजनीवतक अथनशास्त्री जो मानक सलाह
प्रदान करना चाहते हैं , उन्ें आिश्क रूप से उस प्रविया या संरचना पर ध्यान केस्तन्द्रत
करना चावहए वजसके अंतगनत राजनीतक फैसले वलए जाते हैं . मौजूदा संवििान या संरचनाएं या
वनयम "गंभीर जां च का विषय हैं ".[4]

अर्ुक्रम
[छु पाएाँ ]

 1 उत्पवत्त
 2 कानू नी दृवष्ट्कोण
 3 रूसी स्कूल
 4 इन्ें भी दे खें
 5 वटप्पवणयां
 6 संदभन

उत्पति[संपातिि करें ]
"राजनीवतक अथनशास्त्र" शब्द को पहली बार 1982 में अमेररकी अथनशास्त्री ररचिन मैकेंजी
द्वारा िावशंगटन िी.सी. में हुए एक सम्मलेन में चचान के मुख्य विषय को नावमत करने के
वलए गढा गया था. मैकेंजी के निवनवमनत प्रयोग को उस समय एक अन्य अमेररकी अथनशास्त्री
- जेम्स एम. बुकानन - ने एक नए शैवक्षक उप-विषय के रूप में अपनाया था. यह उस
उप-विषय पर वकया गया बुकानन का कायन ही था वजसने 1996 में उनके "आवथनक और
राजनीवतक वनणनय प्रविया के वसद्धां त के वलए आनुबंविक और संिैिावनक आिारों के विकास"
के वलए उन्ें आवथनक विज्ञान का नोबेल पुरस्कार वदलाया था.

बुकानन "बुस्तद्धमत्ता में श्रे ष्ठ राष्ट्र की वकसी मूलभू त अििारणा को, उन व्यस्तक्तयों के वलए जो
इसके सदस्य हैं " अस्वीकार करते हैं . यह दाशन वनक स्तस्थवत िािि में सं िैिावनक अथनशास्त्र की
प्रमुख विषय-ििु है . संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र का दृवष्ट्कोण एक संयुक्त आवथनक और संिैिावनक
विश्लेषण की अनुमवत दे ता है जो एक आयामी समझ से बचने में मदद करता है . बुकानन
का मानना है वक कम से कम नागररकों की कई पीवढयों द्वारा उपयोग के वलए अवभप्रेत
संवििान को व्यस्तक्तगत स्वतंत्रता ि वनजी खुशी के प्रवत अपने आप में व्यािहाररक आवथनक
फैसलों के वलए और व्यस्तक्तयों एिं उनके अविकारों के विरुद्ध दे श और समाज के वहतों का
ताल-मेल वबठाने में अवनिायन रूप से सक्षम होना चावहए.

बुकानन ने "संिैिावनक नागररकता" और "संिैिावनक अव्यिस्था" की मजबूत परस्पर-विषयक

अििारणाओं की शुरुआत की. संिैिावनक अव्यिस्था एक आिुवनक नीवत है वजसकी व्याख्या
समाज-बूझ के वबना वकये गए कायों के रूप में या उन वनयमों को ध्यान में रखते हुए सबसे
अच्छी तरह की जा सकती है जो संिैिावनक व्यिस्था को पररभावषत करते हैं . इस नीवत को
प्रवतस्पिी वहतों के आिार पर वनवमनत रणनीवतक कायों के संदभों द्वारा राजनीवतक संरचना पर
उनके बाद में होने िाले प्रभाि की परिाह वकए वबना न्यायोवचत ठहराया जा सकता है . इसके
साथ ही बुकानन "संिैिावनक नागररकता" की अििारणा की शुरुआत करते हैं वजसे उन्ोंने
नागररकों द्वारा उनके सं िैिावनक अविकारों एिं उत्तरदावयत्वों के अनुपालन के रूप में नावमत
करते हैं वजन्ें संिैिावनक नीवत के एक मौवलक भाग के रूप में माना जाना चावहए. बुकानन
अंतवननवहत संिैिावनक मानदं िों के नैवतक वसद्धां तों के संरक्षण के महत्व को भी रे खां वकत करते
हैं .

जेम्स बुकानन ने वलखा था "संिैिावनक नागररकता की नैवतकता की तु लना वकसी मौजूदा

शासन के वनयमों द्वारा लगाई गयी बािाओं के भीतर अन्य व्यस्तक्तयों के साथ परस्पर संिाद में
सीिे तौर पर नैवतक व्यिहार से नहीं की जा सकती है . मानक नैवतक अथन में कोई भी
व्यस्तक्त पूरी तरह से वजम्मे दार हो सकता है और इस प्रकार संिैिावनक नागररकता की नैवतक
आिश्कता को पूरा करने में असमथन होता है ." [5] बुकानन ने "संिैिावनकता" शब्द को
व्यापक अथन में माना और इसका प्रयोग पररिारों, कंपवनयों और सािनजवनक संस्थाओं में लेवकन
सबसे पहले दे श के वलए वकया.

बुकानन के नोबेल व्याख्यान में 19िी ं सदी के उत्तराद्धन के स्वीविश अथनशास्त्री नट विकसेल के
कायन का उल्लेख वकया वजन्ोंने बुकानन के शोि को काफी प्रभावित वकया था: "अगर
समुदाय के प्रत्येक अलग-अलग सदस्य के वलए उपयोवगता शून्य होती है तो समुदाय के वलए
कुल उपयोवगता शून्य के अलािा कुछ नहीं हो सकती है ." यह "द कां स्तस्टच्यूशन ऑफ
इकोनोवमक पॉवलसी" शीषनक नोबेल व्याख्यान के अध्याय के पुरालेख में विकसेल कहते हैं वक
"चाहे अलग-अलग नागररकों के वलए प्रिावित कायन के फायदे उनको लगने िाली इसकी
लागत से अविक हों, इसका अनुमान स्वयं उन अलग-अलग व्यस्तक्तयों से बेहतर कोई नहीं
लगा सकता है .[4]

लुिविग िान िे न हॉिे की एक महत्वपूणन राय है वक संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र सुिारिादी प्रिृवत्त

की पयान प्त प्रेरणा को आकवषनत करती है जो एिम स्तस्मथ के दृवष्ट्कोण की पहचान है और यह
वक बुकानन की अििारणा को आिुवनक-काल में उसके समकक्ष माना जा सकता है वजसे
स्तस्मथ ने "क़ानून का विज्ञान" कहा था."[6]

संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र के वसद्धां त और अभ्यास में आम जनता की बढती वदलचस्पी ने पहले ही

"कास्तिटू शनल पॉवलवटकल इकोनोमी " (1990 में स्थावपत) जैसी विवशष्ट् शैवक्षक पवत्रकाओं
को जर्न्म वदया है .[7]

कार्ूर्ी दृतष्ट्कोण[संपातिि करें ]

न्यायािीश ररचिन पोस्नर ने आवथनक विकास के वलए एक संवििान के महत्व पर जोर वदया था.
िे एक संवििान और आवथनक विकास के बीच आपसी संबंि की जां च करते हैं . पोस्नर
संिैिावनक विश्लेषण को मुख्य रूप से न्यायािीशों की समझ के दृवष्ट्कोण से दे खते हैं जो
वकसी संवििान की व्याख्या और प्रयोग के वलए एक महत्वपूणन शस्तक्त का गठन करते हैं , इस
प्रकार आम कानून में ििुतः संिैिावनक क़ानून के ढां चे का वनमान ण करते हैं . िे "न्यावयक
वििेक के प्रयोग के वलए व्यापक बाहरी सीमाओं को स्थावपत करने में" संिैिावनक प्राििानों
के महत्व पर जोर दे ते हैं . इस प्रकार वकसी मामले पर कोवशश करते समय एक न्यायािीश
सबसे पहले वििेक और संवििान के पत्र द्वारा वनदे वशत होता है . इस प्रविया में अथनशास्त्र की
भूवमका संवििान की "िैकस्तिक व्याख्या के पररणामों की पहचान" में मदद करना है . िह
आगे बताते हैं वक "अथनशास्त्र उन सिालों के वलए अंतदृन वष्ट् प्रदान कर सकता है जो उवचत
कानूनी व्याख्या पर लागू होते हैं ." अंत में जैसा वक न्यायािीश पोस्नर जोर दे ते हैं , "संिैिावनक
मामलों का फैसला करने के वलए आवथनक दृवष्ट्कोण की सीमाएं संवििान द्वारा वनिान ररत की
जाती [हैं ]." इसके अलािा उनका तकन है वक "बुवनयादी आवथनक अविकारों का प्रभािी
संरक्षण आवथनक विकास को बढािा दे ता है ."[8]

1980 के दशक में अमेररका में संिैिावनक अथन शास्त्र के क्षेत्र में शैवक्षक अनुसंिान में हुई
िृस्तद्ध के साथ भारत के सिोि न्यायालय ने लगभग एक दशक तक भारतीय संवििान के कई
अनुच्छेदों की एक बहुत ही व्यापक व्याख्या का उपयोग करते हुए गरीबों और दवलतों की
ओर से जनवहत संबंिी मुकदमों को बढािा वदया. यह संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र की प्रविया के
िािविक व्यािहाररक प्रयोग का एक ज्वलंत उदाहरण है .[9]

कास्तिटू शनल कोटन ऑफ रवसयन फेिरे शन के प्रेवसिें ट िेलरी जॉवकनन ने संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र
की शैवक्षक भूवमका के वलए एक विशेष संदभन बनाया एक, "रूस में संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र जैसे
नए शैवक्षक विषयों को विश्वविद्यालय के क़ानून एिं अथनशास्त्र विभागों के पाठ्यिम में शावमल
वकया जाना अत्यंत महत्वपूणन हो जाता है ."[10]

रूसी स्कूल[संपातिि करें ]

रवसयन स्कूल ऑफ कास्तिटू शनल इकोनोवमक्स की स्थापना इिीसिीं सदी की शुरुआत में
इस विचारिारा के साथ हुई थी वक संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र कानूनी (विशेष रूप से बजट
संबंिी) प्रविया में एक संयुक्त आवथनक और संिैिावनक विश्लेषण की अनुमवत दे ता है , इस
प्रकार यह आवथनक और वित्तीय वनणनय लेने की प्रविया में मनमानेपन से उबरने में मदद
करता है . उदाहरण के वलए जब सैन्य खचन (और इस तरह के खचन ) वशक्षा और संस्कृवत
पर बजट के खचन को कम कर दे ते हैं . संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र ऐसे मुद्दों को राष्ट्रीय िन के
उवचत वितरण के रूप में अध्ययन करता है . इसमें सरकार द्वारा न्यायपावलका पर वकया गया
खचन भी शावमल है , जो अविकां श पररितननशील और विकासशील दे शों में पूणनतया कायन काररणी
द्वारा वनयंवत्रत होता है . इससे कायनकारी शस्तक्तयों पर "वनगरानी (चेक और बैलेंस)" के
वसद्धां तों को नुकसान पहुं चाता है , क्ोंवक यह न्यायपावलका की एक गंभीर वित्तीय वनभनरता
उत्पन करता है . न्यायपावलका के भ्रष्ट्ाचार के दो तरीकों के बीच अंतर करना ज़रूरी है :
राष्ट्र (बजट योजना और विवभन अविकारों के माध्यम से - जो सबसे खतरनाक है ) और
वनजी. न्यायपावलका का राष्ट्रीय भ्रष्ट्ाचार, वकसी भी व्यिसाय के वलए राष्ट्रीय बाज़ार अथनव्यिस्था
की इष्ट्तम िृस्तद्ध और विकास को बढािा दे ना लगभग असंभि बना दे ता है . अंग्रेजी भाषा में
"संवििान" शब्द में में अनेक अथन वनवहत हैं वजसमें ना केिल इस प्रकार के राष्ट्रीय संवििान
बस्ति वनगमों के चाटन र, विवभन क्लबों के अवलस्तखत वनयम, अनौपचाररक समूह आवद सवनवहत
हैं . संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र का रूसी मॉिल वजसे मूलतः पररिती और विकासशील दे शों के वलए
बनाया गया है , पूरी तरह से दे श के संवििान की अििारणा पर ध्यान केंवद्रत करता है .
संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र का यह मॉिल इस समझ पर आिाररत है वक संवििान और िावषनक (या
मध्यािवि) आवथनक नीवत, बजट के क़ानून और सरकार द्वारा बनायी गयी प्रशासवनक नीवतयों
द्वारा प्रदत्त आवथनक और सामावजक अविकारों के बीच के अंतर को कम करना आिश्क है .
2006 में रवसयन एकेिमी ऑफ साइं सेस ने संिैिावनक अथनशास्त्र को एक अलग शैवक्षक उप-
विषय के रूप में आविकाररक मान्यता दी है .[11]

चूंवक परिती राजनीवतक और आवथनक प्रणाली िाले कई दे श अपने संवििान को दे श की

आवथनक नीवत से अलग एक संवक्षप्त कानूनी दिािेज मानते आ रहे हैं , इस प्रकार संिैिावनक
अथनशास्त्र का प्रयोग दे श और समाज के लोकतां वत्रक विकास के वलए एक वनणान यक शतन बन
जाता है .

Constitutional economics
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Constitutional economics is a research program in economics and constitutionalism that has

been described as extending beyond the definition of "the economic analysis of constitutional
law" in explaining the choice "of alternative sets of legal-institutional-constitutional rules that
constrain the choices and activities of economic and political agents." This is distinct from
explaining the choices of economic and political agents within those rules, a subject of
"orthodox" economics.[1]

Constitutional economics studies the "compatibility of effective economic decisions with the
existing constitutional framework and the limitations or the favorable conditions created by that
framework."[2] It has been characterized as a practical approach to apply of the tools of
economics to constitutional matters.[3] For example, a major concern of every nation is the proper
allocation of available national economic and financial resources. The legal solution to this
problem falls within the scope of constitutional economics.

Constitutional economics takes into account the significant impacts of political economic
decisions as opposed to limiting analysis to economic relationships as functions of the dynamics
of distribution of "marketable" goods and services. "The political economist who seeks to offer
normative advice, must, of necessity, concentrate on the process or structure within which
political decisions are observed to be made. Existing constitutions, or structures or rules, are the
subject of critical scrutiny."[4]
Contents
[hide]

 1 Origins
o 1.1 Ethics of constitutional citizenship
 2 Positive constitutional economics
 3 Normative constitutional economics
o 3.1 Hayek
 4 Economic analysis of the US Constitution
o 4.1 Separation of powers
 5 Legal approach
 6 Russian school
 7 Criticisms
 8 See also
 9 Notes
 10 References

Origins[edit source | editbeta]

The term "constitutional economics" was coined in 1982 by the U.S. economist Richard
McKenzie to designate the main topic of discussion at a conference held in Washington. D.C.
McKenzie's neologism was then adopted by another American economist, James M. Buchanan,
as a name for a new academic sub-discipline. It was Buchanan's work on this sub-discipline that
brought him the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his "development of the
contractual and constitutional bases for the theory of economic and political decision-making" in
1986. Constitutionalism has been the subject of criticism for its previous ignorance of economic
issues but this criticism was taken into account by the development of constitutional economics.
Buchanan rejects "any organic conception of the state as superior in wisdom, to the individuals
who are its members."[5]

This philosophical position is, in fact, the very subject matter of constitutional economics. A
constitutional economics approach allows for a combined economic and constitutional analysis,
helping to avoid a one-dimensional understanding. Buchanan believes that a constitution,
intended for use by at least several generations of citizens, must be able to adjust itself for
pragmatic economic decisions and to balance interests of the state and society against those of
individuals and their constitutional rights to personal freedom and private happiness.[6]

Constitutional economics draws substantial inspiration from the reformist attitude which is
characteristic of Adam Smith’s vision, and that Buchanan’s concept can be considered the
modern-day counterpart to what Smith called “the science of legislation.” According to
Buchanan the ethic of constitutionalism is a key for constitutional order and "may be called the
idealized Kantian world" where the individual "who is making the ordering, along with
substancially all of his fellows, adopts the moral law as a general rule for behaviour".[7]
Buchanan's Nobel lecture quoted the work of the late 19th century Swedish economist Knut
Wicksell, who greatly influenced Buchanan's research: "If utility is zero for each individual
member of the community, the total utility for the community cannot be other than zero." In
epigraph to the chapter of Nobel lecture entitled "The Constitution of Economic Policy" Wicksell
states that "whether the benefits of the proposed activity to the individual citizens would be
greater than its cost to them, no one can judge this better than the individuals themselves."[4]

A constitutional economics approach allows for a combined economic and constitutional

analysis, helping to avoid a one-dimensional understanding. Buchanan believes that a
constitution, intended for use by at least several generations of citizens, must be able to adjust
itself for pragmatic economic decisions and to balance interests of the state and society against
those of individuals and their constitutional rights to personal freedom and private happiness.

Buchanan introduced rich cross-disciplinary concepts of "constitutional citizenship" and

"constitutional anarchy". Constitutional anarchy is a modern policy that may be best described as
actions undertaken without understanding or taking into account the rules that define the
constitutional order. This policy is justified by references to strategic tasks formulated on the
basis of competing interests regardless of their subsequent impact on political structure. At the
same time Buchanan introduces the concept of "constitutional citizenship", which he designates
as compliance of citizens with their constitutional rights and obligations that should be
considered as a constituent part of the constitutional policy. Buchanan also outlines importance
of protection of the moral principles underlying constitutional norms.

Ethics of constitutional citizenship[edit source | editbeta]

James Buchanan wrote that "the ethics of constitutional citizenship is not directly comparable to
ethical behavior in interaction with other persons within the constraints imposed by the rules of
an existing regime. An individual may be fully responsible, in the standard ethical sense, and yet
fail to meet the ethical requirement of constitutional citizenship."[8] Buchanan considered the
term "constitutionality" in the broad sense and applied it to families, firms and public
institutions, but, first of all, to the state.

Buchanan emphasised that public policy cannot be considered in terms of distribution, but is
instead always a question of the choice over rules of the game that engender a pattern of
exchange and distribution. Buchanan is largely responsible for the rebirth of political economy as
a scholarly pursuit.[9] Buchanan's work in public choice is often interpreted as the quintessential
case of economic imperialism. However, as Amartya Sen has pointed out,[10] Buchanan should
not be identified with economic imperialism. Sen states that Buchanan has done more than most
to introduce ethics, legal political thinking, and indeed social thinking into economics.[11]

Crucial to understanding Buchanan's system of thought is the distinction he made between

politics and policy. Politics is about the rules of the game, where policy is focused on strategies
that players adopt within a given set of rules. “Questions about what are good rules of the game
are in the domain of social philosophy, whereas questions about the strategies that players will
adopt given those rules is the domain of economics, and it is the play between the rules (social
philosophy) and the strategies (economics) that constitutes what Buchanan refers to as
constitutional political economy”.[12]

In 1990, Buchanan, along with a few other budding constitutional economists, launched the
journal Constitutional Political Economy with the purpose of further researching and developing
the discipline. Buchanan wrote the vanguard article entitled "The Domain of Constitutional
Economics", establishing the bounds of the emerging study and cementing the various topics he
developed in 1962 and 1986. Buchanan gave a technical definition of constitutional economics
as the research program directed at the rules of institutions in which individuals make choices,
along with the process of creating these rules. While ordinary economic inquiry focuses on the
choices within the rules or the constraints imposed on the individuals, constitutional economics
aims at the actual rules themselves, the choice among constraints. Individuals agree to place
constraints on themselves in exchange for anticipated benefits, a similar to a social contract view
of government.[13] Just as a market transaction occurs through voluntary, mutually beneficial
exchange, so with political "exchanges" of rights and authority.[14]

With this theory, politics becomes a form of exchange and is therefore worthy of economic
analysis, thus establishing the formal beginning of constitutional economics. By the end of the
article, Buchanan enters philosophical territory, almost verging on skepticism, saying that each
individual must perceive phenomena through his particular "window" and agreement is
impossible when everyone views reality from different windows. Due to radical individualism,
constitutional economics can include only people who view the world through economic
paradigms or windows, not idealistic, goal-driven paradigms.

Positive constitutional economics[edit source | editbeta]

Within positive constitutional economics, the tools or methods are unique from normal economic
tools because of the cross-discipline nature of the program. The main tool of positive
constitutional economics is "comparative institutional analysis", with four main elements.[15] The
first element examines how certain constitutional rules arose and what factors caused the rules to
be developed as a result of aggregated individual inputs. The second element looks at how rules
are distinguishable between individual and collective factors, though Voigt acknowledges this
research method is rarely used.

The third element is the possibilities of further constitutional (or rules) change. Any proposed
change to constitutional constraints, or rules of constraints, are subject to economic scrutiny for
their effects on efficiency and equity. The fourth element of positive constitutional economics
examines the economic effects of developed or modified change to rules.

All economic analysis seeks to maximize efficiency, and constitutional economics is no

exception. In the market, individuals maximize efficiency when both parties perceive a personal
benefit, mutual exchange, and when resources go to their highest valued use. The political
process is one of exchange, only unlike the market, the resources exchanged are political, not
material or financial. Therefore, political efficiency is political consent, or when all individuals
in the community agree to the political structures.[16] Constitutional economics mimics a
traditional contractarian political economy in its focus on the contract, or consent, between the
governed and government. However, consent follows efficiency in markets while efficiency
follows consent in politics.

Normative constitutional economics[edit source | editbeta]

Normative constitutional economics focuses on legitimizing the state and its actions as the best
means of maximum efficiency and utility, judging conditions or rules that are efficient, and
discerning and studying the political systems to maximize efficiency, where the outcome of
collective choices are considered "fair", "just", or "efficient". Once again, Buchanan dominates
the normative discussion of constitutional economics, specifically how methodological
individualism affects economic analysis.

By 1988, Buchanan's thought had matured since his speech in 1986. Both Buchanan and Stefan
Voigt argue the foundational assumption of normative constitutional economics is that no single
individual's goals or values can supersede the value of another's. Therefore, a universal, absolute
social norm or goal is impossible. Since politics is a form of exchange, when individuals agree to
exchange goods, they are acting rationally in their own perceived self-interest if the decision is
voluntary and informed. With these criteria, any such agreement is "efficient" and therefore
normatively ought to occur.

Methodological individualism leads Buchanan to the normative claim that a political theory very
similar to that of John Rawls in his seminal 1971 work, A Theory of Justice, would best realize
individuals' unique goals. Complete with a veil of ignorance and a priori decisions of social
goals, Buchanan says political economy does not have a social engineer or moral purpose but
only assists individuals in their search for rules that best serve their individual purposes. For
Buchanan, the "good" society is one that furthers the interests of individuals, not some
independent moral or teleological end.

Hayek[edit source | editbeta]

Buchanan is not the only contributor to normative constitutional economics. Economic polymath
Friedrich Hayek also wrote extensively on the topic of constitutional economics, even if he did
not name constitutional economics specifically. Hayek defends a representative constitutional
democracy as the best structure of government.[17] Hayek's main project was the vindication of
freedom and establishing criteria for a regime of freedom.[18]

Hayek was worried by the kind of state that Buchanan/Rawls deemed normative. Hayek thought
it necessary for a return to the traditional views of government, human nature, political
philosophy, and economics. He believed the Buchanan/Rawls state had the almost inevitable
propensity to totalitarianism as the state seeks to maximize individual utility. People would soon
be at the mercy of para-government bureaucracy of the provision-state.

Hayek cautions his readers against rashly launching into the kind of state Rawls and Buchanan
conceive, saying individual choice cannot be the only determining factor in the choices of
constraints, and the actual structure of the rules or constraints (the constitution) must conform to
what Buchanan would label a supra-individual goal. For Hayek, liberal constitutional
democracies are the best way to achieve the goal of individual freedom, equality, opportunity,
and efficiency for three reasons. First, constitutions codify pre-existing (presumably efficient)
law. Second, they place explicit constraints on government to prevent totalitarianism. Finally,
they preserve law and order for the polis. All of this is within the framework of a moral and
teleological order.

Economic analysis of the US Constitution[edit source |

editbeta]
The generally accepted birth of constitutional economic analysis of US Constitution was Charles
Austin Beard's landmark 1913 book An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the
United States.[19] While most scholars today reject Beard's overall thesis, he initiated a new
method of economic and political thought that would evolve into contemporary constitutional
economics analysis.[20] Beard's main thesis was that the U.S. Constitution was an economic
document created by men who were economically motivated.[20]

Writing in 1987 for the Yale Law School, Jonathan Macey synthesizes the history of
constitutional economic analysis applied to the US Constitution. Macey offers a different
analysis of the US Constitution and responds critically to Beard's view of the Constitution.[21]

Beard said the US Constitution was the product of a wealthy bourgeois class seeking the
retention of personal wealth, even to the point of exploiting the lower classes.[19] Beard even
goes so far as to say that a famous and crucial part of the Constitution, separation of powers, was
actually a means of allowing hegemony of resources in the hands of the rich few. Macey could
not disagree more; he argues that the Constitution and separation of powers were created to
hinder aggregate political and economic power. He points to Federalist No. 10, James Madison's
famous description of the necessity of factions due to the truths of human nature.

Separation of powers[edit source | editbeta]

Macey says this conception of human nature is essentially economic. If government is not
separated into distinct powers, the possibility of extensive rent-seeking threatens the efficiency
of the government. Self-interested groups or individuals will lobby to political powers for their
goals, possibly leading to injustice or inefficiency. In Macey's interpretation of Madison, the
separation of powers channels lobbyists into the competitive, more efficient market by raising
transaction costs so much that private market means are less expensive than appealing to the
various separate powers of government.

Macey demonstrates how constitutional economics can be applied to constitutions. Rather than
looking at the political or philosophic intentions of the founders, the constitutional economist
looks at a constitution through economic eyes, considering the incentives, choices, allocations,
and other economics factors within the political rules of a constitution. Traditionally, the creation
of factions has been interpreted as a brilliant political move to separate power and prevent
hegemony of the state. Macey agrees but adds a caveat. He maintains a real economic incentive
to factions existed which compelled the Founders to separate government.
Factions and separated powers raise transaction costs of mobilizing political support beyond
what interest groups can pay if they rely on private, non-governmental means. Macey even
graphs the quantity of legislation on a standard supply-demand curve, where the demand is the
interest groups’ desire for laws and the supply is the legislation’s provision. Separation of
powers shifts the supply curve left, raising the price and decreasing the quantity of legislation.
Macey admits that though the US Constitution is imperfect, he does vindicate it from the purely
material accusations of Beard. He examines a political system of constraints using standard
economic methods.

Legal approach[edit source | editbeta]

Judge Richard Posner emphasized the importance of a constitution for economic development.
He examines the interrelationship between a constitution and the economic growth. Posner
approaches constitutional analysis mainly from the perspective of judges, who constitute a
critical force for interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus — de facto in common
law countries — creating the body of constitutional law. He emphasizes the importance of
constitutional provisions "in setting broader outer bounds to the exercise of judicial discretion".
Thus, a judge, when trying a case, is guided firstly by the spirit and letter of the constitution. The
role of economics in this process is to help "identify the consequences of alternative
interpretations" of the constitution.

He then explains that "economics may provide insight into questions that bear on the proper legal
interpretation." In the end, as Posner emphasizes, "the limits of an economic approach to
deciding constitutional cases [are] set by the Constitution." In addition, he argues that "effective
protection of basic economic rights promotes economic growth."[22]

Concurrently with the rise of academic research in the field of constitutional economics in the
US in the 1980s, the Supreme Court of India for almost a decade had been encouraging public
interest litigation on behalf of the poor and oppressed by using a very broad interpretation of
several articles of the Indian Constitution. This is a vivid example of a de facto practical
application of the methodology of constitutional economics.[23]

The President of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, Valery Zorkin, made a
special reference to the educational role of constitutional economics: "In Russia, the addition of
such new academic disciplines as constitutional economics to the curricula of university law and
economics departments becomes critically important."[24]

Russian school[edit source | editbeta]

The Russian school of constitutional economics was created in the early twenty-first century
with the idea that constitutional economics allows for a combined economic and constitutional
analysis in the legislative (especially budgetary) process, thus helping to overcome arbitrariness
in the economic and financial decision-making. For instance, when military expenses (and the
like) dwarf the budget spending on education and culture. Constitutional economics studies such
issues as the proper national wealth distribution. This also includes the government spending on
the judiciary, which in many transitional and developing countries is completely controlled by
the executive.

The latter undermines the principle of checks and balances, instrumental in the separation of
powers, as this creates a critical financial dependence of the judiciary. It is important to
distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary: the state corruption (through
budget planning and various privileges being the most dangerous), and the private corruption.
The former makes it almost impossible for any business to facilitate the optimal growth and
development of national market economy. In the English language, the word "constitution"
possesses a whole number of meanings, encompassing not only national constitutions as such but
also charters of corporations, unwritten rules of various clubs, informal groups, etc.

The Russian model of constitutional economics, originally intended for transitional and
developing countries, focuses entirely on the concept of constitution of a state. This model of the
constitutional economics is based on the understanding that it is necessary to narrow the gap
between practical enforcement of the economic, social, and political rights granted by the
constitution and the annual (or midterm) economic policy, budget legislation and administrative
policies conducted by the government. In 2006, the Russian Academy of Sciences officially
recognized constitutional economics as a separate academic sub-discipline.[25]

Since in many countries with transitional political and economic systems, their constitutions are
often treated by the ruling elite as abstract legal documents totally disconnected from the
economic policy of the state, the practice of constitutional economics becomes there a decisive
prerequisite for the democratic development of both the state and society.

Criticisms[edit source | editbeta]

Not all scholars embrace constitutional economics. Walter Block and Thomas DiLorenzo make a
strong criticism of constitutional economics as even a possible science. They maintain that
politics cannot be equated with the market and, therefore, as a study, it cannot exist.[26] They
maintain that unlike the market, consent is not the foundation of politics, and that politics is
driven by violent, historically bellicose, coercion. Therefore, they believe that the CE method
only clouds the discussion of public choice and political economy. Buchanan, Voigt, Macey, and
even Beard all at least implicitly assume that politics is the exchange of political "goods", a
strong social contract view.

But for Block and DiLorenzo, politics is one powerful group coercing free rides from a weaker
group. From the Roman Empire to the present, they trace how the state always comes from
conquest and exploitation, never consent. The Calculus of Consent, a foundational text for
constitutional economics, bears much of their attack. If they are correct that no state has been or
can be voluntary and that voluntary government is inherently contradictory, constitutional
economics as a discipline cannot exist. Van den Hauwe also points out a flaw of this consent-
centered government formation which he calls "post-contractual opportunism", or rent-seeking.
Rent-seeking is when groups of individuals have the strong incentive to capture the instruments
of political power for personal or communal gain.[27]
This author says this is essentially the prisoner's dilemma on a national political level. Where the
nation contracts to cooperate for the social good, then lobbyists have the incentive to cheat the
contract and gain more at the expense of the other contractarians. Therefore, Van den Hauwe
says that Buchanan and the cohort of constitutional economists have the strong imperative to find
a solution to this problem, as rent-seeking is far from politically "efficient" for the contract.
Buchanan's solution is a Rawlsian social contract, or as this author says, a modified prisoner's
dilemma, in which the benefits of non-cooperative behavior are reduced. A veil of ignorance or
uncertainty would do this, establishing rules under which each individual would desire to follow
for both self-interest and the potential of being born into the disadvantaged place.

William Campbell explains the weakness of constitutional economics in its assumption that the
goal of a regime must be efficiency, individual liberty, and libertarian rights, not morality or
super-individual good.[28]

लोकिं त्र का इतिहास

http://hi.wikipedia.org/s/ej4
मु क्त ज्ञानकोष विवकपीविया से

यहााँ जाएाँ : भ्रमण, खोज

ऐऐ ऐऐऐ ऐऐ ऐऐऐऐ ऐऐऐ ऐऐऐ ऐऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐ ऐऐऐऐऐऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐ ऐऐऐऐऐऐ ऐऐ

ऐऐऐऐ ऐऐऐऐ

एथें स के एिोपोवलस का वचत्रण

लोकतंत्र के उपयोग का इवतहास लंबा और ऊंचनीच से भरा हुआ है । भारत के प्राचीन
गणतंत्रों अथिा यूरोप के एथेिी लोकतंत्र का इवतहास ही दो हजार िषन से भी अविक पुराना
है और हम दे खते हैं वक उस काल के मानि समाज में भी लोकतं त्रीय संस्थाएं वकसी-न-
वकसी रूप में विद्यमान थीं।

मानिीय गवतविवि जैसे-जैसे व्यापक रूप लेती गई, मानि दृवष्ट् में भी व्यापकता आती गई।
नागररक समाज वनमान ण करने की आकां क्षा ने मनुष् को लोकतंत्र की ओर अग्रसर होने के
वलए प्रेररत वकया क्ोंवक यही ऐसी व्यिस्था है वजसमें सिनसािारण को अविकतम भागीदारी का
अिसर वमलता है । इससे केिल वनणनय करने की प्रविया ही में नहीं अवपतु कायनकारी क्षेत्र में
भी भागीदारी उपलब्ध होती है । अपने विकास िम के विवभन चरणों में लोकतंत्र ने वभन-वभन
पररस्तस्थवतयों को अन्यान्य मात्रा में सुवनवित करने का प्रयास वकया है ।

Article 1 {Name and territory of the Union}[edit]

1. India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.

2. The States and the territories thereof shall be as specified in the
First Schedule.
3. The territory of India shall comprise —
a. the territories of the States;
b. the Union territories specified in the First Schedule; and
c. such other territories as may be acquired.

Article 2 {Admission or establishment of new States}[edit]

Parliament may by law admit into the Union, or establish, new States on
such terms and conditions as it thinks fit.

Article 2A {Sikkim to be associated with the Union}[edit]

now omitted by 36th Amendment Act 1975 {...}

Article 3 {Formation of new States and alteration of areas,

boundaries or names of existing States}[edit]

Parliament may by law -

 a. form a new State by separation of territory from any State or by
uniting two or more States or parts of States or by uniting any
territory to a part of any State;
b. increase the area of any State;
c. diminish the area of any State;
d. alter the boundaries of any State;
e. alter the name of any State:

Provided that no Bill for the purpose shall be introduced in either House
of Parliament except on the recommendation of the President and unless,
where the proposal contained in the Bill affects the area, boundaries or
name of any of the States, the Bill has been referred by the President to
the Legislature of that State for expressing its views thereon within such
period as may be specified in the reference or within such further period
as the President may allow and the period so specified or allowed has
expired.

[Explanation I: In this article, in clauses (a) to (e), "State" includes a

Union territory, but in the proviso, "State" does not include a Union
territory.]

[Explanation II: The power conferred on Parliament by clause (a)

includes the power to form a new State or Union territory by uniting a
part of any other State or Union territory to any other State of Union
territory.]

Article 4 {Laws made under articles 2 and 3 to provide for the

amendment of the First and the Fourth Schedule and supplemental,
incidental and consequential matters}[edit]

1. Any law referred to in article 2 or article 3 shall contain such

provisions for the amendment of the First Schedule and the
Fourth Schedule as may be necessary to give effect to the
provisions of the law and may also contain such supplemental,
incidental and consequential provisions (including provisions as to
 representation in Parliament and in the Legislature or Legislatures
of the State or States affected by such law) as Parliament may
deem necessary.
2. No such law as aforesaid shall be deemed to be in amendment of
this Constitution for the purposes of article 368.

Article 5 {Citizenship at the commencement of the

Constitution}[edit]

At the commencement of this Constitution, every person who has his

domicile in the territory of India and —

a. who was born in the territory of India; or

b. either of whose parents was born in the territory of India; or
c. who has been ordinarily resident in the territory of India for not
less than five years immediately preceding such commencement,
shall be a citizen of India.

Article 6 {Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated

to India from Pakistan}[edit]

Notwithstanding anything in article 5, a person who has migrated to the

territory of India from the territory now included in Pakistan shall be
deemed to be a citizen of India at the commencement of this
Constitution if —

a. he or either of his parents or any of his grand-parents was born in

India as defined in the Government of India Act, 1935 (as
originally enacted); and
b.
i. in the case where such person has so migrated before the
nineteenth day of July, 1948, he has been ordinarily resident
in the territory of India since the date of his migration, or
ii. in the case where such person has so migrated on or after
the nineteenth day of July, 1948, he has been registered as a
 citizen of India by an officer appointed in that behalf by the
Government of the Dominion of India on an application
made by him therefor to such officer before the
commencement of this Constitution in the form and manner
prescribed by that Government:

Provided that no person shall be so registered unless he has been

resident in the territory of India for at least six months
immediately preceding the date of his application.

Article 7 {Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan}[edit]

Notwithstanding anything in articles 5 and 6, a person who has after the

first day of March, 1947, migrated from the territory of India to the
territory now included in Pakistan shall not be deemed to be a citizen of
India: Provided that nothing in this article shall apply to a person who,
after having so migrated to the territory now included in Pakistan, has
returned to the territory of India under a permit for resettlement or
permanent return issued by or under the authority of any law and every
such person shall for the purposes of clause (b) of article 6 be deemed to
have migrated to the territory of India after the nineteenth day of July,
1948.

Article 8 {Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin

residing outside India}[edit]

Notwithstanding anything in article 5, any person who or either of

whose parents or any of whose grand-parents was born in India as
defined in the Government of India Act, 1935 (as originally enacted),
and who is ordinarily residing in any country outside India as so defined
shall be deemed to be a citizen of India if he has been registered as a
citizen of India by the diplomatic or consular representative of India in
the country where he is for the time being residing on an application
made by him therefor to such diplomatic or consular representative,
whether before or after the commencement of this Constitution, in the
form and manner prescribed by the Government of the Dominion of
India or the Government of India.

Article 9 {Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign State

not to be citizens}[edit]

No person shall be a citizen of India by virtue of article 5, or be deemed

to be a citizen of India by virtue of article 6 or article 8, if he has
voluntarily acquired the citizenship of any foreign State.

Article 10 {Continuance of the rights of citizenship}[edit]

Every person who is or is deemed to be a citizen of India under any of

the foregoing provisions of this Part shall, subject to the provisions of
any law that may be made by Parliament, continue to be such citizen.

Article 11 {Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by

law}[edit]

Nothing in the foregoing provisions of this Part shall derogate from the
power of Parliament to make any provision with respect to the
acquisition and termination of citizenship and all other matters relating
to citizenship.

Article 36 {Definition}[edit]

In this Part, unless the context otherwise requires, "the State" has the
same meaning as in Part III.

Article 37 {Application of the principles contained in this Part}[edit]

The provisions contained in this Part shall not be enforced by any court,
but the principles therein laid down are nevertheless fundamental in the
governance of the country and it shall be the duty of the State to apply
these principles in making laws.
Article 38 {State to secure a social order for the promotion of
welfare of the people}[edit]

1. The State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by

securing and protecting as effectively as it may a social order in
which justice, social, economic and political, shall inform all the
institutions of the national life.
2. The State shall, in particular, strive to minimise the inequalities in
income, and endeavour to eliminate inequalities in status,
facilities and opportunities, not only amongst individuals but also
amongst groups of people residing in different areas or engaged
in different vocations.

Article 39 {Certain principles of policy to be followed by the

State}[edit]

The State shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing -

a. that the citizen, men and women equally, have the right to an
adequate means of livelihood;
b. that the ownership and control of the material resources of the
community are so distributed as best to subserve the common
good;
c. that the operation of the economic system does not result in the
concentration of wealth and means of production to the common
detriment;
d. that there is equal pay for equal work for both men and women;
e. that the health and strength of workers, men and women, and the
tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not
forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to
their age or strength;
f. that children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a
healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and that
 childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and
against moral and material abandonment.

Article 39A {Equal justice and free legal aid}

The State shall secure that the operation of the legal system promotes
justice, on a basis of equal opportunity, and shall, in particular, provide
free legal aid, by suitable legislation or schemes or in any other way, to
ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any
citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities.

Article 40 {Organisation of village panchayats}[edit]

The State shall take steps to organise village panchayats and endow
them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable
them to function as units of self-government.

Article 41 {Right to work, to education and to public assistance in

certain cases}[edit]

The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and
development, make effective provision for securing the right to work, to
education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age,
sickness and disablement, and in other cases of undeserved want.

Article 42 {Provision for just and human conditions of work and

maternity relief}[edit]

The State shall make provision for securing just and humane conditions
of work and for maternity relief.

Article 43 {Living wage, etc., for workers}[edit]

The State shall endeavor to secure, by suitable legislation or economic

organisation or in any other way, to all workers agricultural, industrial or
otherwise, work, a living wage, conditions of work ensuring a decent
standard of life and full enjoyment of leisure and social and cultural
opportunities and, in particular, the State shall endeavour to promote
cottage industries on an individual or co-operative basis in rural areas.

Article 43A {Participation of workers in management of industries}

The State shall take steps, by suitable legislation or in any other way, to
secure the participation of workers in the management of undertakings,
establishments or other organisation engaged in any industry.

Article 44 {Uniform civil code for the citizen}[edit]

The State shall endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code
throughout the territory of India.

Article 45 {Provision for early childhood care and education to

children below the age of six years}[edit]

To Provide early childhood care and education for all children untill they
complete the age of six years.

Article 46 {Promotion of educational and economic interests of

Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker
sections}[edit]

The State shall promote with special care the educational and economic
interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular, of the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from
social injustice and all forms of exploitation.

Article 47 {Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the
standard of living and to improve public health}[edit]

The State shall regard the raising of the level of nutrition and the
standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as
among its primary duties and, in particular, the State shall endeavour to
bring about prohibition of the consumption except for medicinal purpose
of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health.
Article 48 {Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry}[edit]

The State shall endeavour to organise agriculture and animal husbandry

on modern and scientific lines and shall, in particular, take steps for
preserving and improving the breeds, and prohibiting the slaughter, of
cows and calves and other milch and draught cattle.

Article 48A {Protection and improvement of environment and

safeguarding of forests and wild life}

The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to
safeguard the forests and wild life of the country.

Article 49 {Protection of monuments and places and objects of

national importance}[edit]

It shall be the obligation of the State to protect every monument or place

or object of artistic or historic interest, declared by or under law made by
Parliament to be of national importance, from spoliation, disfigurement,
destruction, removal, disposal or export, as the case may be.

Article 50 {Separation of judiciary from executive}[edit]

The State shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in
the public services of the State.

Article 51 {Promotion of international peace and security}[edit]

The State shall endeavour to -

a. promote international peace and security;

b. maintain just and honourable relations between nations;
c. foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the
dealings of organised people with one another; and
d. encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.
Chapter I {The Executive}[edit]

Article 52 {The President of India}[edit]

There shall be a President of India.

Article 53 {Executive power of the Union}[edit]

1. The executive power of the Union shall be vested in the President

and shall be exercised by him either directly or through officers
subordinate to him in accordance with this Constitution.
2. Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing provision, the
supreme command of the Defence Forces of the Union shall be
vested in the President and the exercise thereof shall be regulated
by law.
3. Nothing in this article shall-
a. Be deemed to transfer to the President any functions
conferred by any existing law on the Government of any
State or other authority; or
b. Prevent Parliament from conferring by law functions on
authorities other than the President.

Article 54 {Election of President}[edit]

The President shall be elected by the members of an electoral

college consisting of-

a. The elected members of both Houses of Parliament;

and
b. The elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of
the States.

[Explanation. In this article and in article 55, State includes

the National Capital Territory of Delhi and the Union
territory of Pondicherry.]
 Article 55 {Manner of election of President}[edit]

3. As far as practicable, there shall be uniformity in the scale of

representation of the different States at the election of the President.
4. For the purpose of securing such uniformity among the
States inter se as well as parity each state is entitled to
cast at such election shall be determined in the
following manner; -
a. Elected member of the Legislative Assembly of a
State shall have as many votes as there are
multiples of one thousand in the quotient
obtained by dividing the population of the State
by the total number of the elected members of
the Assembly;
b. if, after taking the said multiples of one
thousand, the remainder is not less than five
hundred, then the vote of each member referred
to in sub-clause (a) shall be further increased by
one;
c. each elected member of either House of
Parliament shall have such number of votes as
may be obtained by dividing the total number of
votes assigned to the members of the Legislative
Assemblies of the States under sub-clauses (a)
and (b) by the total number of the elected
members of both Houses of Parliament, fractions
exceeding one-half being counted as one and
other fractions being disregarded.
5. The election of the President shall be held in
accordance with the system of proportional
representation by means of the single transferable
vote and the voting at such election shall be by secret
ballot. [Explanation: In this article, the expression
 "population" means the population as ascertained at
the last preceding census of which the relevant figures
have been published: Provided that the reference in
this Explanation to the last preceding census of which
the relevant figures have been published shall, until
the relevant figures for the first census taken after the
year 2000 have been published, be construed as a
reference to the 1971 census.]

Article 56 {Term of office of President}[edit]

6. The President shall hold office for a term of five years from the
date on which he enters upon his office: Provided that -
a. the President may, by writing under his hand
addressed to the Vice-President, resign his office;
b. the President may, for violation of the
Constitution, be removed from office by
impeachment in the manner provided in article
61.
c. the President shall, notwithstanding the
expiration of his term, continue to hold office
until his successor enters upon his office.
7. Any resignation addressed to the Vice-President under
clause (a) of the proviso to clause (1) shall forthwith be
communicated by him to the Speaker of the House of
the People.

Article 57 {Eligibility for re-election}[edit]

A person who holds, or who has held, office as President

shall, subject to the other provisions of this Constitution be
eligible for re-election to that office.

Article 58 {Qualifications for election as President}[edit]

8. No person shall be eligible for election as President unless he -
a. is a citizen of India;
b. has completed the age of thirty-five years, and
c. is qualified for election as a member of the House
of the People.
9. A person shall not be eligible for election as President
if he holds any office of profit under the Government
of India or the Government of any State or under any
local or other authority subject to the control of any of
the said Governments.

[Explanation: For the purposes of this article, a person shall

not be deemed to hold any office of profit by reason only that
he is the President or Vice-President of the Union or the
Governor of any State or is a Minister either for the Union or
for any State.]

Article 59 {Conditions of President's office}[edit]

10. The President shall not be a member of either House of

Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of any State, and if a
member of either House of Parliament or of a House of the Legislature
of any State be elected President, he shall be deemed to have vacated
his seat in that House on the date on which he enters upon his office as
President.
11. The President shall not hold any other office of
profit.
12. The President shall be entitled without payment
of rent to the use of his official residences and shall be
also entitled to such emoluments, allowances and
privileges as may be determined by Parliament by law
and until provision in that behalf is so made, such
emoluments, allowances and privileges as are specified
in the Second Schedule.
 13. The emoluments and allowances of the President
shall not be diminished during his term of office.

Article 60 {Oath or affirmation by the President}[edit]

Every President and every person acting as President or

discharging the functions of the President shall, before
entering upon his office, make and subscribe in the presence
of the Chief Justice of India or, in his absence, the senior
most Judge of the Supreme Court available, an oath or
affirmation in the following form, that is to say - "I, A.B., do
swear in the name of God / solemnly affirm that I will
faithfully execute the office of President (or discharge the
function of the President) of India and will to the best of my
ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the
law and that I will devote myself to the service and well-
being of the people of India."

Article 61 {Procedure for impeachment of the

President}[edit]

14. When a President is to be impeached for violation of the

Constitution, the charge shall be preferred by either House of
Parliament.
15. No such charge shall be preferred unless -
a. the proposal to prefer such charge is contained in
a resolution which has been moved after at least
fourteen days' notice in writing signed by not less
than one-fourth of the total number of members
of the House has been given of their intention to
move the resolution, and
b. such resolution has been passed by a majority of
not less than two-thirds of the total membership
of the House.
 16. When a charge has been so preferred by either
House of Parliament, the other House shall investigate
the charge or cause the charge to be investigated and
the President shall have the right to appear and to be
represented at such investigation.
17. If as a result of the investigation a resolution is
passed by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the
total membership of the House by which the charge
was investigated or caused to be investigated,
declaring that the charge preferred against the
President has been sustained, such resolution shall
have the effect of removing the President from his
office as from the date on which the resolution is so
passed.

Article 62 {Time of holding election to fill vacancy in the

office of president and the term of office or person elected
to fill casual vacancy}[edit]

18. An election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiration of the term

of office of President shall be completed before the expiration of the
term.
19. An election to fill a vacancy in the office of
President occurring by reason of his death,
regsignation or removal, or otherwise shall be held as
soon as possible after, and in no case later than six
months from, the date of occurrence of the vacancy;
and the person elected to fill the vacancy shall, subject
to the provisions of article 56, be entitled to hold office
for the full term of five years from the date on which
he enters upon his office.

Article 63 {The Vice-President Of India}[edit]

 There shall be a Vice-President of India.

Article 64 {The Vice-President to be ex-officio Chairman

of the Council of States}[edit]

The Vice-President shall be ex-officio Chairman of the

Council of States and shall not hold any other office of profit:
Provided that during any period when the Vice-President acts
as President or discharges the functions of the President
under article 65, he shall not perform the duties of the office
of Chairman of the Council of States and shall not be entitled
to any salary or allowance payable to the Chairman of the
Council of States under article 97.

Article 65 {The Vice-President to act as President or to

discharge his functions during casual vacancies in the
office, or during the absence, of President}[edit]

20. In the event of the occurrence of any vacancy in the office of the
President by reason of this death, resignation or removal, or otherwise,
the Vice-President shall act as President until the date on which a new
President elected in accordance with the provisions of this Chapter to
fill such vacancy enters upon his office.
21. When the President is unable to discharge his
functions owing to absence, illness or any other cause,
the Vice-President shall discharge his functions until
the date on which the President resumes his duties.
22. The Vice-President shall, during, and in respect
of, the period while he is so acting as, or discharging
the functions of, President have all the powers and
immunities of the President and be entitled to such
emoluments, allowances and privileges as may be
determined by Parliament by law and, until provision
in that behalf is so made, such emoluments,
 allowances and privileges as are specified in the
Second Schedule.

Article 66 {Election of Vice-President}[edit]

23. The Vice-President shall be elected by the members of an

electoral college consisting of the members of both Houses of
Parliament in accordance with the system of proportional
representation by means of a single transferable vote and the voting at
such election shall be by secret ballot.
24. The Vice-President shall not be a member of
either House of Parliament or of a House of the
Legislature of any State, and if a member of either
House of Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of
any State be elected Vice-President, he shall be
deemed to have vacated his seat in that House on the
date on which he enters upon his office as Vice-
President.
25. No person shall be eligible for election as Vice-
President unless he -
a. is a citizen on India;
b. has completed the age of thirty-five years; and
c. is qualified for election as a member of the
Council of States.
26. A person shall not be eligible for election as Vice-
President if he holds any office of profit under the
Government of India or the Government of any State
or under any local or other authority subject to the
control of any of the said Governments.

[Explanation: For the purposes of this article, a person shall

not be deemed to hold any office of profit by reason only that
he is the President of Vice-President of the Union or the
 Governor of any State or is a Minister either for the Union or
for any State.]

Article 67 {Term of office of Vice-President}[edit]

The Vice-President shall hold office for a term of five years

from the date on which he enters upon his office:

Provided that –

aa. A Vice-President may, by writing under his hand addressed to the

President, resign his office;
bb. a Vice-President may be removed from his office
by a resolution of the Council of States passed by a
majority of all the then members of the Council and
agreed to by the House of the People; but no
resolution for the purpose of this clause shall be
moved unless at least fourteen days' notice has been
given of the intention to move the resolution;
cc. A Vice-President shall, notwithstanding the expiration
of his term, continue to hold office until his successor
enters upon his office.

Article 68 {Time of holding election to fill vacancy in the

office of Vice-President and the term of office of person
elected to fill casual vacancy}[edit]

30. An election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiration of the term

of office of Vice-President shall be completed before the expiration of
the term.
31. An election to fill a vacancy in the office of Vice-
President occurring by reason of his death, resignation
or removal, or otherwise shall be held as soon as
possible after the occurrence of the vacancy, and the
person elected to fill the vacancy shall, subject to the
 provisions of article 67, be entitled to hold office for
the full term of five years from the date on which he
enters upon his office.

Article 69 {Oath or affirmation by the Vice-

President}[edit]

Every Vice-President shall, before entering upon his office,

make and subscribe before the President, or some person
appointed in that behalf by him, an oath or affirmation in the
following form, that is to say - "I, A.B., do swear in the name
of God /solemnly affirm that I will bear true faith and
allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established
and that I will discharge the duty upon which I am about to
enter."

Article 70 {Discharge of President's functions in other

contingencies}[edit]

Parliament may make such provision as it thinks fit for the

discharge of the functions of the President in any contingency
not provided for in this Chapter.

Article 71 {Matters relating to, or connected with, the

election of a President or Vice-President}[edit]

32. All doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with the
election of a President or Vice-President shall be inquired into and
decided by the Supreme Court whose decision shall be final.
33. If the election of a person as President or Vice-
President is declared void by the Supreme Court, acts
done by him in the exercise and performance of the
powers and duties of the office of President or Vice-
President, as the case may be, on or before the date of
 the decision of the Supreme Court shall not be
invalidated by reason of that declaration.
34. Subject to the provisions of this Constitution,
Parliament may by law regulate any matter relating to
or connected with the election of a President or Vice-
President.
35. The election of a person as President or Vice-
President shall not be called in question on the ground
of the existence of any vacancy for whatever reason
among the members of the electoral college electing
him.

Article 72 {Power of President to grant pardons, etc., and

to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain
cases}[edit]

36. The President shall have the power to grant pardons, reprieves,
respites or remissions of punishment or to suspend, remit or commute
the sentence of any persons convicted of any offence -
a. in all cases where the punishment of sentence is
by a Court Martial;
b. in all cases where the punishment or sentence is
for an offence against any law relating to a
matter to which the executive power of the
Union extends;
c. in all cases where the sentence is a sentence of
death.
37. Nothing in sub-clause (a) of clause (1) shall affect
the power conferred by law on any officer of the
Armed Forces of the Union to suspend, remit or
commute a sentence passed by a Court martial.
38. Nothing in sub-clause (c) of clause (1) shall affect
the power to suspend, remit or commute a sentence of
 death exercisable by the Governor of a State under any
law for the time being in force.

Article 73 {Extent of executive power of the Union}[edit]

39. Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, the executive power

of the Union shall extend -
a. to the matters with respect to which Parliament
has power to make laws; and
b. to the exercise of such rights, authority and
jurisdiction as are exercisable by the Government
of India by virtue of any treaty of agreement:
Provided that the executive power referred to in
sub-clause (a) shall not, save as expressly
provided in this Constitution or in any law made
by Parliament, extend in any State to matters
with respect to which the Legislature of the State
has also power to make laws.
40. Until otherwise provided by Parliament, a State
and any officer or authority of a State may,
notwithstanding anything in this article, continue to
exercise in matters with respect to which Parliament
has power to make laws for that State such executive
power or functions as the State or officer or authority
thereof could exercise immediately before the
commencement of this Constitution.

Article 74 {Council of Ministers to aid and advise

President}[edit]

41. There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at

the head to aid and advise the President who shall, in the exercise of
his functions, act in accordance with such advice: Provided that the
President may require the Council of Ministers to reconsider such
advice, either generally or otherwise, and the President shall act in
accordance with the advice tendered after such reconsideration.
42. The question whether any, and if so what, advice
was tendered by Ministers to the President shall not
be inquired into in any court.

Article 75 {Other provisions as to Ministers}[edit]

43. The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the
other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the
Prime Minister.
(1A) The total number of Ministers, including the Prime Minister, in the
Council of Ministers shall not exceed fifteen per cent. of the total
number of members of the House of the People.
(1B) A member of either House of Parliament belonging to any political
party who is disqualified for being a member of that House under
paragraph 2 of the Tenth Schedule shall also be disqualified to be
appointed as a Minister under clause (1) for duration of the period
commencing from the date of his disqualification till the date on which
the term of his office as such member would expire or where he
contests any election to either House of Parliament before the expiry of
such period, till the date on which he is declared elected, whichever is
earlier.
(1A), (1B) Inserted by The Constitution (Ninety-first Amendment) Act,
2003 {...}
44. The Minister shall hold office during the pleasure
of the President.
45. The Council of Ministers shall be collectively
responsible to the House of the People.
46. Before a Minister enters upon his office, the
President shall administer to him the oaths of office
and of secrecy according to the forms set out for the
purpose in the Third Schedule.
 47. A Minister who for any period of six consecutive
months is not a member of either House of Parliament
shall at the expiration of that period cease to be a
Minister.
48. The salaries and allowances of Ministers shall be
such as Parliament may from time to time by law
determine and, until Parliament so determines, shall
be as specified in the Second Schedule.

Article 76 {Attorney-General for India}[edit]

49. The President shall appoint a person who is qualified to be

appointed a Judge of the Supreme Court to be Attorney-General for
India.
50. It shall be the duty of the Attorney-General to
give advice to the Government of India upon such legal
matters, and to perform such other duties of a legal
character, as may from time to time be referred or
assigned to him by the President, and to discharge the
functions conferred on him by or under this
Constitution or any other law for the time being in
force.
51. In the performance of his duties the Attorney-
General shall have right of audience in all courts in the
territory of India.
52. The Attorney-General shall hold office during the
pleasure of the President, and shall receive such
remuneration as the President may determine.

Article 77 {Conduct of business of the Government of

India}[edit]

53. All executive action of the Government of India shall be expressed

to be taken in the name of the President.
 54. Orders and other instruments made and
executed in the name of the President shall be
authenticated in such manner as may be specified in
rules to be made by the President, and the validity of
an order or instrument which is so authenticated shall
not be called in question on the ground that it is of an
order or instrument which is so authenticated shall not
be called in question on the ground that it is not an
order or instrument made or executed by the
President.
55. The President shall make rules for the more
convenient transaction of the business of the
Government of India, and for the allocation among
Ministers of the said business.

Article 78 {Duties of Prime Minister as respects the

furnishing of information to the President, etc.}[edit]

It shall be the duty of the Prime Minister -

ddd. to communicate to the President all decisions of the Council of

Ministers relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and
proposals for legislation;
eee. to furnish such information relating the
administration of the affairs of the Union on and
proposals for legislation as the President may call for;
and
fff. if the President so requires, to submit for the
consideration of the Council of Ministers any matter on
which a decision has been taken by a Minister but
which has not been considered by the Council.
 Chapter II {Parliament}[edit]

Article 79 {Constitution of Parliament}[edit]

There shall be a Parliament for the Union which shall

consists of the President and two Houses to be known
respectively as the Council of States and the House of the
People.

Article 80 {Composition of the Council of States}[edit]

59. The Council of States shall consists of -

a. twelve members to be nominated by the
President in accordance with the provisions of
clause (3); and
b. not more than two hundred and thirty-eight
representatives of the States and of the Union
territories.
60. The allocation of seats in the Council of States to
be filled by representatives of the States and of the
Union territories shall be in accordance with the
provisions in that behalf contained in the Fourth
Schedule.
61. The members to be nominated by the President
under sub-clause (a) and clause (1) shall consists of
persons having special knowledge or practical
experience in respect of such matters as the following,
namely: - Literature, science, art and social service.
62. The representatives of each State in the Council
of States shall be elected members of the Legislative
Assembly of the State in accordance with the system of
proportional representation by means of the single
transferable vote.
 63. The representatives of the Union territories in
the Council of States shall be chosen in such manner as
Parliament may by law prescribe.

Article 81 {Composition of the House of the People}[edit]

64. Subject to the provisions of article 331, the House of the People
shall consists of -
a. not more than five hundred and thirty members
chosen by direct election from territorial
constituencies in the States, and
b. not more than twenty members to represent the
Union territories, chosen in such manner as
Parliament may by law provide.
65. For the purposes of sub-clause (a) of clause (1), -
a. there shall be allotted to each State a number of
seats in the House of the People in such manner
that the ratio between that number and the
population of the State is, so far as practicable,
the same for all States; and
b. each State shall be divided into territorial
constituencies in such manner that the ratio
between the population of each constituency and
the number of seats allotted to it is, so far as
practicable, the same throughout the State:
Provided that the provisions of sub-clause (a) of
this clause shall not be applicable for the purpose
of allotment of seats in the House of the People
to any State so long as the population of that
State does not exceed six millions.
66. In this article, the expression "population" means
the population as ascertained at the last preceding
census of which the relevant figures have been
 published: Provided that the reference in this clause to
the last preceding census of which the relevant figures
have been published shall, until the relevant figures for
the first census taken after the year 8[2026] have been
published, be construed,—
i. for the purposes of sub-clause (a) of clause (2)
and the proviso to that clause, as a reference to
the 1971 census; and
ii. for the purposes of sub-clause (b) of clause (2) as
a reference to the 2001 census.

Article 82 {Readjustment after each census}[edit]

Upon the completion of each census, the allocation of seats in

the House of the People to the States and the division of each
state into territorial constituencies shall be readjusted by such
authority and in such manner as Parliament may by law
determine:

Provided that such readjustment shall not affect

representation in the House of the People until the dissolution
of the then existing House:

Provided further that such readjustment shall take effect from

such date as the President may, by order, specify and until
such readjustment takes effect, any election to the House may
be held on the basis of the territorial constituencies existing
before such readjustment:

Provided also that until the relevant figures for the first
census taken after the year 2026 have been published, it shall
not be necessary to readjust—

lxvii.the allocation of seats in the House of People to the States as

readjusted on the basis of the 1971 census; and
 lxviii. the division of each State into territorial constituencies
as may be readjusted on the basis of the 5[2001]
census,

under this article.

Article 83 {Duration of Houses of Parliament}[edit]

69.The Council of States shall not be subject to dissolution, but as nearly as

possible one-third of the members thereof shall retire as soon as may
be on the expiration of every second year in accordance with the
provisions made in that behalf by Parliament by law.
70. The House of the People, unless sooner dissolved, shall
continue for five years from the date appointed for its
first meeting and no longer and the expiration of the
said period of 5 years shall operate as a dissolution of
the House: Provided that the said period may, while a
Proclamation of Emergency is in operation, be
extended by Parliament by law for a period not
exceeding one year at a time and not extending in any
case beyond a period of six months after the
Proclamation has ceased to operate.

Article 84 {Qualification for membership of

Parliament}[edit]

A person shall not be qualified to be chosen to fill a seat in

Parliament unless he -

sss.is a citizen of India, and makes and subscribes before some person
authorised in that behalf by the Election Commission an oath or
affirmation according to the form set out for the purpose in the Third
Schedule;
ttt. is, in the case of a seat in the Council of States, not less
than thirty years of age and, in the case of a seat in the
 House of the People, not less than twenty-five years of
age; and
uuu. possesses such other qualifications as may be
prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by
Parliament.

Article 85 {Sessions of Parliament, prorogation and

dissolution}[edit]

74.The President shall from time to time summon each House of

Parliament to meet at such time and place as he thinks fit, but six
months shall not intervene between its lasting sitting in one session
and the date appointed for its first sitting in the next session.
75. The President may from time to time -
. prorogue the Houses or either House;
a. dissolve the House of the People.

Article 86 {Right of President to address and send

messages to Houses}[edit]

76.The President may address either House of Parliament or both Houses

assembled together, and for that purpose require the attendance of
members.
77. The President may send messages to either House of
Parliament, whether with respect to a Bill then
pending in Parliament or otherwise, and a House to
which any message is so sent shall with all convenient
despatch consider any matter required by the message
to be taken into consideration.

Article 87 {Special address by the President}[edit]

78.At the commencement of the first session after each general election to
the House of the People and at the commencement of the first session
of each year the President shall address both Houses of Parliament
 assembled together and inform Parliament of the causes of its
summons.
79. Provision shall be made by the rules regulating the
procedure of either House for the allotment of time for
discussion of the matters referred to in such address.

Article 88 {Rights of Ministers and Attorney-General as

respects Houses}[edit]

Every Minister and the Attorney-General of India shall have

the right to speak in, and otherwise to take part in the
proceeding of, either House, any joint sitting of the Houses,
and any committee of Parliament of which he may be named
a member, but shall not by virtue of this article be entitled to
vote.

Article 89 {The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the

Council of States}[edit]

80.The Vice-President of India shall be ex-officio Chairman of the Council

of States.
81. The Council of States shall, as soon as may be, choose
a member of the Council to be Deputy Chairman
thereof and, so often as the office of Deputy Chairman
becomes vacant, the Council shall choose another
member to be Deputy Chairman thereof.

Article 90 {Vacation and resignation of, and removal

from, the office of Deputy Chairman}[edit]

A member holding office as Deputy Chairman of the Council

of States -

dddd.shall vacate his office if he ceases to be a member of the Council;

 eeee. may at any time, by writing under his hand addressed
to the Chairman, resign his office; and
ffff. may be removed from his office by a resolution of the
Council passed by a majority of all the then members
of the Council: Provided that no resolution for the
purpose of clause (c) shall be moved unless at least
fourteen days' notice has been given of the intention
to move the resolution.

Article 91 {Power of the Deputy Chairman or other

person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as,
Chairman}[edit]

85.While the Office of Chairman is vacant, or during any period when the
Vice-President is acting as, or discharging the functions of, President,
the duties of the office shall be performed by the Deputy Chairman, or,
if the office of Deputy Chairman is also vacant, by such member of the
Council of States as the President may appoint for the purpose.
86. During the absence of the Chairman from any sitting of
the Council of States the Deputy Chairman, or, if he is
also absent, such person as may be determined by the
rules of procedure of the Council, or, if no such person
is present, such other person as may be determined by
the Council, shall act as Chairman.

Article 92 {The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to

preside while a resolution for his removal from office is
under consideration}[edit]

87.At any sitting of the Council of States, while any resolution for the
removal of the Vice-President from his office is under consideration,
the Chairman, or while any resolution for the removal of the Deputy
Chairman from his office is under consideration, the Deputy Chairman,
shall not though he is present, preside, and the provisions of clause (2)
 of article 91 shall apply in relation to every such sitting as they apply in
relation to a sitting from which the Chairman, or as the case may be,
the Deputy Chairman, is absent.
88. The Chairman shall have the right to speak in, and
otherwise to take part in the proceedings of, the
Council of States while any resolution for the removal
of the Vice-President from his office is under
consideration in the Council, but, notwithstanding
anything in article 100 shall not be entitled to vote at
all on such resolution or on any other matter during
such proceedings.

Article 93 {The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the House

of the People}[edit]

The House of the People shall, as soon as may be, choose

two members of the House to be respectively Speaker and
Deputy Speaker thereof and, so often as the office of Speaker
or Deputy Speaker becomes vacant, the House shall choose
another member to be Speaker or Deputy Speaker, as the case
may be.

Article 94 {Vacation and resignation of, and removal

from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker}[edit]

A member holding office as Speaker or Deputy Speaker of

the House of the People -

kkkk.shall vacate his office if he ceases to be a member of the House of the

People;
llll. may at any time, by writing under his hand addressed,
if such member is the Speaker, to the Deputy Speaker,
and if such member is the Deputy Speaker, to the
Speaker, resign his office; and
 mmmm. may be removed from his office by a resolution of the
House of the People passed by a majority of all the
then members of the House: Provided that no
resolution for the purpose of clause (c) shall be moved
unless at least fourteen days' notice has been of the
intention to move the resolution: Provided further
that, whenever the House of the People is dissolved,
the Speaker shall not vacate his office until
immediately before the first meeting of the House of
the People after the dissolution.

Article 95 {Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person

to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as
Speaker}[edit]

92.While the office of Speaker is vacant, the duties of the office shall be
performed by the Deputy Speaker or, if the office of Deputy Speaker is
also vacant, by such member of the House of the People as the
President may appoint for the purpose.
93. During the absence of the Speaker from any sitting of
the House of the People the Deputy Speaker or, if he is
also absent, such person as may be determined by the
rules of procedure of the House, or, if no such person
is present, such other person as may be determined by
the House, shall act as Speaker.

Article 96 {The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to

preside while a resolution for his removal from office is
under consideration}[edit]

94.At any sitting of the House of the People, while any resolution for the
removal of the Speaker from his office is under consideration, the
Speaker, or while any resolution for the removal of the Deputy Speaker
from his office is under consideration, the Deputy Speaker, shall not,
 though he is present, preside, and the provisions of clause (2) of article
95 shall apply in relation to every such sitting as they apply in relation
to a sitting from which the Speaker, or, as the case may be, the Deputy
Speaker, is absent. (2) The Speaker shall have the right to speak in, and
otherwise to take part in the proceedings of, the House of the People
while any resolution for his removal from office is under consideration
in the House and shall, notwithstanding anything in article 100, be
entitled to vote only in the first instance on such resolution or on any
other matter during such proceedings but not in the case of an equality
of votes.

Article 97 {Salaries and allowances of the Chairman and

Deputy Chairman and the Speaker and Deputy
Speaker}[edit]

There shall be paid to the Chairman and the Deputy

Chairman of the Council of States, and to the Speaker and the
Deputy Speaker of the House of the People, such salaries and
allowances as may be respectively fixed by Parliament by
law and, until provision in that behalf is so made, such
salaries and allowances as are specified in the Second
Schedule.

Article 98 {Secretariat of Parliament}[edit]

95.Each House of Parliament shall have a separate secretarial staff:

Provided that nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing
the creation of posts common to both Houses of Parliament.
96. Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment and
the conditions of service of persons appointed, to the
secretarial staff of either House of Parliament.
97. Until provision is made by Parliament under clause (2),
the President may, after consultation with the Speaker
of the House of the People or the Chairman of the
 Council of States, as the case may be, make rules
regulating the recruitment, and the conditions of
service of persons appointed, to the secretarial staff of
the House of the People or the Council of States, and
any rules so made shall have effect subject to the
provisions of any law made under the said clause.

Article 99 {Oath or affirmation by members}[edit]

Every member of either House of Parliament shall, before

taking his seat, make and subscribe before the President, or
some person appointed in that behalf by him, an oath or
affirmation according to the form set out for the purpose in
the Third Schedule.

Article 100 {Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act

notwithstanding vacancies and quorum}[edit]

98.Save as otherwise provided in this Constitution, all questions at any

sitting of either House or joint sitting of the Houses shall be determined
by a majority of votes of the members present and voting, other than
the Speaker or person acting as Chairman or Speaker. The Chairman or
Speaker, or person acting as such, shall not vote in the first instance,
but shall have and exercise a casting vote in the case of an equality of
votes.
99. Either House of Parliament shall have power to act
notwithstanding any vacancy in the membership
thereof, and any proceedings in Parliament shall be
valid notwithstanding that it is discovered
subsequently that some person who was not entitled
so to do sat or voted or otherwise took part in the
proceedings.
100. Until Parliament by law otherwise provides, the
quorum to constitute a meeting of either House of
 Parliament shall be one-tenth of the total number of
members of the House.
101. If at any time during a meeting of a House there is no
quorum, it shall be the duty of the Chairman or
Speaker, or person acting as such, either to adjourn
the House or to suspend the meeting until there is a
quorum.

Article 101 {Vacation of seats}[edit]

102.No person shall be a member of both Houses of Parliament and

provision shall be made by Parliament by law for the vacation by a
person who is chosen a member of both Houses of his seat in one
House or the other.
103. No person shall be a member both of Parliament and
of a House of the Legislature of a State, and if a person
is chosen a member both of Parliament and of a House
of the Legislature of a State, then, at the expiration of
such period as may be specified in rules made by the
President, that person's seat in Parliament shall
become vacant, unless he has previously resigned his
seat in the Legislature of the State.
104. If a member of either House of Parliament -
. becomes subject to any of the disqualifications
mentioned in clause (1) or clause (2) of article
102; or
a. resigns his seat by writing under his hand
addressed to the Chairman or the Speaker, as the
case may be, and his resignation is accepted by
the Chairman or the Speaker, as the case may be,
his seat shall thereupon become vacant: Provided
that in the case of any resignation referred to in
sub-clause (b), if from information received or
 otherwise and after making such inquiry as he
thinks fit, the Chairman or the Speaker, as the
case may be, is satisfied that such resignation is
not voluntary or genuine, he shall not accept
such resignation.
105. If for a period of sixty days a member of either House
of Parliament is without permission of the House
absent from all meetings thereof, the House may
declare his seat vacant: Provided that in computing the
said period of sixty days no account shall be taken of
any period during which the House is prorogued or is
adjourned for more than four consecutive days.

Article 102 {Disqualifications for membership}[edit]

106.A person shall be disqualified for being chosen as, and for being, a
member of either House of Parliament -
. if he holds any office of profit under the
Government of India or the Government of any
State, other than an office declared by
Parliament by law not to disqualify its holder;
a. if he is of unsound mind and stands so declared
by a competent court;
b. if he is an undischarged insolvent;
c. if he is not a citizen of India, or has voluntarily
acquired the citizenship of a foreign State, or is
under any acknowledgement of allegiance or
adherence to a foreign State;
d. if he is so disqualified by or under any law made
by Parliament.

[Explanation: For the purposes of this clause a person

shall not be deemed to hold an office of profit under the
Government of India or the Government of any State by
 reason only that he is a Minister either for the Union or
for such State.]

107.A person shall be disqualified for being a member of either House of

Parliament if he is so disqualified under the Tenth Schedule.

Article 103 {Decision on questions as to disqualifications

of members}[edit]

108.If any question arises as to whether a member of either House of

Parliament has become subject to any of the disqualifications
mentioned in clause (1) of article 102, the question shall be referred for
the decision of the President and his decision shall be final.
109. Before giving any decision on any such question, the
President shall obtain the opinion of the Election
Commission and shall act according to such opinion.

Article 104 {Penalty for sitting and voting before making

oath or affirmation under article 99 or when not qualified
or when disqualified}[edit]

If a person sits or votes as a member of either House of

Parliament before he has complied with the requirements of
article 99, or when he knows that he is not qualified or that
he is disqualified for membership thereof, or that he is
prohibited from so doing by the provisions of any law made
by Parliament, he shall be liable in respect of each day on
which he so sits or votes to a penalty of five hundred rupees
to be recovered as a debt due to the Union.

Article 105 {Powers, Privileges, etc., of the Houses of

Parliament and of the members and committees
thereof}[edit]
110.Subject to the provisions of this Constitution and to the rules and
standing orders regulating the procedure of Parliament, there shall be
freedom of speech in Parliament.
111. No member of Parliament shall be liable to any
proceedings in any court in respect of any thing said or
any vote given by him in Parliament or any committee
thereof, and no person shall be so liable in respect of
the publication by or under the authority of either
House of Parliament of any report, paper, votes or
proceedings.
112. In other respects, the powers, privileges and
immunities of each House of Parliament, and of the
members and the committees of each House, shall be
such as may from time to time be defined by
Parliament by law, and, until so defined, shall be those
of that House and of its members and committees
immediately before the coming into force of section 15
of the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act.
1978.
113. The provisions of clauses (1), (2) and (3) shall apply in
relation to persons who by virtue of this Constitution
have the right to speak in, and otherwise to take part
in the proceedings of, a House of Parliament or any
committee thereof as they apply in relation to
members of Parliament.

Article 106 {Salaries and allowances of members}[edit]

Members of either House of Parliament shall be entitled to

receive such salaries and allowances as may from time to
time be determined by Parliament by law and, until provision
in that respect is so made, allowances at such rates and upon
such conditions as were immediately before the
commencement of this Constitution applicable in the case of
 members of the Constituent Assembly of the Dominion of
India.

Article 107 {Provisions as to introduction and passing of

Bills}[edit]

114.Subject to the provisions of articles 109 and 117 with respect to Money
Bills and other financial Bills, a Bill may originate in either House of
Parliament.
115. Subject to the provisions of articles 108 and 109, a Bill
shall not be deemed to have been passed by the
Houses of Parliament unless it has been agreed to by
both Houses, either without amendment or with such
amendments only as are agreed to by both Houses.
116. A Bill pending in Parliament shall not lapse by reason
of the prorogation of the Houses.
117. A Bill pending in the Council of States which has not
been passed by the House of the People shall not lapse
on a dissolution of the House of the People.
118. A Bill which is pending in the House of the People, or
which having been passed by the House of the People
is pending in the Council of States, shall subject to the
provisions of article 108, lapse on a dissolution of the
House of the People.

Article 108 {Joint sitting of both Houses in certain

cases}[edit]

119.If after a Bill has been passed by one House and transmitted to the
other House -
. the Bill is rejected by the other House; or
a. the Houses have finally disagreed as to the
amendments to be made in the Bill; or
 b. more than six months lapse from the date of the
reception of the Bill by the other House without
the Bill being passed by it,

the President may, unless the Bill has lapsed by reason

of a dissolution of the House of the People, notify to the
Houses by message if they are sitting or by public
notification if they are not sitting, his intention to
summon them to meet in a joint sitting for the purpose
of deliberating and voting on the Bill:

Provided that nothing in this clause shall apply to a Money Bill.

120.In reckoning any such period of six months as is referred to in

clause (1) no account shall be taken of any period during which
the House referred to in sub-clause (c) of that clause is prorogued
or adjourned for more than four consecutive days.
121. Where the President has under clause (1) notified his
intention of summoning the Houses to meet in a joint
sitting, neither House shall proceed further with the
Bill, but the President may at any time after the date of
his notification summon the Houses to meet in a joint
sitting for the purpose specified in the notification, and
if he does so, the Houses shall meet accordingly.
122. If at the joint sitting of the two Houses the Bill, with
such amendments, if any, as are agreed to in joint
sitting, is passed by a majority of the total number of
members of both Houses present and voting, it shall be
deemed for the purposes of this Constitution to have
been passes by both Houses:

Provided that at a joint sitting -

 .if the Bill, having been passed by one House, has not been passed
by other House with amendments and returned to the House in
which it originated, no amendment shall be proposed to the Bill
other than such amendments (if any) as are made necessary by
the delay in the passage of the Bill;
a. if the Bill has been so passed and returned, only
such amendments as aforesaid shall be proposed
to the Bill and such other amendments as are
relevant to the matters with respect to which the
Houses have not agreed,

and the decision of the person presiding as to the

amendments which are admissible under this clause
shall be final.

123.A joint sitting may be held under this article and a Bill passed thereat,
notwithstanding that a dissolution of the House of the People has
intervened since the President notified his intention to summon the
Houses to meet therein.

Article 109 {Special procedure in respect of Money

Bills}[edit]

124.A Money Bill shall not be introduced in the Council of States.

125. After a Money Bill has been passed by the House of the
People it shall be transmitted to the Council of States
for its recommendations and the Council of States shall
within a period of fourteen days from the date of its
receipt of the Bill return the Bill to the House of the
People with its recommendations and the House of the
People may thereupon either accept or reject all or any
of the recommendations of the Council of States.
126. If the House of the People accepts any of the
recommendations of the Council of States, the Money
 Bill shall be deemed to have been passed both Houses
with the amendments recommended by the Council of
States and accepted by the House of the People.
127. If the House of the People does not accept any of the
recommendations of the Council of States, the Money
Bill shall be deemed to have been passed by both
Houses in the form in which it was passed by the
House of the People without any of the amendments
recommended by the Council of States.
128. If a Money Bill passed by the House of the People and
transmitted to the Council of States for its
recommendations is not returned to the House of the
People within the said period of fourteen days, it shall
be deemed to have been passed by both Houses at the
expiration of the said period in the form in which it
was passed by the House of the People.

Article 110 {Definition of "Money Bills"}[edit]

129.For the purpose of this Chapter, a Bill shall be deemed to be a Money

Bill if it contains only provisions dealing with all or any of the following
matters, namely: -
. the imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or
regulation of any tax;
a. the regulation of the borrowing of money or the
giving of any guarantee by the Government of
India or the amendment of the law with respect
to any financial obligations undertaken or to be
undertaken by the Government of India;
b. the custody of the Consolidated Fund or the
Contingency Fund of India, the payment of
moneys into or the withdrawal of moneys from
any such Fund;
 c. the appropriation of moneys out of the
Consolidated Fund of India;
d. the declaration of any expenditure to be
expenditure charged on the Consolidated Fund of
India or the increasing of the amount of any such
expenditure;
e. the receipt of money on account of the
Consolidated Fund of India or the public account
of India or the custody or issue of such money or
the audit of the accounts of the Union or of a
State; or
f. any matter incidental to any of the matters
specified in sub-clause (a) to (f).
130. A Bill shall not be deemed to be a Money Bill by reason
only that it provides for the imposition of fines or other
pecuniary penalties, or for the demand or payment of
fees for licences or fees for services rendered, or by
reason that it provides for the imposition, abolition,
remission, alteration or regulation of any tax by any
local authority of body for local purposes.
131. If any question arises whether a Bill is a Money Bill or
not, the decision of the Speaker of the House of the
People thereon shall be final.
132. There shall be endorsed on every Money Bill when it is
transmitted to the Council of States under article 109,
and when it is presented to the President for assent
under article 111, the certificate of the Speaker of the
House of the People signed by him that it is a Money
Bill.

Article 111 {Assent to Bills}[edit]

 When a Bill has been passed by the Houses of Parliament, it
shall be presented to the President, and the President shall
declare either that he assents to the Bill, or that he withholds
assent there from:

Provided that the President may, as soon as possible after the

presentation to him of a Bill for assent, return the Bill if it is not a
Money Bill to the Houses with a message requesting that they will
reconsider the Bill or any specified provisions thereof and, in
particular, will consider the desirability of introducing any such
amendments as he may recommend in his message, and when a
Bill is so returned, the Houses shall reconsider the Bill accordingly,
and if the Bill is passed again by the Houses with or without
amendment and presented to the President for assent, the
President shall not withhold assent there from.

Article 112 {Annual financial statement}[edit]

133.The President shall in respect of every financial year cause to be laid

before both the Houses of Parliament a statement of the estimated
receipts and expenditure of the Government of India for that year, in
this Part referred to as the "annual financial statement".
134. The estimates of expenditure embodied in the annual
financial statement shall show separately -
. the sums required to meet expenditure described
by this Constitution as expenditure charged upon
the Consolidated Fund of India; and
a. the sums required to meet other expenditure
proposed to be made from the Consolidated
Fund of India, and shall distinguish expenditure
on revenue account from other expenditure.
135. The following expenditure shall be expenditure
charged on the consolidated Fund of India -
. the emoluments and allowances of the President
and other expenditure relating to his office;
a. the salaries and allowances of the Chairman and
the Deputy Chairman of the Council of States and
the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the
House of the People;
b. debt charges for which the Government of India
is liable including interest, sinking fund charges
and redemption charges, and other expenditure
relating to the raising of loans and the service
and redemption of debt;
c.
i. the salaries, allowances and a pensions
payable to or in respect of Judges of the
Supreme court:
ii. the pensions payable to or in respect of
Judges of the Federal Court;
iii. the pensions payable to or in respect of
Judges of any High Court which exercises
jurisdiction in relation to any area included
in the territory of India or which at any time
before the commencement of this
Constitution exercised jurisdiction in
relation to any area included in a
Governor's Province of the Dominion of
India;
d. the salary, allowance and pension payable to or
in respect of the Comptroller and Auditor-
General of India;
e. any sums required to satisfy any judgement,
decree or award of any court or arbitral tribunal;
 f. any other expenditure declared by this
Constitution or by Parliament by law to be so
charged.

Article 113 {Procedure in Parliament with respect to

estimates}[edit]

136.So much of the estimates as relates to expenditure charged upon the

Consolidated Fund of India shall not be submitted to the vote of
Parliament, but nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing
the discussion in either House of Parliament of any of those estimates.
137. So much of the said estimates as relates to other
expenditure shall be submitted in the form of demands
for grants to the House of the People, and the House
of the People shall have power to assent, or to refuse
to assent, to any demand, or to assent to any demand
subject to a reduction the amount specified therein.
138. No demand for a grant shall be made except on the
recommendation of the President.

Article 114 {Appropriation Bills}[edit]

139.As soon as may be after the grants under article 113 have been made
by the House of the People, there shall be introduced a Bill to provide
for the appropriation out of the Consolidated Fund of India of all
moneys required to meet -
. the grants so made by the House of the People;
and
a. the expenditure charged on the Consolidated
Fund of India but not exceeding in any case the
amount shown in the statement previously laid
before Parliament.
140. No amendments shall be proposed to any such Bill in
either House of Parliament which will have the effect
 of varying the amount or altering the destination of
any grant so made or of varying the amount of any
expenditure charged on the Consolidated Fund of
India, and the decision of the person presiding as to
whether an amendment is inadmissible under this
clause shall be final.
141. Subject to the provisions of articles 115 and 116, no
money shall be withdrawn from the Consolidated Fund
of India except under appropriation made by law
passed in accordance with the provisions of this article.

==Article 115 {Supplementary, additional

or excess grants}==

142.The President shall -

. if the amount authorised by any law made in
accordance with the provisions of article 114 to
be expended for a particular service for the
current financial year is found to be insufficient
for the purposes of that year when a need has
arisen during the current financial year for
supplementary or additional expenditure upon
some new service not contemplated in the
annual financial statement for that year, or
a. if any money has been spent on any service
during a financial year in excess of the amount
granted for that service and for that year, cause
to be laid before both the Houses of Parliament
another statement showing the estimated
amount of that expenditure or cause to be
presented to the House of the People a demand
for such excess, as the case may be.
 143. The provisions of articles 112, 113 and 114 shall have
effect in relation to any such statement and
expenditure or demand and also to any law to be
made authorising the appropriation of moneys out of
the Consolidated Fund of India to meet such
expenditure or the grant in respect of such demand as
they have effect in relation to the annual financial
statement and the expenditure mentioned therein or
to a demand for a grant and the law to be made for the
authorisation of appropriation of moneys out of the
Consolidated Fund of India to meet such expenditure
or grant.

Article 116 {Votes on account, votes of credit and

exceptional grants}[edit]

144.Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing provisions of this Chapter,

the House of the People shall have power -
. to make any grant in advance in respect of the
estimated expenditure for a part of any financial
year pending the completion of the procedure
prescribed in article 113 for the voting of such
grant and the passing of the law in accordance
with the provisions of article 114 in relation to
that expenditure;
a. to make a grant for meeting an unexpected
demand upon the resources of India when on
account of the magnitude or the indefinite
character of the service the demand cannot be
stated with the details ordinarily given in an
annual financial statement;
b. to make an exceptional grant which forms no
part of the current service of any financial year,
 and Parliament shall have power to authorise by
law the withdrawal of moneys from the
Consolidated Fund of India for the purposes for
which the said grants are made.
145. The provisions of articles 113 and 114 shall have effect
in relation to the making of any grant under clause (1)
and to any law to be made under that clause as they
have effect in relation to the making of a grant with
regard to any expenditure mentioned in the annual
financial statement and the law to be made for the
authorisation of appropriation of moneys out of the
Consolidate Fund of India to meet such expenditure.

Article 117 {Special provisions as to financial Bills}[edit]

146.A Bill or amendment making provision for any of the matters specified
in sub-clauses (a) to (f) of clause (1) of article 110 shall not be
introduced or moved except on the recommendation of the President
and a Bill making such provision shall not be introduced in the Council
of States: Provided that no recommendation shall be required under
this clause for the moving of an amendment making provision for the
reduction or abolition of any tax.
147. A Bill or amendment shall not be deemed to make
provision for any of the matters aforesaid by reason
only that it provides for the imposition of fines or other
pecuniary penalties, or for the demand or payment of
fees for licences or fees for services rendered, or by
reason that it provides for the imposition, abolition,
remission, alternation or regulation of any tax by any
local authority or body for local purpose.
148. A Bill which, if enacted and brought into operation,
would involve expenditure from the Consolidated Fund
of India shall not be passed by either House of
 Parliament unless the President has recommended to
that House the consideration of the Bill.

Article 118 {Rules of procedure}[edit]

149.Each House of Parliament may make rules for regulating, subject to the
provisions of this Constitution, its procedure and the conduct of its
business.
150. Until rules are made under clause (1), the rules of
procedure and standing orders in force immediately
before the commencement of this Constitution with
respect to the Legislature of the Dominion of India
shall have effect in relation to Parliament subject to
such modifications and adaptations as may be made
therein by the Chairman of the Council of States of the
speaker of the House of the People, as the case may
be.
151. The President, after consultation with the Chairman of
the Council of States and the Speaker of the House of
the People, may make rules as to the procedure with
respect to joint sittings of, and communications
between, the two Houses.
152. At a joint sitting of the two Houses the Speaker of the
House of People, or in his absence such person as may
be determined by rules of procedure made under
clause (3), shall preside.

Article 119 {Regulation by law of procedure in Parliament

in relation to financial business}[edit]

Parliament may, for the purpose of the timely completion of

financial business, regulate by law the procedure of, and the
conduct of business in, each House of Parliament in relation
to any financial matter or to any Bill for the appropriation of
 moneys out of the Consolidated Fund of India, and, if and so
far as any provision of any law so made is inconsistent with
any rule made by a House of Parliament under clause (1) of
article 118 or with any rule or standing order having effect in
relation to Parliament under clause (2) of that article, such
provision shall prevail.

Article 120 {Language to be used in Parliament}[edit]

153.Notwithstanding anything in Part XVII, but subject to the provisions of

article 348 business in Parliament shall be transacted in Hindi or in
English: Provided that the Chairman of the Council of States or Speaker
of the House of the People, or person acting as such, as the case may
be, may permit any member who cannot adequately express himself in
Hindi or in English to address the House in his mother-tongue.
154. Unless Parliament by law otherwise provides, this
article shall, after the expiration of a period of fifteen
years from the commencement of this Constitution,
have effect as if the words "or in English" were omitted
there from.

Article 121 {Restriction on discussion in Parliament}[edit]

No discussion shall take place in Parliament with respect of

the conduct of any Judge of the Supreme Court or of a High
Court in the discharge of his duties except upon a motion for
presenting an address to the President praying for the
removal of the Judge as herein after provided.

Article 122 {Courts not inquire into proceedings of

Parliament}[edit]

yyyyyy.The validity of any proceedings in Parliament shall not be called in

question on the ground of any alleged irregularity of procedure.
 zzzzzz. No officer or member of Parliament in whom powers
are vested by or vested by or under this Constitution
for regulating procedure or the conduct of business, or
for maintaining order, in Parliament shall be subject to
the jurisdiction of any court in respect of the exercise
by him of those powers.

Chapter III {Legislative powers of the President}[edit]

Article 123 {Power of President to promulgate

Ordinances during recess of Parliament}[edit]

157.If at any time, except when both Houses of Parliament are in session,
the President is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it
necessary for him to take immediate action, he may promulgate such
Ordinances as the circumstances appear to him to require.
158. An Ordinance promulgated under this article shall have
the same force and effect as an Act of Parliament, but
every such Ordinance -
. shall be laid before both Houses of Parliament
and shall cease to operate at the expiration of six
weeks from the reassembly of Parliament, or, if
before the expiration of that period resolutions
disapproving it are passed by both Houses, upon
the passing of the second of those resolutions;
and
a. may be withdrawn at any time by the President.
[Explanation: Where the Houses of Parliament
are summoned to reassemble on different dates,
the period of six weeks shall be reckoned from
the later of those dates for the purposes of this
clause.]
 159. If and so far as an Ordinance under this article makes
any provision which Parliament would not under this
Constitution be competent to enact, it shall be void.

Chapter IV {The Union Judiciary}[edit]

Article 124 {Establishment and Constitution of Supreme

Court}[edit]

160.There shall be a Supreme Court of India consisting of a Chief Justice of

India and, until Parliament by law prescribes a larger number, of not
more than seven other Judges.
161. Every Judge of the Supreme Court shall be appointed
by the President by warrant under his hand and seal
after consultation with such of the Judges of the
Supreme Court and of the High Courts in the States as
the President may deem necessary for the purpose and
shall hold office until he attains the age of sixty-five
years: Provided that in the case of appointment of a
Judge other than the Chief Justice, the Chief Justice of
India shall always be consulted: Provided further that -
. a Judge may, by writing under his hand addressed
to the President, resign his office;
a. a judge may be removed from his office in the
manner provide in clause (4).

(2A) The age of a Judge of the Supreme Court shall be

determined by such authority and in such manner as
Parliament may by law provide.

162.A person shall not be qualified for appointment as a Judge of the

Supreme Court unless he is a citizen of India and -
 . has been for at least five years a Judge of a High
Court or of two or more such Courts in
succession; or
a. has been for at least ten years an advocate of a
High Court or of two or more such Courts in
succession; or
b. is, in the opinion of the President, a distinguished
jurist. [Explanation I: In this clause "High Court"
means a High Court which exercises, or which at
any time before the commencement of this
Constitution exercised, jurisdiction in any part of
the territory of India.] [Explanation II: In
computing for the purpose of this clause the
period during which a a person has been an
advocate, any period during which a person has
held judicial office not inferior to that of a district
judge after he became an advocate shall be
included.]
163. A Judge of the Supreme Court shall not be removed
from his office except by an order of the President
passed after an address by each House of Parliament
supported by a majority of the total membership of
that House and by a majority of not less than two-
thirds of the members of that House present and
voting has been presented to the President in the
same session for such removal on the ground of
proved misbehaviour or incapacity.
164. Parliament may by law regulate the procedure for the
presentation of an address and for the investigation
and proof of the misbehaviour or incapacity of a Judge
under clause (4).
165. Every person appointed to be a Judge of the Supreme
Court shall, before he enters upon his office, make and
 subscribe before the President, or some person
appointed in that behalf by him, an oath or affirmation
according to the form set out for the purpose in the
Third Schedule.
166. No person who has held office as a Judge of the
Supreme Court shall plead or act in any court of before
any authority within the territory of India.

Article 125 {Salaries, etc., of Judges}[edit]

167.There shall be paid to the Judges of the Supreme Court such salaries as
may be determined by Parliament by law and, until provision in that
behalf is so made, such salaries as are specified in the Second Schedule.
168. Every Judge shall be entitled to such privileges and
allowances and to such rights in respect of leave of
absence and pension as may from time to time be
determined by or under law made by Parliament and,
until so determined, to such privileges, allowances and
rights as are specified in the Second Schedule:
Provided that neither the privileges not the allowances
of a Judge nor his rights in respect of leave of absence
or pension shall be varied to his disadvantage after his
appointment.

Article 126 {Appointment of acting Chief Justice}[edit]

When the office of Chief Justice of India is vacant or when

the Chief Justice is, by reason of absence or otherwise,
unable to perform the duties of his office, the duties of the
office shall be performed by such one of the other Judges of
the Court as the President may appoint for the purpose.

Article 127 {Appointment of ad hoc Judges}[edit]

169.If at any time there should not be a quorum of the Judges of the
Supreme Court available to hold or continue any session of the Court,
the Chief Justice of India may, with the previous consent of the
President and after consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court
concerned, request in writing the attendance at the sittings of the
Court, as an ad hoc Judge, for such period as may be necessary, of a
Judge of a High Court duly qualified for appointment as a Judge of the
Supreme Court to be designated by the Chief Justice of India.
170. It shall be the duty of the Judge who has been so
designated, in priority to other duties of his office to
attend the sittings of the Supreme Court at the time
and for the period for which his attendance is required,
and while so attending he shall have all the
jurisdiction, powers and privileges, and shall discharge
the duties, of a Judge of the Supreme Court.

Article 128 {Attendance of retired Judges at sittings of the

Supreme Court}[edit]

Notwithstanding anything in this Chapter, the Chief Justice

of India may at any time, with the previous consent of the
President, request any person who as held the office of a
Judge of the Supreme Court or of the Federal Court or who
has held the office of a Judge of a High Court and is duly
qualified for appointment as a Judge of the Supreme Court to
sit and act as a Judge of the Supreme Court, and every such
person so requested shall, while so sitting and acting, be
entitled to such allowances as the President may by order
determine and have all the jurisdiction, powers and privileges
of, but shall not otherwise be deemed to be, a Judge of that
Court:

Provided that nothing in this article shall be deemed to

require any such person as aforesaid to sit and act as a Judge
of that Court unless he consents so to do.
 Article 129 {Supreme Court to be a court of record}[edit]

The Supreme Court shall be a court of record and shall have

all the powers of such a court including the power to punish
for contempt of itself.

Article 130 {Seat of Supreme Court}[edit]

The Supreme Court shall sit in Delhi or in such other place or

places, as the Chief Justice of India may, with the approval of
the President, from time to time, appoint.

Article 131 {Original jurisdiction of the Supreme

Court}[edit]

Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, the Supreme

Court shall, to the exclusion of any other court, have original
jurisdiction in any dispute -

ooooooo.between the Government of India and one or more States; or

ppppppp. between the Government of India and any State of
States on one side and one or more other States on
the other; or
qqqqqqq. between two or more States. If and in so far as the
dispute involves any question (whether of law or fact)
on which the existence or extent of a legal right
depends: Provided that the said jurisdiction shall not
extend to a dispute arising out of any treaty,
agreement, covenant, engagement, sanad of other
similar instrument which, having been entered into or
executed before the commencement of this
Constitution, continues in operation after such
commencement or which provides that the said
jurisdiction shall not extend to such a dispute. the
 recovery of damages against the government of india
cannot be claimed by state before the supreme court.

Article 131A {Executive jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in

regard to questions as to constitutional validity of Central
laws} Rep. by the Constitution (Forty-third Amendment)
Act, 1977, s. 4. {...}

Article 132 {Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in

appeals from High Court in certain cases}[edit]

174.An appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court from any judgement, decree of
final order of a High Court in the territory of India, whether in a civil,
criminal or other proceeding, if the High Court certifies under article
134A that the case involves a substantial question of law as to the
interpretation of this Constitution.
175. omitted by s. 17, the Constitution (Forty-fourth
Amendment) Act, 1978, s. 17.{...}
176. Where such a certificate is given, any party in the case
may appeal to the Supreme Court on the ground that
any such question as aforesaid has been wrongly
decided.

[Explanation: For the purpose of this article, the expression

"final order" includes an order deciding an issue which, if
decided in favour of the appellant, would be sufficient for the
final disposal of the case.]

Article 133 {Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in

appeals from High Courts in regard to civil matters}[edit]

177.An appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court from any judgment, decree or
final order in a civil proceeding of a High Court in the territory of India if
the High Court certifies under article 134A -
 . that the case involves a substantial question of
law of general importance; and
a. that in the opinion of the High Court the said
question needs to be decided by the Supreme
Court.
178. Notwithstanding anything in article 132, any party
appealing to the Supreme Court under clause (1) may
urge as one of the grounds in such appeal that a
substantial question of law as to the interpretation of
this Constitution has been wrongly decided.
179. Notwithstanding anything in this article, no appeal
shall, unless Parliament by law otherwise provides, lie
to the Supreme Court from the judgment, decree or
final order of one Judge of a High Court.

Article 134 {Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in

regard to criminal matters}[edit]

180.An appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court from any judgment, final order
or sentence in a criminal proceeding of a High Court in the territory of
India if the High Court -
. has on appeal reversed an order of acquittal of
an accused person and sentenced him to death;
or
a. has withdrawn for trial before itself any case
from any court subordinate to its authority and
has in such trial convicted the accused person
and sentenced him to death; or
b. certified under article 134A that the case is a fit
one for appeal to the Supreme Court: Provided
that an appeal under sub-clause (c) shall lie
subject to such provisions as may be made in that
behalf under clause (1) of article 145 and to such
 conditions as the High Court may establish or
require.
181. Parliament may by law confer on the Supreme Court
any further powers to entertain and hear appeals from
any judgment, final order or sentence in a criminal
proceeding of a High Court in the territory of India
subject to such conditions and limitations as may be
specified in such law.

Article 134A {Certificate for appeal to the Supreme

Court}[edit]

Every High Court, passing or making a judgment, decree,

final order, or sentence, referred to in clause (1) of article 132
or clause (1) of article 133, or clause (1) of article 134, -

zzzzzzz.may, if it deems fit so to do, on its own motion; and

aaaaaaaa. shall, if an oral application is made, by or on behalf of
the party aggrieved, immediately after the passing or
making of such judgment, decree final order or
sentence, determine, as soon as may be after such
passing or making, the question whether a certificate
of the nature referred to in clause (1) of article 132, or
clause (1) or article 133 or, as the case may be, sub-
clause (c) of clause (1) of article 134, may be given in
respect of that case.

Article 135 {Jurisdiction and powers of the Federal Court

under existing law to be exercisable by the Supreme
Court}[edit]

Until Parliament by law otherwise provides, the Supreme

Court shall also have jurisdiction and powers with respect to
any matter to which the provisions of article 133 or article
134 do not apply if jurisdiction and powers in relation to that
 matter were exercisable by the Federal Court immediately
before the commencement of this Constitution under any
existing law.

Article 136 {Special leave to appeal by the Supreme

Court}[edit]

184.Notwithstanding anything in this Chapter, the Supreme Court may, in

its discretion, grant special leave to appeal from any judgment, decree,
determination, sentence or order in any cause or matter passed or
made by any court or tribunal in the territory of India.
185. Nothing in clause (1) shall apply to any judgment,
determination, sentence or order passed or made by
any court or tribunal constituted by or under any law
relating to the Armed Forces.

Article 137 {Review of judgements or orders by the

Supreme Court}[edit]

Subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament or

any rules made under article 145, the Supreme Court shall
have power to review any judgment pronounced or order
made by it.

Article 138 {Enlargement of the jurisdiction of the

Supreme Court}[edit]

186.The Supreme Court shall have such further jurisdiction and powers with
respect to any of the matters in the Union List as Parliament may by
law confer.
187. The Supreme Court shall have such further jurisdiction
and powers with respect to any matter as the
Government of India and the Government of any State
may by special agreement confer, if Parliament by law
 provides for the exercise of such jurisdiction and
powers by the Supreme Court.

Article 139 {Conferment on the Supreme Court of powers

to issue certain writs}[edit]

Parliament may by law confer on the Supreme Court power

to issue directions, orders or writs, including writs in the
nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo
warranto and certiorari, or any of them, for any purposes
other than those mentioned in clause (2) of article 32.

Article 139A {Transfer of certain cases}[edit]

188.Where cases involving the same or substantially the same questions of

law are pending before the Supreme Court and one or more High
Courts or before two or more High Courts and the Supreme Court is
satisfied on its own motion or on an application made by the Attorney-
General of India or by a party to any such case that such questions are
substantial questions of general importance, the Supreme Court may
withdraw the case or cases pending before the High Court of the High
Courts and dispose of all the cases itself: Provided that the Supreme
Court may after determining the said questions of law return any case
so withdrawn together with a copy of its judgment on such questions to
the High Court from which the case has been withdrawn, and the High
Court shall on receipt thereof, proceed to dispose of the case in
conformity with such judgment.
189. The Supreme Court may, if it deems it expedient so to
do for the ends of justice, transfer any case, appeal or
other proceedings pending before any High Court to
any other High Court.

Article 140 {Ancillary powers of Supreme Court}[edit]

 Parliament may by law make provision for conferring upon
the Supreme Court such supplemental powers not
inconsistent with any of the provisions of this Constitution as
may appear to be necessary or desirable for the purpose of
enabling the Court more effectively to exercise the
jurisdiction conferred upon it by or under this Constitution.

Article 141 {Law declared by Supreme Court to be

binding on all courts}[edit]

The law declared by the Supreme Court shall be binding on

all courts within the territory of India.

Article 142 {Enforcement of decrees and orders of

Supreme Court and orders as to discovery, etc.}[edit]

190.The Supreme Court in the exercise of its jurisdiction may pass such
decree or make such order as is necessary for doing complete justice in
any cause or matter pending before it, and any decree so passed or
order so made shall be enforceable throughout the territory of India in
such manner as may be prescribed by or under any law made by
Parliament and, until provision in that behalf is so made, in such
manner as the President may by order prescribe.
191. Subject to the provisions of any law made in this behalf
by Parliament, the Supreme Court shall, as respects the
whole of the territory of India, have all and every
power to make any order for the purpose of securing
the attendance of any person, the discovery or
production of any documents, or the investigation or
punishment of any contempt of itself.

Article 143 {Power of President to consult Supreme

Court}[edit]
192.If at any time it appears to the President that a question of law or fact
has arisen, or is likely to arise, which is of such a nature and of such
public importance that it is expedient to obtain the opinion of the
Supreme Court upon it, he may refer the question to that Court for
consideration and the Court may, after such hearing as it thinks fit,
report to the President its opinion thereon.
193. The President may, notwithstanding anything in the
proviso to article 131, refer a dispute of the kind
mentioned in the said proviso to the Supreme Court
for opinion and the Supreme Court shall, after hearing
as it thinks fit, report to the President its opinion
thereon.

Article 144 {Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of

the Supreme Court}[edit]

All authorities, civil and judicial, in the territory of India

shall act in aid of the Supreme Court.

Article 144A {Special provisions as to disposal of

questions relating to constitutional validity of laws}[edit]

Rep. by the Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) Act, 1977,

s. 5. {...}

Article 145 {Rules of Court, etc.}[edit]

194.Subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament, the Supreme

Court may from time to time, with the approval of the President, make
rules for regulating generally the practice and procedure of the Court
including -
. rules as to the persons practising before the
Court;
a. rules as to the procedure for hearing appeals and
other matters pertaining to appeals including the
 time within which appeals to the Court are to be
entered;
b. rules as to the proceedings in the Court for the
enforcement of any of the rights conferred by
Part III; (cc) rules as to the proceedings in the
Court under article 139A;
c. rules as to the entertainment of appeals under
sub-clause (c) of clause (1) of article 134;
d. rules as to the conditions subject to which any
judgement pronounced or order made by the
Court may be reviewed and the procedure for
such review including the time within which
applications to the Court or such review are to be
entered;
e. rules as to the costs of and incidental to any
proceedings in the Court and as to the fees to be
charged in respect of proceedings therein;
f. rules as to the granting of bail;
g. rules as to stay of proceedings;
h. rules providing for the summary determination of
any appeal which appears to the Court to be
frivolous or vexations or brought for the purpose
of delay;
i. rules as to the procedure for inquiries referred to
in clause (1) of article 317.
195. Subject to the provisions of clause (3), rules made
under this article may fix the minimum number of
Judges who are to sit for any purpose, and may provide
for the powers of single Judges and Division Courts.
196. The minimum number of Judges who are to sit for the
purpose of deciding any case involving a substantial
question of law as to the interpretation of this
Constitution or for the purpose of hearing any
 reference under article 143 shall be five: Provided that,
where the Court hearing an appeal under any of the
provisions of this Chapter other than article 132
consists of less than five Judges and in the course of
the hearing of the appeal of the Court is satisfied that
the appeal involves a substantial question of law as to
the interpretation of this Constitution the
determination of which is necessary for the disposal of
the appeal, such Court shall refer the question for
opinion to a Court constituted as required by this
clause for the purpose of deciding any case involving
such a question and shall on receipt of the opinion
dispose of the appeal in conformity with such opinion.
197. No judgement shall be delivered by the Supreme Court
save in open Court, and no report shall be made under
article 143 save in accordance with an opinion also
delivered in open Court.
198. No judgement and so such opinion shall be delivered
by the Supreme Court save with the concurrence of a
majority of the Judges present at the hearing of the
case, but nothing in this clause shall be deemed to
prevent a Judge who does not concur from delivering a
dissenting judgement or opinion.

Article 146 {Officers and servants and the expenses of the

Supreme Court}[edit]

199.Appointments of officers and servants of the Supreme Court shall be

made by the Chief Justice of India or such other Judge or officer of the
Court as he may direct: Provided that the President may by rule require
that in such cases as may be specified in the rule, no person not already
attached to the Court shall be appointed to any office connected with
the Court, save after consultation with the Union Public Service
Commission.
200. Subject to the provisions of any law made by
Parliament, the conditions of service of officers and
servants of the Supreme Court shall be such as may be
prescribed by rules made by the Chief Justice of India
or by some other Judge or officer of the Court
authorised by the Chief Justice of India to make rules
for the purpose: Provided that the rules made under
this clause shall, so far as they relate to salaries,
allowances, leave or pensions, require the approval of
the President.
201. The administrative expenses of the Supreme Court,
including all salaries, allowances and pensions payable
to or in respect of the officers and servants of the
Court, shall be charged upon the Consolidated Fund of
India, and any fees or other moneys taken by the Court
shall form part of that Fund.

Article 147 {Interpretation}[edit]

In this Chapter and in Chapter V of Part VI, references to any

substantial question of law as to the interpretation of this
Constitution shall be construed as including references to any
substantial question of law as to the interpretation of the
Government of India Act, 1935 (including any enactment
amending or supplementing that Act), or of any Order in
Council or order made thereunder, or of the Indian
Independence Act, 1947, or of any order made thereunder.
 Chapter V {Comptroller and Auditor-General of
India}[edit]

Article 148 {Comptroller and Auditor-General of

India}[edit]

202.There shall be a Comptroller and Auditor-General of India who shall be

appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal and
shall only be removed from office in like manner and on the like
grounds as a Judge of the Supreme Court.
203. Every person appointed to be the Comptroller and
Auditor-General of India shall, before he enters upon
his office, make and subscribe before the President, or
some person appointed in that behalf by him, an oath
or affirmation according to the form set out for the
purpose in the Third Schedule.
204. The salary and other conditions of service of the
Comptroller and Auditor-General shall be such as may
be determined by Parliament by law and, until they are
so determined, shall be as specified in the Second
Schedule: Provided that neither the salary of a
Comptroller and Auditor-General nor his rights in
respect of leave of absence, pension or age of
retirement shall be varied to his disadvantage after his
appointment.
205. The Comptroller and Auditor-General shall not be
eligible for further office either under the Government
of India or under the Government of any State after he
has ceased to hold his office.
206. Subject to the provisions of this Constitution and of
any law made by Parliament, the conditions of service
of persons serving in the Indian Audit and Accounts
Department and the administrative powers of the
 Comptroller and Auditor-General shall be such as may
be prescribed by rules made by the President after
consultation with the Comptroller and Auditor-
General.
207. The administrative expenses of the office of the
Comptroller and Auditor-General, including all salaries,
allowances and pensions payable to or in respect of
persons serving in that office, shall be charged upon
the Consolidated Fund of India.

Article 149 {Duties and powers of the Comptroller and

Auditor-General}[edit]

The Comptroller and Auditor-General shall perform such

duties and exercise such powers in relation to the accounts of
the Union and of the States and of any other authority or
body as may be prescribed by or under any law made by
Parliament and, until provision in that behalf is so made,
shall perform such duties and exercise such powers in
relation to the accounts of the Union and of the States as
were conferred on or exercisable by the Auditor-General of
India immediately before the commencement of this
Constitution in relation to the accounts of the Dominion of
India and of the Provinces respectively.

Article 150 {Form of accounts of the Union and of the

States}[edit]

The accounts of the Union and of the States shall be kept in

such form as the President may, on the advice of the
Comptroller and Auditor-General of India, prescribe.

Article 151 {Audit reports}[edit]

208.The reports of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India relating to
the accounts of the Union Shall be submitted to the President, who
shall cause them to be laid before each House of Parliament.
209. The report of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of
India relating to the accounts of a State shall be
submitted to the Governor of the State, who shall
cause them to be laid before the Legislature of the
State.

Constitution of India/Part VI
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Constitution of India
←Part V. The Government of India Part VII.→
Part VI The States
Parts
I, II, III, IV, IVA, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, IXA, X, XI, XII, XIII, XIV, XIVA, XV,
XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX, XX, XXI
Contents
[hide]

 1 Chapter I {General}
o 1.1 Article 152 {Definition}

 2 Chapter II {The Executive}

o 2.1 Article 153 {Governors of States}

o 2.2 Article 154 {Executive power of State}

o 2.3 Article 155 {Appointment of Governor}

o 2.4 Article 156 {Term of office of Governor}

o 2.5 Article 157 {Qualifications for appointment as

Governor}
o 2.6 Article 158 {Conditions of Governor's office}

o 2.7 Article 159 {Oath or affirmation by the Governor}

o 2.8 Article 160 {Discharge of the functions of the

Governor in certain contingencies}

o 2.9 Article 161 {Power of Governor to grant pardons,

etc., and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in

certain cases}
o 2.10 Article 162 {Extent of executive power of State}

o 2.11 Article 163 {Council of Ministers to aid and

advise Governor}
o 2.12 Article 164 {Other provisions as to Ministers}

o 2.13 Article 165 {Advocate-General for the State}

o 2.14 Article 166 {Conduct of business of the

Government of a State}
o 2.15 Article 167 {Duties of Chief Minister as respects

the furnishing of information to Governor, etc.}

 3 Chapter III The State Legislature
o 3.1 Article 168 {Constitution of Legislatures in States}
o 3.2 Article 169 {Abolition or creation of Legislative
Councils in States}
o 3.3 Article 170 {Composition of the Legislative
Assemblies}
o 3.4 Article 171 {Composition of the Legislative
Council}
o 3.5 Article 172 {Duration of States Legislatures}
o 3.6 Article 173 {Qualification for membership of the
State Legislature}
o 3.7 Article 174 {Sessions of the State Legislature,
prorogation and dissolution}
o 3.8 Article 175 {Right of Governor to address and
send messages to the House or Houses}
o 3.9 Article 176 {Special address by the Governor}
o 3.10 Article 177 {Rights of Ministers and Advocate-
General as respects the Houses}
o 3.11 Article 178 {The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of
the Legislative Assembly}
o 3.12 Article 179 {Vacation and resignation of, and
removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy
Speaker}
o 3.13 Article 180 {Power of the Deputy Speaker or
other person to perform the duties of the office of, or
to act as, Speaker}
o 3.14 Article 181 {The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker
not to preside while a resolution for his removal from
office is under consideration}
o 3.15 Article 182 {The Chairman and Deputy Chairman
of the Legislative Council}
o 3.16 Article 183 {Vacation and resignation, of and
removal from, the offices of Chairman and Deputy
Chairman}
o 3.17 Article 184 {Power of the Deputy Chairman or
other person to perform the duties of the office of, or
to act as, Chairman}
o 3.18 Article 185 {The Chairman or the Deputy
Chairman not to preside while a resolution for his
removal from office is under consideration}
o 3.19 Article 186 {Salaries and allowances of the
Speaker and Deputy Speaker and the Chairman and
Deputy Chairman}
o 3.20 Article 187 {Secretariat of State Legislature}
o 3.21 Article 188 {Oath or affirmation by members}
o 3.22 Article 189 {Voting in Houses, power of Houses
to act notwithstanding vacancies and quorum}
o 3.23 Article 190 {Vacation of seats}
o 3.24 Article 191 {Disqualification for membership}
o 3.25 Article 192 {Decision on question as to
disqualifications of members}
o 3.26 Article 193 {Penalty for sitting and voting before
making oath or affirmation under article 188 or when
not qualified or when disqualified}
o 3.27 Article 194 {Powers, privileges, etc., of the
Houses of Legislatures and of the members and
committees thereof}
o 3.28 Article 195 {Salaries and allowances of
members}
o 3.29 Article 196 {Provisions as to introduction and
passing of Bills}
o 3.30 Article 197 {Restriction on powers of Legislative
Council as to Bills other than Money Bills}
o 3.31 Article 198 {Special procedure in respect of
Money Bills}
o 3.32 Article 199 {Definition of "Money Bills"}
o 3.33 Article 200 {Assent to Bills}
o 3.34 Article 201 {Bills reserved for consideration}
o 3.35 Article 202 {Annual financial statement}
o 3.36 Article 203 {Procedure in Legislature with
respect to estimates}
o 3.37 Article 204 {Appropriation Bills}
o 3.38 Article 205 {Supplementary, additional or excess
grants}
o 3.39 Article 206 {Votes on account, votes of credit
and exceptional grants}
o 3.40 Article 207 {Special provisions as to financial
Bills}
o 3.41 Article 208 {Rules of procedure}
o 3.42 Article 209 {Regulation by law of procedure in
the Legislature of the State in relation to financial
business}
o 3.43 Article 210 {Language to be used in the
Legislature}
o 3.44 Article 211 {Restriction on discussion in the
Legislature}
 o 3.45 Article 212 {Courts not to inquire into
proceedings of the Legislature}
 4 Chapter IV Legislative {Power of the Governor}
o 4.1 Article 213 {Power of Governor to promulgate

Ordinances during recess of Legislature}

 5 Chapter V {The High Courts in the States}
o 5.1 Article 214 {High Courts for States}

o 5.2 Article 215 {High Courts to be courts of record}

o 5.3 Article 216 {Constitution of High Courts}

o 5.4 Article 217 {Appointment and conditions of the

office of a Judge of a High Court}

o 5.5 Article 218 {Application of certain provisions

relating to Supreme Court to High Courts}

o 5.6 Article 219 {Oath or affirmation by Judges of High

Courts}
o 5.7 Article 220 {Restriction on practice after being a

permanent Judge}
o 5.8 Article 221 {Salaries, etc., of Judges}

o 5.9 Article 222 {Transfer of a Judge from one High

Court to another}
o 5.10 Article 223 {Appointment of acting Chief Justice}

o 5.11 Article 224 {Appointment of additional and

acting Judges}
 5.11.1 Article 224A {Appointment of retired

Judges at sittings of High Courts}

o 5.12 Article 225 {Jurisdiction of existing High Courts}

o 5.13 Article 226 {Power of High Courts to issue

certain writs}
  5.13.1 Article 226A {Constitutional validity of
Central laws not to be considered in proceedings
under article 226}
o 5.14 Article 227 {Power of superintendence over all

courts by the High Court}

o 5.15 Article 228 {Transfer of certain cases to High

Court}
 5.15.1 Article 228A {Special provisions as to

disposal of questions relating to constitutional

validity of State laws}
o 5.16 Article 229 {Officers and servants and the

expenses of High Courts}

o 5.17 Article 230 {Extension of jurisdiction of High

Courts to Union territories}

o 5.18 Article 231 {Establishment of a common High

Court for two or more States}

 6 Chapter VI {Subordinate Courts}
o 6.1 Article 233 {Appointment of district judges}

 6.1.1 Article 233A {Validation of appointments

of, and judgments, etc. delivered by, certain

district judges}
o 6.2 Article 234 {Recruitment of persons other than

district judges to the judicial service}

o 6.3 Article 235 {Control over subordinate courts}

o 6.4 Article 236 {Interpretation}

o 6.5 Article 237 {Application of the provisions of this

Chapter to certain class or classes of magistrates}

Chapter I {General}[edit]

Article 152 {Definition}[edit]

In this Part, unless the context otherwise required, the
expression "State" does not include the State of Jammu and
Kashmir.

Chapter II {The Executive}[edit]

Article 153 {Governors of States}[edit]

There shall be a Governor for each State:
Provided that nothing in this article shall prevent the
appointment of the same person as Governor for two or more
States.
Article 154 {Executive power of State}[edit]
1. The executive power of the State shall be vested in the
Governor and shall be exercised by him either directly or
through offices subordinate to him in accordance with this
Constitution.
2. Nothing in this article shall -
a. be deemed to transfer to the Governor any functions
conferred by any existing law on any other authority;
or
b. prevent Parliament or the Legislature of the State
from conferring by law functions on any authority
subordinate to the Governor.
Article 155 {Appointment of Governor}[edit]
The Governor of a State shall be appointed by the President by
warrant under his hand and seal.
Article 156 {Term of office of Governor}[edit]
1. The Governor shall hold office during the pleasure of the
President.
2. The Governor may, by writing under his hand addressed to
the President, resign his office.
3. Subject to the foregoing provisions of this article, a
Governor shall hold office for a term of five years from the
date on which he enters upon his office: Provided that a
Governor shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term,
continue to hold office until his successor enters upon his
office.
Article 157 {Qualifications for appointment as
Governor}[edit]
No person shall be eligible for appointment as Governor unless
he is a citizen of India and has completed the age of thirty-five
years.
Article 158 {Conditions of Governor's office}[edit]
1. The Governor shall not be a member of either House of
Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of any State
specified in the First Schedule, and if a member of either
House of Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of any
such State be appointed Governor, he shall be deemed to
 have vacated his seat in that House on the date on which
he enters upon his office as Governor.
2. The Governor shall not hold any other office of profit.
3. The Governor shall be entitled without payment of rent of
the use of his official residences and shall be also entitled
to such emoluments, allowances and privileges as may be
determined by Parliament by law and, until provision in
that behalf is so made, such emoluments, allowances and
privileges as are specified in the Second Schedule. (3A)
Where the same person is appointed as Governor of two
or more States, the emoluments and allowances payable
to the Governor shall be allocated among the States in
such proportion as the President may by order determine.
4. The emoluments and allowances of the Governor shall not
be diminished during his term of office.
Article 159 {Oath or affirmation by the Governor}[edit]
Every Governor and every person discharging the functions of
the Governor shall, before entering upon his office, make and
subscribe in the presence of the Chief Justice of the High court
exercising jurisdiction in relation to the State, or, in his absence,
the senior most Judge of that Court available, an oath or
affirmation in the following form, that is to say - "I, A.B., do
Swear in the name of God / solemnly affirm that I will faithfully
execute the office of Governor (or discharge the functions of the
Governor) of ...................... (name of the State) and will to the
best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution
and the law and that I will devote myself to the service and well-
being of the people of .................... (name of the State)."
Article 160 {Discharge of the functions of the Governor in
certain contingencies}[edit]
The President may make such provision as he thinks fit for the
discharge of the functions of the Governor of a State in any
contingency not provided for in this Chapter.
Article 161 {Power of Governor to grant pardons, etc., and to
suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases}[edit]
The Governor of a State shall have the power to grant pardons,
reprieves, respites or remissions of punishment or to suspend,
remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any
offence against any law relating to a matter to which the
executive power of the State extends.
Article 162 {Extent of executive power of State}[edit]
Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, the executive
power of a State shall extend to the matters with respect to
which the Legislature of the State has power to make laws:
Provided that in any matter with respect of which the Legislature
of a State and Parliament have power to make laws, the
executive power of the State shall be subject to, and limited by,
the executive power expressly conferred by this Constitution or
by any law made by Parliament upon the Union or authorities
thereof.
Article 163 {Council of Ministers to aid and advise
Governor}[edit]
 1. There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Chief
Minister at the head to aid and advise the Governor in the
exercise of his function, except in so far as he is by or
under this Constitution required to exercise his functions
or any of them in his discretion.
2. If any question arises whether any matter is or is not a
matter as respects which the Governor is by or under this
Constitution required to act in his discretion, the decision
of the Governor in his discretion shall be final, and the
validity of anything done by the Governor shall not be
called in question on the ground that he ought or ought
not to have acted in his discretion.
3. The question whether any, and if so what, advice was
tendered by Ministers to the Governor shall not be
inquired into in any court.
Article 164 {Other provisions as to Ministers}[edit]
1. The Chief Minister shall be appointed by the Governor and
the other Ministers shall be appointed by the Governor on
the advice of the Chief Minister, and the Minister shall
hold office during the pleasure of the Governor: Provided
that in the States of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa,
there shall be a Minister in charge of tribal welfare who
may in addition be in charge of the welfare of the
Scheduled Castes and backward classes or any other work.
2. The Council of Minister shall be collectively responsible to
the Legislative Assembly of the State.
3. Before a Minister enters upon his office, the Governor
shall administer to him the oaths of office and of secrecy
 according to the forms set out for the purpose in the Third
Schedule.
4. A Minister who for any period of six consecutive months is
not a member of the Legislature of the State shall at the
expiration of that period cease to be a Minister.
5. The salaries and allowances of Ministers shall be such as
the Legislature of the State may from time to time by law
determine and, until the Legislature of the State so
determines, shall be a specified in the Second Schedule.
Article 165 {Advocate-General for the State}[edit]
1. The Governor of each State shall appoint a person who is
qualified to be appointed a Judge of a High Court to be
Advocate-General for the State.
2. It shall be the duty of the Advocate-General to give advice
to the Government of the State upon such legal matters,
and to perform such other duties of a legal character, as
may from time to time be referred or assigned to him by
the Governor, and to discharge the functions conferred on
him by or under this Constitution or any other law for the
time being in force.
3. The Advocate-General shall hold office during the pleasure
of the Governor, and shall receive such remuneration as
the Governor may determine.
Article 166 {Conduct of business of the Government of a
State}[edit]
1. All executive action of the Government of a State shall be
expressed to be taken in the name of the Governor.
 2. Orders and other instruments made and executed in the
name of the governor shall be authenticated in such
manner as may be specified in rules to be made by the
Governor, and the validity of an order or instrument which
is so authenticated shall not be called in question on the
ground that it is not an order or instrument made or
executed by the Governor.
3. The Governor shall make rules for the more convenient
transaction of the business of the Government of the
State, and for the allocation among Ministers of the said
business in so far as it is not business with respect to
which the Governor is by or under this Constitution
required to act in his discretion.
Article 167 {Duties of Chief Minister as respects the
furnishing of information to Governor, etc.}[edit]
It shall be the duty of the Chief Minister of each State -
a. to communicate to the Governor of the State all decision
of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration of
the affairs of the State and proposals for legislation;
b. to furnish such information relating to the administration
of the affairs of the State and proposals for legislation as
the Governor may call for; and
c. if the Governor so requires, to submit for the
consideration of the Council of Ministers any matter of
which a decision has been taken by a Minister but which
has not been considered by the Council.
Chapter III The State Legislature[edit]

Article 168 {Constitution of Legislatures in States}[edit]

1. For every State there shall be a Legislature which shall
consist of the Governor, and -
a. in the States of Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnatatka, and
Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh two Houses;
b. in other States, one House.
2. Where there are two Houses of the Legislature of a State,
one shall be known as the Legislative Council and the
other as the Legislative Assembly, and where there is only
one House, it shall be known as the Legislative Assembly.
Article 169 {Abolition or creation of Legislative Councils in
States}[edit]
1. Notwithstanding anything in article 168, Parliament may
by law provide for the abolition of the Legislative Council
of a State having such a Council or for the creation of such
a Council in a State having no such Council, if the
Legislative Assembly of the State passes a resolution to
that effect by a majority of the total membership of the
Assembly and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of
the members of the Assembly present and voting.
2. Any law referred to in clause (1) shall contain such
provisions for the amendment of this Constitution as may
be necessary to give effect to the provisions of the law and
may also contain such supplemental, incidental and
consequential provisions as Parliament may deem
necessary.
 3. No such law as aforesaid shall be deemed to be an
amendment of this Constitution for the purposes of article
368.
Article 170 {Composition of the Legislative Assemblies}[edit]
1. Subject to the provisions of article 333, the Legislative
Assembly of each State shall consists of not more than five
hundred, and not less than sixty, members chosen by
direct election from territorial constituencies in the State.
2. For the purposes of clause (1), each State shall be divided
into territorial constituencies in such manner that the ratio
between the population of each constituency and the
number of seats allotted to it shall, so far as practicable,
be the same throughout the State. [Explanation: In this
clause, the expression "population" means the population
as ascertained at the last preceding census of which the
relevant figures have been published: Provided that the
reference in this Explanation to the last preceding census
of which the relevant figures have been published shall,
until the relevant figures for the first census taken after
the year 2000 have been published, be construed as a
reference to the 1971 census.]
3. Upon the completion of each census, the total number of
seats in the Legislative Assembly of each State and the
division of each State into territorial constituencies shall
be readjusted by such authority and in such manner as
Parliament may by law determine: Provided that such
readjustment shall not affect representation in the
Legislative Assembly until the dissolution of the then
 existing Assembly: Provided further that such
readjustment shall take effect from such date as the
President may, by order, specify and until such
readjustment takes effect, any election to the Legislative
Assembly may be held on the basis of the territorial
constituencies existing before such readjustment:
Provided also that until the relevant figures for the first
census taken after the year 2000 have been published, it
shall not be necessary to readjust the total number of
seats in the Legislative Assembly of each State and the
division of such State into territorial constituencies under
this clause.
Article 171 {Composition of the Legislative Council}[edit]
1. The total number of members in the Legislative Council of
a State having such a Council shall not exceed one-third of
the total number of members in the Legislative Assembly
of that State: Provided that the total number of members
in the Legislative Council of a State shall in no case be less
than forty.
2. Until Parliament by law otherwise provides, the
composition of the Legislative Council of a State shall be as
provided in clause (3).
3. Of the total number of members of the Legislative Council
of a State -
a. as nearly as may be, one-third shall be elected by
electorates consisting of members of municipalities,
district boards and such other local authorities in the
State as Parliament may by law specify;
 b. as nearly as may be, one-twelfth shall be elected by
electorates consisting of persons residing in the State
who have been for at least three years graduates of
any university in the territory of India or have been
for at least three years in possession of qualifications
prescribed by or under any law made by Parliament
as equivalent to that of a graduate of any such
university;
c. as nearly as may be, one-twelfth shall be elected by
electorates consisting of persons who have been for
at least three years engaged in teaching in such
educational institutions within the State, not lower in
standard than that of a secondary school, as may be
prescribed by or under any law made by Parliament;
d. as nearly as may be, one-third shall be elected by the
members of the Legislative Assembly of the State
from amongst persons who are not members of the
Assembly;
e. the remainder shall be nominated by the Governor in
accordance with the provisions of clause (5).
4. The members to be elected under sub-clause (a), (b) and
(c) of clause (3) shall be chosen in such territorial
constituencies as may be prescribed by or under any law
made by Parliament, and the elections under the said sub-
clauses and under sub-clause (d) of the said clause shall be
held in accordance with the system of proportional
representation by means of the single transferable vote.
5. The members to be nominated by the Governor under
sub-clause (e) of clause (3) shall consists of persons having
 special knowledge or practical experience in respect of
such matters as the following, namely: - Literature,
science, art, co-operative movement and social service.
Article 172 {Duration of States Legislatures}[edit]
1. Every Legislative Assembly of every State, unless sooner
dissolved, shall continue for five years from the date
appointed for its first meeting and no longer and the
expiration of the said period of five years shall operate as a
dissolution of the Assembly: Provided that the said period
may, while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation,
be extended by Parliament by law for a period not
exceeding one year at a time and not extending in any
case beyond a period of six months after the Proclamation
has ceased to operate.
2. The Legislative Council of a State shall not be subject to
dissolution, but as nearly as possible one-third of the
members thereof shall retire as soon as may be on the
expiration of every second year in accordance with the
provisions made in that behalf by Parliament by law.
Article 173 {Qualification for membership of the State
Legislature}[edit]
A person shall not be qualified to be chosen to fill a seat in the
Legislature of a State unless he -
a. is a citizen of India, and makes and subscribes before some
person authorised in that behalf by the Election
 Commission an oath or affirmation according to the form
set out for the purpose in the Third Schedule;
b. is, in the case of a seat in the Legislative Assembly, not less
than twenty-five years of age and, in the case of a seat in
the Legislative Council, not less that thirty years of age;
and
c. possesses such other qualifications as may be prescribed
in that behalf by or under any law made by parliament.
Article 174 {Sessions of the State Legislature, prorogation
and dissolution}[edit]
1. The Governor shall from time to time summon the House
or each House of the Legislature of the state to meet at
such time and place as he thinks fit, but six months shall
not intervene between its last sitting in one session and
the date appointed for its first sitting in the next session.
2. The Governor may from time to time -
a. prorogue the House or either House;
b. dissolve the Legislative Assembly.
Article 175 {Right of Governor to address and send messages
to the House or Houses}[edit]
1. The Governor may address the Legislative Assembly or, in
the case of a State having a Legislative Council, either
House of the Legislature of the State, or both Houses
assembled together, and may for that purpose require the
attendance of members.
2. The Governor may send messages to the House or Houses
of the Legislature of the State, whether with respect of a
 Bill then pending in the Legislature or otherwise, and a
House to which any message is so sent shall with all
convenient despatch consider any matter required by the
message to be taken into consideration.
Article 176 {Special address by the Governor}[edit]
1. At the commencement of the first session after each
general election to the Legislative Assembly and at the
commencement of the first session of each year, the
Governor shall address the Legislative Assembly or, in the
case of a State having a Legislative Council, both Houses
assembled together and inform the Legislature of the
causes of its summons.
2. Provision shall be made by the rules regulating the
procedure of the House or either House for the allotment
of time for discussion of the matters referred to in such
address.
Article 177 {Rights of Ministers and Advocate-General as
respects the Houses}[edit]
Every Minister and the Advocate-General for a State shall have
the rights to speak in, and otherwise to take part in the
proceedings of, the Legislative Assembly of the State or, in the
case of a State having a Legislative Council, both Houses, and to
speak in, and otherwise to take part in the proceedings of, any
committee of the Legislature of which he may be named a
member, but shall not, by virtue of this article, be entitled to
vote.
Article 178 {The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the
Legislative Assembly}[edit]
Every Legislative Assembly of a State shall, as soon as may be,
choose two members of the Assembly to be respectively
Speaker and Deputy Speaker thereof and, so often as the office
of Speaker or Deputy Speaker becomes vacant, the Assembly
shall choose another member to be Speaker or Deputy Speaker,
as the case may be.
Article 179 {Vacation and resignation of, and removal from,
the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker}[edit]
A member holding office as Speaker or Deputy Speaker of an
Assembly -
a. shall vacate his office if he ceases to be a member of the
Assembly;
b. may at any time by writing under his hand addressed, if
such members is the Speaker, to the Deputy Speaker, and
if such member is the Deputy Speaker, to the Speaker,
resign his office; and
c. may be removed from his office by a resolution of the
Assembly passed by a majority of all the then members of
the Assembly:
Provided that no resolution for the purpose of clause (c)
shall be moved unless at least fourteen days' notice has
been given of the intention to move the resolution:
Provided further that, whenever the Assembly is dissolved,
the speaker shall not vacate his office until immediately
 before the first meeting of the Assembly after the
dissolution.
Article 180 {Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to
perform the duties of the office of, or to act as,
Speaker}[edit]
1. While the office of Speaker is vacant, the duties of the
office shall be performed by the Deputy Speaker or, if the
office of Deputy speaker is also vacant, by such member of
the Assembly as the Governor may appoint for the
purpose.
2. During the absence of the Speaker from any sitting of the
Assembly the Deputy Speaker or, if he is also absent, such
person as may be determined by the rules of procedure of
the Assembly, or, if no such person is present, such other
person as may be determined by the Assembly, shall act as
Speaker.
Article 181 {The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to
preside while a resolution for his removal from office is
under consideration}[edit]
1. At any sitting of the Legislative Assembly, while any
resolution for the removal of the Speaker from his office is
under consideration, the Speaker, or while any resolution
for the removal of the Deputy Speaker from his office is
under consideration, the Deputy Speaker, shall not,
though he is present, preside, and the provisions of clause
(2) of article 180 shall apply in relation to every such sitting
as they apply in relation to a sitting from which the
 Speaker or, as the case may be, the Deputy Speaker, is
absent.
2. The Speaker shall have the right to speak in, and otherwise
to take part in the proceedings of, the Legislative Assembly
while any resolution for his removal from office is under
consideration in the Assembly and shall, notwithstanding
anything in article 189, be entitled to vote only in the first
instance on such resolution or on any other matter during
such proceedings but not in the case of an equality of
votes.
Article 182 {The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the
Legislative Council}[edit]
The Legislative Council of every State having such Council
shall, as soon as may be, choose two members of the Council to
be respectively Chairman and Deputy Chairman thereof and, so
often as the office of Chairman or Deputy Chairman becomes
vacant, the Council shall choose another member to be
Chairman or Deputy Chairman, as the case may be.
Article 183 {Vacation and resignation, of and removal from,
the offices of Chairman and Deputy Chairman}[edit]
A member holding office as Chairman or Deputy Chairman of a
Legislative Council -
a. shall vacate his office if he ceases to be a member of the
Council;
b. may at any time by writing under his hand addressed, if
such members is the Chairman, to the Deputy Chairman,
 and if such member is the Deputy Chairman, to the
Chairman, resign his office; and
c. may be removed from his office by a resolution of the
Council passed by a majority of all the then members of
the Council: Provided that no resolution for the purpose of
clause (c) shall be moved unless at least fourteen days'
notice has been given of the intention to move the
resolution.
Article 184 {Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person
to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as,
Chairman}[edit]
1. While the office of Chairman is vacant, the duties of the
office shall be performed by the Deputy Chairman or, if
the office of Deputy Chairman is also vacant, but such
members of the Council as the Governor may appoint for
the purpose.
2. During the absence of the Chairman from any sitting of the
Council the Deputy Chairman or, if he is also absent, such
person as may be determined by the rules of procedure of
the Council, or, if no such person is present, such other
person as may be determined by the Council, shall act as
Chairman.
Article 185 {The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to
preside while a resolution for his removal from office is
under consideration}[edit]
1. At any sitting of the Legislative Council, while any
resolution for the removal of the Chairman from his office
 if under consideration, the Chairman, or while any
resolution for the removal of the Deputy Chairman from
his office is under consideration, the Deputy Chairman,
shall not, though he is present, preside, and the provisions
of clause (2) of article 184 shall apply in relation to every
such sitting as they apply in relation to a sitting from which
the Chairman or, as the case may be, the Deputy Chairman
is absent.
2. The Chairman shall have the right to speak in, and
otherwise to take part in the proceedings of, the
Legislative Council while any resolution for his removal
from office is under consideration in the Council and shall,
notwithstanding anything in article 189, be entitled to vote
only in the first instance on such resolution or on any
other matter during such proceedings but not in the case
of an equality of votes.
Article 186 {Salaries and allowances of the Speaker and
Deputy Speaker and the Chairman and Deputy
Chairman}[edit]
There shall be paid to the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the
Legislative Assembly, and to the Chairman and the Deputy
Chairman of the Legislative Council, such salaries and
allowances as may be respectively fixed by the Legislature of
the State by law and, until provision in that behalf is so made,
such salaries and allowances as are allowances as are specified
in the Second Schedule.
Article 187 {Secretariat of State Legislature}[edit]
 1. The House or each House of the Legislature of a state shall
have a separate secretarial staff: Provided that nothing in
this clause shall, in the case of the Legislature of a State
having a Legislative Council, be construed as preventing
the creation of posts common to both Houses of such
Legislature.
2. The Legislature of a State may by law regulate the
recruitment, and the conditions of service of persons
appointed, to the secretarial staff of the House or Houses
of the Legislature of the State.
3. Until provisions made by the Legislature of the State under
clause (2), the Governor may, after consultation with the
Speaker of the Legislative Assembly or the Chairman of the
Legislative Council, as the case may be, make rules
regulating the recruitment, and the conditions of service
of persons appointed, to the secretarial staff of the
Assembly or the Council, and any rules so made shall have
effect subject to the provisions of any law made under the
said clause.
Article 188 {Oath or affirmation by members}[edit]
Every member of the Legislative Assembly or the Legislative
Council of a State shall, before taking his seat, make and
subscribe before the Governor, or some person appointed in that
behalf by him, an oath or affirmation according to the form set
out for the purpose in the Third Schedule.
Article 189 {Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act
notwithstanding vacancies and quorum}[edit]
 1. Save as otherwise provided in this Constitution, all
questions at any sitting of a House of the Legislature of a
State shall be determined by a majority of votes of the
members present and voting, other than the Speaker of
Chairman, or person acting as such. The Speaker or
Chairman, or person acting as such, shall not vote in the
first instance, but shall have and exercise a casting vote in
the case of an equality of votes.
2. A House of the Legislature of a State shall have power to
act notwithstanding any vacancy in the membership
thereof, and any proceedings in the Legislature of a State
shall be valid notwithstanding that it is discovered
subsequently that some person who was not entitled so to
do sat or voted or otherwise took part in the proceedings.
3. Until the Legislature of the State by law otherwise
provides, the quorum to constitute a meeting of a House
of the Legislature of a State shall be ten members or one-
tenth of the total number of members of the House,
whichever is greater.
4. If at any time during a meeting of the Legislative Assembly
of the Legislative Council of a State there is no quorum, it
shall be the duty of the Speaker or Chairman, or persons
acting as such, either to adjourn the House or to suspend
the meeting until there is a quorum.
Article 190 {Vacation of seats}[edit]
1. No person shall be a member of both Houses of the
Legislature of a State and provision shall be made by the
Legislature of the State by law for the vacation by a person
 who is chosen a member of both Houses of his seat in one
House or the other.
2. No person shall be a member of the Legislatures of two or
more States specified in the First Schedule and if a person
is chosen a member of the Legislatures of two or more
such States, then, at the expiration of such period as may
be specified in rules made by the President, that person's
seat in the Legislatures of all such States shall become
vacant, unless he has previously resigned his seat in the
Legislatures of all but one of the States.
3. If a member of a House of the Legislature of a State -
a. becomes subject to any of the disqualifications
mentioned in clause (1) or clause (2) of article 191; or
b. resigns his seat by writing under his hand addressed
to the Speaker or the Chairman, as the case may be,
and his resignation is accepted by the Speaker or the
Chairman, as the case may be, his seat shall
thereupon become vacant:
Provided that in the case of any resignation referred to in
sub-clause (b), if from information received or otherwise
and after making such inquiry as he thinks fit, the Speaker
or the Chairman, as the case may be, is satisfied that such
resignation is not voluntary or genuine, he shall not accept
such resignation.
4. If for a period of sixty days a member of a House of the
Legislature of a State is without permission of the House
absent from all meetings thereof, the House may declare
his seat vacant: Provided that in computing the said period
 of sixty days no account shall be taken of any period
during which the House is prorogued or is adjourned for
more than four consecutive days.
Article 191 {Disqualification for membership}[edit]
1. A person shall be disqualified for being chosen as, and for
being, a member of the legislative Assembly or Legislative
Council of a State -
a. if he holds any office of profit under the Government
of India or the Government of any State specified in
the First Schedule, other than an office declared by
the Legislature of the State by law not to disqualify its
holder;
b. if he is of unsound mind and stands so declared by a
competent court;
c. if he is an undischarged insolvent;
d. if he is not a citizen of India, or has voluntarily
acquired the citizenship of a foreign State, or is under
any acknowledgment of allegiance or adherence to a
foreign State;
e. if he is so disqualified by or under any law made by
Parliament.
[Explanation: For the purposes of this clause, a person shall
not be deemed to hold an office of profit under the
Government of India or the Government of any State
specified in the First Schedule by reason only that he is a
Minister either for the Union or for such State.]
 2. A person shall be disqualified for being a member of the
Legislative Assembly or Legislative Council of a State if he
is so disqualified under the Tenth Schedule.
Article 192 {Decision on question as to disqualifications of
members}[edit]
1. If any question arises as to whether a member of a House
of the Legislature of a State has become subject to any of
the disqualifications mentioned in clause (1) of article 191,
the question shall be referred for the decision of the
Government and his decision shall be final.
2. Before giving any decision on any such question, the
Governor shall obtain the opinion of the Election
Commission and shall act according to such opinion.
Article 193 {Penalty for sitting and voting before making
oath or affirmation under article 188 or when not qualified
or when disqualified}[edit]
If a person sits or votes as a member of the Legislative
Assembly or the Legislative Council of a State before he has
complied with the requirements of article 188, or when he
knows that he is not qualified or that he is disqualified for
membership thereof, or that he is prohibited from so doing by
the provisions of any law made by Parliament or the Legislature
of the State, he shall be liable in respect of each day on which he
so sits or votes to a penalty of five hundred rupees to be
recovered as a debt due to the State.
Article 194 {Powers, privileges, etc., of the Houses of
Legislatures and of the members and committees
thereof}[edit]
1. Subject to the provisions of this Constitution and to the
rules and standing orders regulating the procedure of the
Legislature, there shall be freedom of speech in the
Legislature of every State.
2. No member of the Legislature of a State shall be liable to
any proceedings in any court in respect of anything said or
any vote given by him in the Legislature or any committee
thereof, and no person shall be so liable in respect of the
publication by or under the authority of a House of Such a
Legislature of any report, paper, votes or proceedings.
3. In other respects, the powers, privileges and immunities of
a House of the Legislature of a State, and of the members
and the committees of a House of such Legislature, shall
be such as may from time to time be defined by the
Legislature by law, and until so defined, shall be those of
that House and of its members and committees
immediately before the coming into force of section 26 of
the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act. 1978.
4. The provisions of clauses (1), (2) and (3) shall apply in
relation to persons who by virtue of this Constitution have
the right to speak in, and otherwise to take part in the
proceedings of, a House of the Legislature of a State or any
committee thereof as they apply in relation to members of
that Legislature.
Article 195 {Salaries and allowances of members}[edit]
Members of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative
Council of a State shall be entitled to receive such salaries and
allowances as may from time to time be determined, by the
Legislature of the State by law and, until provision in that
respect is so made, salaries and allowances at such rates and
upon such conditions as were immediately before the
commencement of this Constitution applicable in the case of
members of the Legislative Assembly of the corresponding
province.
Article 196 {Provisions as to introduction and passing of
Bills}[edit]
1. Subject to the provisions of article 198 and 207 with
respect to Money Bills and other financial Bills, a Bill may
originate in either House of the Legislature of a State
which has a Legislative Council.
2. Subject to the provisions of articles 197 and 198, a Bill
shall not be deemed to have been passed by the Houses of
the Legislature of a State having a Legislative Council
unless it has been agreed to by both Houses, either
without amendment or with such amendments only as are
agreed to by both Houses.
3. A Bill pending in the Legislature of a State shall not lapse
by reason of the prorogation of the House or Houses
thereof.
4. A Bill pending in the Legislative Council of a State which
has not been passed by the Legislative Assembly shall not
lapse on a dissolution of the Assembly.
 5. A Bill which is pending in the Legislative Assembly of a
State, or which having been passed by the Legislative
Assembly is pending in the Legislative Council, shall lapse
on a dissolution of the Assembly.
Article 197 {Restriction on powers of Legislative Council as
to Bills other than Money Bills}[edit]
1. If after a Bill has been passed by the Legislative Assembly
of a State having a Legislative Council and transmitted to
the Legislative Council -
a. the Bill is rejected by the Council; or
b. more than three months elapse from the date on
which the Bill is laid before the Council without the
Bill being passed by it; or
c. the Bill is passed by the Council with amendments to
which the Legislative Assembly does not agree, the
Legislative Assembly may, subject to the rules
regulating its procedure, pass the Bill again in the
same or in any subsequent session with or without
such amendments, if any, as have been made,
suggested or agreed to by the Legislative Council and
then transmit the Bill as so passed to the Legislative
Council.
2. If after a Bill has been so passed for the second time by the
Legislative Assembly and transmitted to the Legislative
Council -
a. the Bill is rejected by the Council; or
 b. more than one month elapses from the date on which
the Bill is laid before the Council without the Bill
being passed by it; or
c. the Bill is passed by the Council with amendments to
which the Legislative Assembly does not agree, the
Bill shall be deemed to have been passed by the
Houses of the Legislature of the State in the form in
which it was passed by the Legislative Assembly for
the second time with such amendments, if any, as
have been made or suggested by the Legislative
Council and agreed to by the Legislative Assembly.
3. Nothing in this article shall apply to a Money Bill.
Article 198 {Special procedure in respect of Money
Bills}[edit]
1. A Money Bill shall not be introduced in a Legislative
Council.
2. After a Money Bill has been passed by the Legislative
Assembly of a State having a Legislative Council, it shall be
transmitted to the Legislative Council for its
recommendations, and the Legislative Council shall within
a period of fourteen days from the date of its receipt of
the Bill return the Bill to the Legislative Assembly with its
recommendations, and the Legislative Assembly may
thereupon either accept or reject all or any of the
recommendations of the Legislative Council.
3. If the Legislative Assembly accepts any of the
recommendations of the Legislative Council, the Money
Bill shall be deemed to have been passed by both Houses
 with the amendments recommended by the Legislative
Council and accepted by the Legislative Assembly.
4. If the Legislative Assembly does not accept any of the
recommendations of the Legislative Council, the Money
Bill shall be deemed to have been passed by both Houses
in the form in which it was passed by the Legislative
Assembly without any of the amendments recommended
by the Legislative Council.
5. If a Money Bill passed by the Legislative Assembly and
transmitted to the Legislative Council for its
recommendations is not returned to the Legislative
Assembly within the said period of fourteen days, it shall
be deemed to have been passed by both Houses at the
expiration of the said period in the form in which it was
passed by the Legislative Assembly.
Article 199 {Definition of "Money Bills"}[edit]
1. For the purposes of this Chapter, a Bill shall be deemed to
be a Money Bill if it contains only provisions dealing with
all or any of the following matters, namely: -
a. the imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or
regulation of any tax;
b. the regulation of the borrowing of money or the
giving of any guarantee by the State, or the
amendment of the law with respect to any financial
obligations undertaken or to be undertaken by the
State;
c. the custody of the Consolidated Fund or the
Contingency Fund of the State, the payment of
 moneys into or the withdrawal of moneys from any
such Fund;
d. the appropriation of moneys out of the Consolidated
Fund of the State;
e. the declaring of any expenditure to be expenditure
charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State or the
increasing of the amount of any such expenditure;
f. the receipt of money on account of the Consolidated
Fund of the State or the public account of the State or
the custody or issue of such money; or
g. any matter incidental to any of the matters specified
in sub-clauses (a) to (f).
2. A Bill shall not be deemed to be a Money Bill by reason
only that it provides for the imposition of fines or other
pecuniary penalties, or for the demand or payment of fees
for licenses or fees for services rendered, or by reason that
it provides for the imposition, abolition, remission,
alteration or regulation of any tax by any local authority or
body for local purposes.
3. If any question arises whether a Bill introduced in the
Legislature of a State which has a Legislative Council is a
Money Bill or not, the decision of the Speaker of the
Legislative Assembly of such State thereon shall be final.
4. There shall be endorsed on every Money Bill when it is
transmitted to the Legislative Council under article 198,
and when it is presented to the Governor for assent under
article 200, the certificate of the Speaker of the Legislative
Assembly signed by him that it is a Money Bill.
Article 200 {Assent to Bills}[edit]
When a Bill has been passed by the Legislative Assembly of a
State or, in the case of a State having a Legislative Council, has
been passed by both Houses of the Legislature of the State, it
shall be presented to the Governor and the Governor shall
declare either that he assents to the Bill or that he withholds
assent there from or that he reserves the Bill for the
consideration of the President:
Provided that the Governor may, as soon as possible after the
presentation to him of the Bill for assent, return the Bill if it is
not a Money Bill together with a message requesting that the
House or Houses will reconsider the Bill or any specified
provisions thereof and, in particular, will consider the
desirability of introducing any such amendments as he may
recommend in his message and, when a Bill is so returned, the
House or Houses shall reconsider the Bill accordingly, and if the
Bill is passed again by the House or Houses with or without
amendment and presented to the Governor for assent, the
Governor shall not withhold assent there from:
Provided further that the Governor shall not assent to, but shall
reserve for the consideration of the President, any Bill which in
the opinion of the Governor would, if it became law, so derogate
from the powers of the High Court as to endanger the position
which that Court is by this Constitution designed to fill.
Article 201 {Bills reserved for consideration}[edit]
When a Bill is reserved by a Governor for the consideration of
the President, the President shall declare either that he assents to
the Bill or that he withholds assent there from:
Provided that, where the Bill is not a Money Bill, the President
may direct the Governor to return the Bill to the House or, as the
case may be, the Houses of the Legislature of the State together
with such a message as is mentioned in the first proviso to
article 200 and, when a Bill is so returned, the House or Houses
shall reconsider it accordingly within a period of six months
from the date of receipt of such message and, if it is again
passed by the House or Houses with or without amendment, it
shall be presented again to the President for his consideration.
Article 202 {Annual financial statement}[edit]
1. The Governor shall in respect of every financial year cause
to be laid before the House or Houses of the Legislature of
the State a statement of the estimated receipts and
expenditure of the State for that year, in this Part referred
to as the annual financial statement.
2. The estimates of expenditure embodied in the annual
financial statement shall show separately -
a. the sums required to meet expenditure described by
this Constitution as expenditure charged upon the
Consolidated Fund of the State; and
b. the sums required to meet other expenditure
proposed to be made from the Consolidated Fund of
the State, and shall distinguish expenditure on
revenue account from other expenditure.
 3. The following expenditure shall be expenditure charged on
the Consolidated Fund of each State -
a. the emoluments and allowances of the Governor and
other expenditure relating to his office;
b. the salaries and allowances of the Speaker and the
Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly and, in
the case of State having a Legislative Council, also of
the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the
Legislative Council;
c. debt charges for which the State is liable including
interest, sinking fund charges and redemption
charges, and other expenditure relating to the raising
of loans and the service and redemption of debt;
d. expenditure in respect of the salaries and allowances
of Judges of any High Court;
e. any sums required to satisfy any judgment, decree or
award of any court or arbitral tribunal;
f. any other expenditure declared by this Constitution,
or by the Legislature of the State by law, to be so
charged.
Article 203 {Procedure in Legislature with respect to
estimates}[edit]
1. So much of the estimates as relates to expenditure
charged upon the Consolidated Fund of a State shall not
be submitted to the vote of the Legislative Assembly, but
nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing the
discussion in the Legislature of any of those estimates.
 2. So much of the said estimates as relates to other
expenditure shall be submitted in the form of demands for
grants to the Legislative Assembly, and the Legislative
Assembly shall have power to assent, or to refuse to
assent, to any demand, or to assent to any demand
subject to a reduction of the amount specified therein.
3. No demand for a grant shall be made except on the
recommendation of the Governor.
Article 204 {Appropriation Bills}[edit]
1. As soon as may be after the grants under article 203 have
been made by the Assembly, there shall be introduced a
Bill to provide for the appropriation out of the
Consolidated Fund of the State of all moneys required to
meet -
a. the grants so made by the Assembly; and
b. the expenditure charged on the Consolidated Fund of
the State but not exceeding in any case the amount
shown in the statement previously laid before the
House or Houses.
2. No amendment shall be proposed to any such Bill in the
House or either House of the Legislature of the State
which will have the effect of varying the amount or
altering the destination of any grant so made or of varying
the amount of any expenditure charged on the
Consolidated Fund of the State, and the decision of the
person presiding as to whether an amendment is
inadmissible under this clause shall be final.
 3. Subject to the provisions of articles 205 and 206, no
money shall be withdrawn from the Consolidated Fund of
the State except under appropriation made by law passed
in accordance with the provisions of this article.
Article 205 {Supplementary, additional or excess
grants}[edit]
1. The Governor shall –
a. if the amount authorised by any law made in
accordance with the provisions of article 204 to be
expended for a particular service for the current
financial year is found to be insufficient for the
purposes of that year or when a need has arisen
during the current financial year for supplementary or
additional expenditure upon some new service not
contemplated in the annual financial statement for
that year, or
b. if any money has been spent on any service during a
financial year in excess of the amount granted for
that service and for that year, cause to be laid before
the House or the Houses of the Legislature of the
State another statement showing the estimated
amount of that expenditure or cause to be presented
to the Legislative Assembly of the State a demand for
such excess, as the case may be.
2. The provisions of articles 202, 203 and 204 shall have
effect in relation to any such statement and expenditure
or demand and also to any law to be made authorising the
appropriation of moneys out of the Consolidated Fund of
 the State to meet such expenditure or the grant in respect
of such demand as they have effect in relation to the
annual financial statement and the expenditure
mentioned therein or to a demand for a grant and the law
to be made for the authorisation of appropriation of
moneys out of the Consolidated Fund of the State to meet
such expenditure or grant.
Article 206 {Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional
grants}[edit]
1. Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing provisions of
this Chapter, the Legislative Assembly of a State shall have
power -
a. to make any grant in advance in respect of the
estimated expenditure for a part of any financial year
pending the completion of the procedure prescribed
in article 203 for the voting of such grant and the
passing of the law in accordance with the provisions
of article 204 in relation to that expenditure;
b. to make a grant for meeting an unexpected demand
upon the resources of the State when on account of
the magnitude or the indefinite character of the
service the demand cannot be stated with the details
ordinarily given in an annual financial statement;
c. to make an exceptional grant which forms no part of
the current service of any financial year, and the
Legislature of the State shall have power to authorise
by law the withdrawal of moneys from the
 Consolidated Fund of the State for the purposes for
which the said grants are made.
2. The provisions of articles 203 and 204 shall have effect in
relation to the making of any grant under clause (1) and to
any law to be made under that clause as they have effect
in relation to the making of a grant with regard to any
expenditure mentioned in the annual financial statement
and the law to be made for the authorisation of
appropriation of moneys out of the Consolidated Fund of
the state to meet such expenditure.
Article 207 {Special provisions as to financial Bills}[edit]
1. ) A Bill or amendment making provision for any of the
matters specified in sub-clauses (a) to (f) of clause (1) of
article 199 shall not be introduced or moved except on the
recommendation of the Governor, and a Bill making such
provision shall not be introduced in a Legislative Council:
Provided that no recommendation shall be required under
this clause for the moving of an amendment making
provision for the reduction or abolition of any tax.
2. A Bill or amendment shall not be deemed to make
provision for any of the matters aforesaid by reason only
that it provides for the imposition of fines or other
pecuniary penalties, or for the demand or payment of fees
for licenses or fees for services rendered, or by reason that
it provides for the imposition, abolition, remission,
alteration or regulation of any tax by any local authority or
body for local purposes.
 3. A Bill which, if enacted and brought into operation, would
involve expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of a State
shall not be passed by a House of the Legislature of the
State unless the Governor has recommended to that
House the consideration of the Bill.
Article 208 {Rules of procedure}[edit]
1. A House of the Legislature of a State may make rules for
regulating, subject to the provisions of this Constitution,
its procedure and the conduct of its business.
2. Until rules are made under clause (1), the rules of
procedure and standing orders in force immediately
before the commencement of this Constitution with
respect to the Legislature for the corresponding Province
shall have effect in relation to the Legislature of the State
subject to such modifications and adaptations as may be
made therein by the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly,
or the Chairman of the Legislative Council, as the case may
be.
3. In a State having a Legislative Council the Governor, after
consultation with the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly
and the Chairman of the Legislative Council, may make
rules as to the procedure with respect to communications
between the two Houses.
Article 209 {Regulation by law of procedure in the
Legislature of the State in relation to financial
business}[edit]
The Legislature of a State may, for the purpose of the timely
completion of financial business, regulate by law the procedure
of, and the conduct of business in, the House or Houses of the
Legislature of the State in relation to any financial matter or to
any Bill for the appropriation of moneys out of the Consolidated
Fund of the State, and, if and so far as any provision of any law
so made is inconsistent with any rule made by the House or
either House of the Legislature of the State under clause (1) of
article 208 or with any rule or standing order having effect in
relation to the Legislature of the State under clause (2) of that
article, such provision shall prevail.
Article 210 {Language to be used in the Legislature}[edit]
1. Notwithstanding anything in Part XVII, but subject to the
provisions of article 348, business in the Legislature of a
State shall be transacted in the official language or
languages of the State or in Hindi or in English: Provided
that the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly or Chairman
of the Legislative Council, or person acting as such, as the
case may be, may permit any member who cannot
adequately express himself in any of the languages
aforesaid to address the House in his mother-tongue.
2. Unless the Legislature of the State by law otherwise
provides, this article shall, after the expiration of a period
of fifteen years from the commencement of this
Constitution, have effect as if the words or in English were
omitted therefrom: Provided that in relation to the
Legislatures of the States of Himachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Meghalaya and Tripura this clause shall have effect as if for
 the words fifteen years occurring therein, the words
twenty-five years were substituted: Provided further that
in relation to the Legislature of the States of Arunachal
Pradesh, Goa and Mizoram, this clause shall have effect as
if for the words fifteen years occurring therein, the words
forty years were substituted.
Article 211 {Restriction on discussion in the
Legislature}[edit]
No discussion shall take place in the Legislature of a State with
respect to the conduct of any Judge of the Supreme Court or of a
High Court in the discharge of his duties.
Article 212 {Courts not to inquire into proceedings of the
Legislature}[edit]
1. The validity of any proceedings in the Legislature of a State
shall not be called in question on the ground of any alleged
irregularity of procedure.
2. No officer or member of the Legislature of a State in whom
powers are vested by or under this Constitution for
regulating procedure or the conduct of business, or for
maintaining order, in the Legislature shall be subject to the
jurisdiction of any court in respect of the exercise by him
of those powers.

Chapter IV Legislative {Power of the Governor}[edit]

Article 213 {Power of Governor to promulgate Ordinances

during recess of Legislature}[edit]
1. If at any time, except when the Legislative Assembly of a
State is in session, or where there is a Legislative Council in
a State, except, when both Houses of the Legislature are in
session, the Governor is satisfied that circumstances exist
which render it necessary for him to take immediate
action, he may promulgate such Ordinances as the
circumstances appear to him to require: Provided that the
Governor shall not, without instructions from the
President, promulgate any such Ordinance if -
a. a Bill containing the same provisions would under this
Constitution have required the previous sanction of
the President for the introduction thereof into the
Legislature; or
b. he would have deemed it necessary to reserve a Bill
containing the same provisions for the consideration
of the President; or
c. an Act of the Legislature of the State containing the
same provisions would under this Constitution have
been invalid unless, having been reserved for the
consideration of the President, it had received the
assent of the President.
2. An Ordinance promulgated under this article shall have
the same force and effect as an Act of the Legislature of
the state assented to by the Governor, but every such
Ordinance -
a. shall be laid before the Legislative Assembly of the
State, or where there is a Legislative Council in the
State, before both the Houses, and shall cease to
operate at the expiration of six weeks from the
 reassembly of the Legislature, or if before the
expiration of that period a resolution disapproving it
is passed by the Legislative Assembly and agreed to
by the Legislative Council, if any, upon the passing of
the resolution or, as the case may be, on the
resolution being agreed to by the Council; and
b. may be withdrawn at any time by the Governor.
Explanation: Where the Houses of the Legislature of a
State having a Legislative Council are summoned to
reassemble on different dates, the period of six
weeks shall be reckoned from the later of those dates
for the purposes of this clause.
3. If and so far as an Ordinance under this article makes any
provision which would not be valid if enacted in an Act of
the Legislature of the State assented to by the Governor, it
shall be void: Provided that, for the purposes of the
provisions of this Constitution relating to the effect of an
Act of the Legislature of a State which is repugnant to an
Act of Parliament or an existing law with respect to a
matter enumerated in the Concurrent List, an Ordinance
promulgated under this article in pursuance of instructions
from the President shall be deemed to be an Act of the
Legislature of the State which has been reserved for the
consideration of the President and assented to by him.

Chapter V {The High Courts in the States}[edit]

Article 214 {High Courts for States}[edit]

There shall be a High Court for each State.
Article 215 {High Courts to be courts of record}[edit]
Every High Court shall be a court of record and shall have all
the powers of such a court including the power to punish for
contempt of itself.
Article 216 {Constitution of High Courts}[edit]
Every High Court shall consist of a Chief Justice and such other
Judges as the President may from time to time deem it necessary
to appoint.
Article 217 {Appointment and conditions of the office of a
Judge of a High Court}[edit]
1. Every Judge of a High Court shall be appointed by the
President by warrant under his hand and seal after
consultation with the Chief Justice of India, the Governor
of the State, and, in the case of appointment of a Judge
other than the Chief Justice, the Chief Justice of the High
Court, and shall hold office, in the case of an additional or
acting Judge, as provided in article 224, and in any other
case, until he attains the age of sixty-two years: Provided
that –
a. a Judge may, by writing under his hand addressed to
the President, resign his office;
b. a Judge may be removed from his office by the
President in the manner provided in clause (4) of
article 124 for the removal of a Judge of the Supreme
Court;
 c. the office of a Judge shall be vacated by his being
appointed by the President to be a Judge of the
Supreme Court or by his being transferred by the
President to any other High Court within the territory
of India.
2. a person shall not be qualified for appointment as a Judge
of a High Court unless he is a citizen of India and –
a. has for at least ten years held a judicial office in the
territory of India; or
b. has for at least ten years been an advocate of a High
Court or of two or more such Courts in succession;
[Explanation: For the purposes of this clause -
a. in computing the period during which a person
has held judicial office in the territory of India,
there shall be included any period, after he has
held any judicial office, during which the person
has been an advocate of a High Court or has held
the office of a member of a tribunal or any post,
under the Union or a State, requiring special
knowledge of law;
(aa) in computing the period during which a
person has been an advocate of a High Court,
there shall be included any period during which
the person has held judicial office or the office of
a member of a tribunal or any post, under the
Union or a State, requiring special knowledge of
law after he became an advocate;
b. in computing the period during which a person
has held judicial office in the territory of India or
 been an advocate of a High Court, there shall be
included any period before the commencement
of this Constitution during which he has held
judicial office in any area which was comprised
before the fifteenth day of August, 1947, within
India as defined by the Government of India Act,
1935, or has been an advocate of any High Court
in any such area, as the case may be.]
3. If any question arises as to the age of a Judge of a High
Court, the question shall be decided by the President after
consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the
decision of the President shall be final.
Article 218 {Application of certain provisions relating to
Supreme Court to High Courts}[edit]
The provisions of clauses (4) and (5) of article 124 shall apply in
relation to a High Court as they apply in relation to the Supreme
Court with the substitution of references to the High Court for
references to the Supreme Court.
Article 219 {Oath or affirmation by Judges of High
Courts}[edit]
Every person appointed to be a Judge of a High Court shall,
before he enters upon his office, make and subscribe before the
Governor of the State, or some person appointed in that behalf
by him an oath or affirmation according to the form set out for
the purpose in the Third Schedule.
Article 220 {Restriction on practice after being a permanent
Judge}[edit]
No person who, after the commencement of this Constitution,
has held office as a permanent Judge of a High Court shall plead
or act in any court or before any authority in India except the
Supreme Court and the other High Courts.
[Explanation: In this article, the expression "High Court" does
not include a High Court for a State specified in Part B of the
First Schedule as it existed before the commencement of the
Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956.]
Article 221 {Salaries, etc., of Judges}[edit]
1. There shall be paid to the Judges of each High Court such
salaries as may be determined by Parliament by law and,
until provision in that behalf is so made, such salaries as
are specified in the Second Schedule.
2. Every Judge shall be entitled to such allowances and to
such rights in respect of leave of absence and pension as
may from time to time be determined by or under law
made by Parliament and, until so determined, to such
allowances and rights as are specified in the Second
Schedule: Provided that neither the allowances of a Judge
nor his rights in respect of leave of absence or pension
shall be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.
Article 222 {Transfer of a Judge from one High Court to
another}[edit]
1. The President May, after consultation with the Chief
Justice of India, transfer a Judge from one High Court to
any other High Court.
 2. When a Judge has been or is so transferred, he shall,
during the period he serves, after the commencement of
the Constitution (Fifteenth Amendment) Act, 1963, as a
Judge of the other High Court, be entitled to receive in
addition to his salary such compensatory allowance as may
be determined by Parliament by law and, until so
determined, such compensatory allowance as the
President may by order fix.
Article 223 {Appointment of acting Chief Justice}[edit]
When the office of Chief Justice of a High Court is vacant or
when any such Chief Justice is by reason of absence or
otherwise, unable to perform the duties of his office, the duties
of the office shall be performed by such one of the other Judges
of the Court as the President may appoint for the purpose.
Article 224 {Appointment of additional and acting
Judges}[edit]
1. If by reason of any temporary increase in the business of a
High Court or by reason of arrears of work therein; it
appears to the President that the number of the Judges of
that Court should be for the time being increased, the
President may appoint duly qualified persons to be
additional Judges of the Court for such period not
exceeding two years as he may specify.
2. When any Judge of a High Court other than the Chief
Justice is by reason of absence or for any other reason
unable to perform the duties of his office or is appointed
to act temporarily as Chief Justice, the President may
 appoint a duly qualified person to act as a Judge of that
Court until the permanent Judge has resumed his duties.
3. No person appointed as an additional or acting Judge of a
High Court shall hold office after attaining the age of sixty-
two years.
Article 224A {Appointment of retired Judges at sittings of
High Courts}[edit]
Notwithstanding anything in this Chapter, the Chief Justice of a
High Court for any State may at any time, with the previous
consent of the President, request any person who has held the
office of a Judge of that Court or of any other High Court to sit
and act as a Judge of the High Court for that State, and every
such person so requested shall, while so sitting and acting, be
entitled to such allowances as the President may by order
determine and have all the jurisdiction, powers and privileges of,
but shall not otherwise be deemed to be, a Judge of that High
Court:
Provided that nothing in this article shall be deemed to require
any such person as aforesaid to sit and act as a Judge of that
High Court unless he consents so to do.
Article 225 {Jurisdiction of existing High Courts}[edit]
Subject to the provisions of this Constitution and to the
provisions of any law of the appropriate Legislature made by
virtue of powers conferred on that Legislature by this
Constitution, the jurisdiction of, and the law administered in,
any existing High Court, and the respective powers of the
Judges thereof in relation to the administration of justice in the
Court, including any power to make rules of Court and to
regulate the sittings of the Court and of members thereof sitting
alone or in Division Courts, shall be the same as immediately
before the commencement of this Constitution:
Provided that any restriction to which the exercise of original
jurisdiction by any of the High Courts with respect to any matter
concerning the revenue or concerning any act ordered or done in
the collection thereof was subject immediately before the
commencement of this Constitution shall no longer apply to the
exercise of such jurisdiction.
Article 226 {Power of High Courts to issue certain
writs}[edit]
1. Notwithstanding anything in article 32, every High Court
shall have power, throughout the territories in relation to
which it exercises jurisdiction, to issue to any person or
authority, including in appropriate cases, any Government,
within those territories directions, orders or writs,
including writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus,
prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari, or any of them,
for the enforcement of any of the rights conferred by Part
III and for any other purpose.
2. The power conferred by clause (1) to issue directions,
orders or writs to any Government, authority or person
may also be exercised by any High Court exercising
jurisdiction in relation to the territories within which the
cause of action, wholly or in part, arises for the exercise of
such power, notwithstanding that the seat of such
 Government or authority or the residence of such person
is not within those territories.
3. Where any party against whom an interim order, whether
by way of injunction or stay or in any other manner, is
made on, or in any proceedings relating to, a petition
under clause (1), without –
a. furnishing to such party copies of such petition and all
documents in support of the plea for such interim
order; and
b. giving such party an opportunity of being heard,
makes an application to the High Court for the
vacation of such order and furnishes a copy of such
application to the party in whose favour such order
has been made or the counsel of such party, the High
Court shall dispose of the application within a period
of two weeks from the date on which it is received or
from the date on which the copy of such application
is so furnished, whichever is later, or where the High
Court is closed on the last day of that period, before
the expiry of the next day afterwards on which the
High Court is open; and if the application is not so
disposed of, the interim order shall, on the expiry of
that period, or, as the case may be, the expiry of the
said next day, stand vacated.
4. The power conferred on a High Court by this article shall
not be in derogation of the power conferred on the
Supreme Court by clause (2) of article 32.
Article 226A {Constitutional validity of Central laws not to
be considered in proceedings under article 226}[edit]
Rep. by the Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) Act, 1977, s.
8. {...}
Article 227 {Power of superintendence over all courts by the
High Court}[edit]
 Every High Court shall have superintendence over all
courts and tribunal, throughout the territories in relation
to which it exercises jurisdiction.
 Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing
provision, the High Court may –

a. call for returns from such courts;

b. make and issue general rules and prescribe forms for
regulating the practice and proceedings of such courts;
and
c. prescribe forms in which books, entries and accounts shall
be kept by the officers of any such courts.

 The High Court may also settle tables of fees to be allowed

to the sheriff and all clerks and officers of such courts and
to attorneys, advocates and pleaders practising therein:
Provided that any rules made, forms prescribed or tables
settled under clause (2) or clause (3) shall not be
inconsistent with the provision of any law for the time
being in force, and shall require the previous approval of
the Governor.
  Nothing in this article shall be deemed to confer on a High
Court powers of superintendence over any court or
tribunal constituted by or under any law relating to the
Armed Forces.
Article 228 {Transfer of certain cases to High Court}[edit]
If the High Court is satisfied that a case pending in a court
subordinate to it involves a substantial question of law as to the
interpretation of this Constitution the determination of which is
necessary for the disposal of the case, it shall withdraw the case
and may -
a. either dispose of the case itself, or
b. determine the said question of law and return the case to
the court from which the case has been so withdrawn
together with a copy of its judgment on such question, and
the said court shall on receipt thereof proceed to dispose
of the case in conformity with such judgment.
Article 228A {Special provisions as to disposal of questions
relating to constitutional validity of State laws}[edit]
{...}
Article 229 {Officers and servants and the expenses of High
Courts}[edit]
1. Appointments of officers and servants of a High Court shall
be made by the Chief Justice of the Court or such other
Judge or officer of the Court as he may direct: Provided
that the Governor of the State may by rule require that in
 such cases as may be specified in the rule no person not
already attached to the Court shall be appointed to any
office connected with the Court save after consultation
with the State Public Service Commission.
2. Subject to the provisions of any law made by the
Legislature of the State, the conditions of service of
officers and servants of a High Court shall be such as may
be prescribed by rules made by the Chief Justice of the
Court or by some other Judge or officer of the Court
authorised by the Chief Justice to make rules for the
purpose: Provided that the rules made under this clause
shall, so far as they relate to salaries, allowances, leave or
pensions, require the approval of the Governor of the
State.
3. The administrative expenses of a High Court, including all
salaries, allowances and pensions payable to or in respect
of the officers and servants of the Court, shall be charged
upon the Consolidated Fund of the State, and any fees or
other moneys taken by the Court shall form part of that
Fund.
Article 230 {Extension of jurisdiction of High Courts to
Union territories}[edit]
1. Parliament may by law extend the jurisdiction of a High
Court to, or exclude the jurisdiction of a High Court from,
any Union territory.
2. Where the High Court of a State exercises jurisdiction in
relation to a Union territory, -
 a. nothing in this Constitution shall be construed as
empowering the Legislature of the State to increase,
restrict or abolish that jurisdiction; and
b. the reference in article 227 to the Governor shall, in
relation to any rules, forms or tables for subordinate
courts in that territory, be construed as a reference to
the president.
Article 231 {Establishment of a common High Court for two
or more States}[edit]
1. Notwithstanding anything contained in the preceding
provisions of this Chapter, Parliament may by law establish
a common High Court for two or more States or for two or
more States and a Union territory.
2. In relation to any such High Court,
a. the reference in article 217 to the Governor of the
State shall be construed as a reference to the
Governors of all the States in relation to which the
High Court exercises jurisdiction;
b. the reference in article 227 to the Governor shall, in
relation to any rules, forms or tables for subordinate
courts, be construed as a reference to the Governor
of the State in which the subordinate courts are
situated; and
c. the references in articles 219 and 229 to the State
shall be construed as a reference to the State in
which the High Court has its principal seat: Provided
that if such principal seat is in a Union territory, the
references in articles 219 and 229 to the Governor,
 Public Service Commission, Legislature and
Consolidated Fund of the State shall be construed
respectively as references to the President, Union
Public Service Commission, Parliament and
Consolidated Fund of India.

Chapter VI {Subordinate Courts}[edit]

Article 233 {Appointment of district judges}[edit]

1. Appointments of persons to be, and the posting and
promotion of, district judges in any State shall be made by
the Governor of the State in consultation with the High
Court exercising jurisdiction in relation to such State.
2. A person not already in the service of the Union or of the
State shall only be eligible to be appointed a district judge
if he has been for not less than seven years an advocate or
a pleader and is recommended by the High Court for
appointment.
Article 233A {Validation of appointments of, and judgments,
etc. delivered by, certain district judges}[edit]
Notwithstanding any judgment, decree or order of any court, -
a.
i. no appointment of any person already in the judicial
service of a State or of any person who has been for
not less than seven years an advocate or a pleader, to
be a district judge in that State, and
 ii. no posting, promotion or transfer of any such person
as a district judge, made at any time before the
commencement of the Constitution (Twentieth
Amendment) Act, 1966, otherwise than in accordance
with the provisions of article 233 or article 235 shall
be deemed to be illegal or void or ever to have
become illegal or void by reason only of the fact that
such appointment, posting, promotion or transfer
was not made in accordance with the said provisions;
b. no jurisdiction exercised, no judgment, decree, sentence
or order passed or made, and no other act or proceeding
done or taken, before the commencement of the
Constitution (Twentieth Amendment) Act, 1966 by, or
before, any person appointed, posted, promoted or
transferred as a district judge in any State otherwise than
in accordance with the provisions of article 233 or article
235 shall be deemed to be illegal or invalid or ever to have
become illegal or invalid by reason only of the fact that
such appointment, posting, promotion or transfer was not
made in accordance with the said provisions.
Article 234 {Recruitment of persons other than district
judges to the judicial service}[edit]
Appointments of persons other than district judges to the judicial
service of a State shall be made by the Governor of the State in
accordance with rules made by him in that behalf after
consultation with the State Public Service Commission and with
the High Court exercising jurisdiction in relation to such State.
Article 235 {Control over subordinate courts}[edit]
The control over district courts and courts subordinate thereto
including the posting and promotion of, and the grant of leave
to, persons belonging to the judicial service of a State and
holding any post inferior to the post of district judge shall be
vested in the High Court, but nothing in this article shall be
construed as taking away from any such person any right of
appeal which he may have under the law regulating the
conditions of his service or as authorising the High Court to deal
with him otherwise than in accordance with the conditions of his
service prescribed under such law.
Article 236 {Interpretation}[edit]
In this Chapter –
a. the expression "district judge" includes judge of a city civil
court, additional district judge, joint district judge,
assistant district judge, chief judge of a small cause court,
chief presidency magistrate, additional chief presidency
magistrate, sessions judge, additional sessions judge and
assistant sessions judge;
b. the expression "judicial service" means a service consisting
exclusively of persons intended to fill the post of district
judge and other civil judicial posts inferior to the post of
district judge.
Article 237 {Application of the provisions of this Chapter to
certain class or classes of magistrates}[edit]
The Governor may by public notification direct that the
foregoing provisions of this Chapter and any rules made
thereunder shall with effect from such date as may be fixed by
him in that behalf apply in relation to any class or classes of
magistrates in the State as they apply in relation to persons
appointed to the judicial service of the State subject to such
exceptions and modifications as may be specified in the
notification.