Thermodynamics Principles Specific internal energy It is the energy stored in the substance due to molecular motion as well as intermolecular

forces. The SI unit is kJ/kg. Specific enthalpy (h) It is the sum of the specific internal energy and the product of pressure P versus specific volume, v. The SI unit is kJ/kg. Thermal power (Q) It is the form of energy rate transferred to or from the machine due to a difference of temperatures between the machine and the surroundings, the higher temperature to the lower one. Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) Cp = dh dT Specific heat at constant volume (CV) CV = du/dT For an ideal gas, there is a very useful relationship between these two specific heats given by Cp CV = R

First Law of Thermodynamics Analysis for Control Volumes

Thermal machines convert chemical energy in shaft work by burning fuel (heat) in a combustion chamber. In doing so, mass fluxes of air and fuel enter the machine and combustion products exit it. In a working machine, energy in its several forms is presented in the conversion process, such as heat, shaft work, enthalpy, and chemical energy. Even though energy is transformed from one form into another, the overall amount of energy must be conserved as stated by the First Law of Thermodynamics. In order to establish the First Law consider the schematics in Fig. 2 showing a control volume around a thermal machine Energy balance for the control volume in Fig. 2 results in

(dE )CV = mi [ hi + V2 + Zi]- m0 [ ho + V2 + Zo] + Q W dt 2 2

Second Law of Thermodynamics Analysis for Control Volumes

The rate of entropy generated in a control volume (Fig. 2) can be written according to Eq. 17

(dS )CV misi - M0s0+ QCV / T dt

Where, S is the total instantaneous entropy of the control volume, Si and so are the specific entropy associated with the inlet and outlet mass fluxes, T is the control volume surface temperature where heat is exchanged with the surrounding environment at a given rate, Q cv

RANKINE CURVE

Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure, as the fluid is a liquid at this stage the pump requires little input energy. Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by an external heat source to become a dry saturated vapor. Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating power. This decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapor Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant temperature to become a saturated liquid.

Thermal Efficiency of Rankine Cycle: Heat Input = Q23 = H3 H2 Heat Rejected = Q41 = H4 H1 Work Output = W34 = H3 H4 Work done by Pump = W12 = H2 H1 Work output Pump work Heat Input W34 W12 Q23

1.1 FUEL POWER (F.P.) Fuel power is the thermal power released by burning fuel inside the engine. F.P. = mass of fuel burned per second x calorific value of the fuel. F.P. = mf x C.V. All engines burn fuel to produce heat that is then partially converted into mechanical power. The chemistry of combustion is not dealt with here. The things you need to learn at this stage follow. 1.1.1 AIR FUEL RATIO This is the ratio of the mass of air used to the mass of fuel burned. Air Fuel Ratio = ma/mf

CALORIFIC VALUE This is the heat released by burning 1 kg of fuel. There is a higher and lower value for fuels containing hydrogen. The lower value is normally used because water vapour formed during combustion passes out of the system and takes with it the latent energy. We can now define the fuel power. FUEL POWER = Mass of fuel/s x Calorific Value

COMBINED-CYCLE THERMODYNAMICS A gas turbine cycle is depicted symbolically in Fig. 1. By definition, the efficiency of the gas turbine is given by gt = Wgt / QH where _Qh is the energy input rate from the high-temperature source at temperature Th, and _Wgt is the power output delivered to an electric generator. By energy conservation, the rate of energy transfer to the lower-temperature reservoir at the exhaust temperature Tex is

QEX = Qh - Wgt The gas-turbine cycle is based upon the reversible Joule Brayton cycle . The Joule Brayton cycle models not only gas turbine power plants but also the familiar gas turbines of jet engines.19 Because they can burn relatively clean fuel, have relatively low capital costs, and can be started and stopped quickly, gas turbines have become popular for electricity peaking and emergency power generation, as well as for base load operations (providing minimum power

requirements).16 Stationary gas turbines have the flexibility to burn not only methane but also distillate oil, which though less clean than natural gas, is often preferable to coal for power plants. The basic operation in Fig. 2 entails compression of air (12), providing the high pressure needed to drive the turbine Then combustion of a fuel, typically methane (23), increases the temperature and energy of the gas stream. Segment 34 represents the combustion gases expanding as they drive the rotating turbine, and 41 cools and exhausts the hot gases at constant atmospheric pressure, thereby dumping wasted energy to the environment. Advances in metallurgy and cooling technology during recent years have enabled ever higher combustion and exhaust temperatures. Modern gas turbines with ultra-high combustion temperatures have efficiencies of about 0.4, roughly the same as the most advanced coal-burning plants. However, they not only have the advantage of much higher inlet temperatures than steam turbines but also characteristically have the disadvantage of much higher exhaust temperatures, T4 _ Tex in Fig. 2. Thus, a gas turbine cycle can dump substantial amounts of wasted energy to the environment, which limits its efficiency. For high-efficiency operation, one generally wants a high inlet (maximum) temperature, which gas turbines have, but also a low exhaust temperature, near that of the environment, which gas turbines lack. Bejan cites various sources of irreversibility that plague gas turbines and explains how clever engineering designs, entailing regenerative heat exchangers, reheaters, and intercoolers, can bring higher efficiencies.20 However, even greater efficiency gains are possible for electricity generation by using the high-temperature exhaust of the gas turbine to power a steam cycle, which inherently has a much lower exhaust temperature. For example, a gas turbine with inlet and exhaust temperatures 1673K and 873K, respectively, might use the exhaust gases to heat a steam turbine that has exit temperature 350K, achieving the overall temperature range, 1673 K ! 350 K. A single gas turbine cycle cannot match this. In this regard, Bejan writes,gas-turbine cycles are better suited for efficient operation at high temperatures than steam-turbine cycles. On the other hand, the steam-turbine cycle is more attractive from the point of view of minimizing the temperature gap between the cold end of the cycle and the low-temperature reservoir The engineering challenge that remains is to mesh optimally the two cycles along that seam of intermediate temperatures where the upper (warmer) cycle must act as a heat source for the lower one. The bottom line is that existing combined cycles are more efficient than any currently achievable single cycle. In the simplest combinedcycle design, the gas turbine drives one electric generator and the steam turbine runs another, as

illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4. Ignoring losses in the heat exchanger, the inlet temperature to the steam turbine is Tex. Combining Eqs. (3) and (4), the waste energy rate, QEX = Qh - gt QH In the exhaust gases becomes the input power for the steam turbine cycle, whose efficiency we call st = Wst / Qex Thus, the power output delivered by the steam turbine is Wst = st Qex = st (QH - gt Qh Combining Eqs. (3) & (6), the total power delivered by the bgas and steam turbine combination is
W tot = W gt + W st = gt + st (1- gt) Qh and the combined-cycle efficiency is,

cc = W tot / Qh = gt + st gtst

Simple Brayton Cycle

In an actual gas turbine, the working fluid changes from atmospheric air to combustion products that exhaust back to the atmosphere, as illustrated in Fig. 5a. However, in order to evaluate the machine from the thermodynamic point-of-view, some assumptions are needed. Firstly, the working fluid is assumed to be plain air, without any chemical transformation due to the combustion. In doing so, the air fuel combustion process is replaced by a heat addition process at a constant pressure. Secondly, the exhaust and admission processes are replaced by a heat transfer process to the environment, which makes the

air to flow continuously in a closed loop as indicated in Fig. 5b. In the closed cycle, air at environment pressure and temperature is first compressed, next it receives heat QH and it is followed by an expansion process in the turbine section to, finally, reject heat Q L at constant pressure. This is the Air-Standard Brayton Cycle. Having the cycle of Fig. 5b in mind along with the ideal gas behavior and constant thermodynamic properties one may obtain the working equations from an energy balance (Eq. 16) for each cycle component: Heat addition: qH = h3 - h2 = CP (T3 - T2 ) Heat rejection: qL = h4 - h1 = CP (T4 _ T1) Compression work: wcomp = h2 - h1 = CP (T2 _ T1 ) Turbine work: Wtur = h3 - h4 = CP (T3 - T4 ) The thermal efficiency, gth; of a cycle is defined as the ratio between the cycle net work and heat added, as given by Eq. 35. By applying the First Law for the whole cycle, one easy can show that w = qH- qL. Therefore, one obtains: th = 1 qL / qH By examining the temperature-entropy diagram in Fig. 6a, one can easily notice that T3 is the maximum cycle temperature, also known as the firing temperature, while T1 is the minimum one (usually the environment temperature).

By using isentropic ideal gas relationships between pressure and temperature Eq. 34), it is straightforward to show that