I NFINITE L IMITS , L IMITS AT I NFINITY, AND

L IMIT R ULES

Sections 2.2, 2.4 & 2.5

September 5, 2013

I NFINITE L IMITS
1
.
Consider the
6 function f (x) =
x
5
As x 0+ the value of
f (x) = x1 grows without
bound (i.e. 1x ).

4
3
2
1
-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1 0
-1
-2
-3
-4

10

As x 0 the value of

1
x

grows negatively without

bound (i.e. 1x ).

-5
-6

By definition a one or two-sided limit must be a real number

(i.e. finite), so
1
1
lim
and
lim .
+

x0 x
x0 x
do not exist.

I NFINITE L IMITS
However, it is convenient to describe the behavior of f (x) =
from the left or right using limit notation.
So we will write
1
lim
=
+
x0 x

and

lim

x0

1
x

1
= .
x

This does NOT mean that the limit is , it is just a description

of the behavior of our function f (x) near 0.
We would say:
f (x) =

1
x

approaches as x approaches 0 from the right.

f (x) =

1
x

approaches as x approaches 0 from the left.

I NFINITE L IMITS
It may be the case that both one-sided limits are infinite and
also the same.
For example,
lim

x0+

1
= =
x2

lim

x0

1
.
x2

In this case we will again abuse the notation and write

1
= .
x0 x2
lim

We would say:
f (x) =

1
x2

approaches as x approaches 0.

E XAMPLES
f (x) = sec(x) =

1
cos(x)

g(x) =

1
(x 7)2

8
7
6
5
4
-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

2
1
-2

-1 0
-1

10

11

-2

(1) lim f (x) =

x 2

(2) lim f (x) =

x 2 +

(3) lim f (x) = DNE

x 2

-3
-4

(4) lim g(x) =

x7

(5) lim g(x) =

x7+

(6) lim g(x) =

x7

12

13

14

15

16

17

V ERTICAL A SYMPTOTES
1
Back to the function f (x) = .
x
As noted before, the
one-sided limits of f at 0
are both infinite.
Consider the line x = 0.
The graph of f gets
arbitrarily arbitrarily close
to the line x = 0, but it will
never touch it.
We call the line x = 0 a vertical asymptote of the function
f (x) = x1 .

V ERTICAL A SYMPTOTES
Definition
A vertical line x = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a
function f if either
lim f (x) =

xc+

or

lim f (x) = .

xc

V ERTICAL A SYMPTOTES
How do we find vertical asymptotes?

Check wherever a denominator is zero.

For example,
f (x) =

1
x3

lim f (x) =

x3

lim f (x) =

f (x) =

x2 1
x+1

lim f (x) = 2

x1

lim f (x) = 2

x3+

x1+

Vert. Asym.:
x=3

Vert. Asym.:
None

f (x) = tan(x)
For all odd integers
n:
lim f (x) =

x n
2

lim f (x) =

+
x n
2

Vert. Asym.:
x = n/2
for all odd n

P RACTICE P ROBLEMS

P RACTICE P ROBLEMS
Determine the following limits:
(1) lim

x0

4
x2/5

(2)

lim

( 2 )

sec()

(3) lim

x0+

x2 1

2
x

Determine the equations of the asymptotes of the following

functions:
(1) f (x) =

x2 1
2x + 4

(2) f (x) = sec(x)

(3) f (x) =

x3 + 1
x2

L IMIT R ULES &

T HE S ANDWICH T HEOREM

L IMIT R ULES
Now that were (hopefully) familiar with limits, it would be
nice if we had some rules for computing them more quickly.
Let L, M c, and k be real numbers and
lim f (x) = L
xc

and

lim g(x) = M
xc

Sum & Difference Rules

lim (f (x) g(x)) = L M
xc

Product Rule
lim (f (x) g(x)) = L M
xc

L IMIT R ULES
Let L, M c, and k be real numbers and
lim f (x) = L
xc

and

lim g(x) = M
xc

Quotient Rule
lim
xc

L
f (x)
=
g(x)
M

if M 6= 0

Power Rule
If r and s are integers with no common factor and s 6= 0
lim (f (x))r/s = Lr/s
xc

If s is even, we also need L > 0.

L IMITS OF P OLYNOMIALS
For certain functions (continuous) finding the limit is easy.
Polynomials are one of those types of functions.

Polynomial Limit Rule

Let P(x) be any polynomial, then
lim P(x) = P(c)
xc

By the quotient rule, if P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial with

Q(c) 6= 0, we have
P(c)
P(x)
=
xc Q(x)
Q(c)

lim

T HE A LMOST THE S AME R ULE

The following rule is very useful.

The Almost the Same Rule

If f (x) = g(x) for all x 6= c in some interval open containing c,
then
lim f (x) = lim g(x)
xc

xc

Its not clear how one would use this, so lets look at an
example.

T HE A LMOST THE S AME R ULE

Determine the following limit:
lim

t1

t2 + 3t + 2
t2 t 2

Since (1)2 (1) 2 = 0, we cannot use the quotient rule.

However, notice that 1 is also a zero of the numerator:
(1)2 + 3(1) + 2 = 0.
This means that (t + 1) is a factor of both the numerator and the
denominator.
lim

t1

t2 + 3t + 2
(t + 1)(t + 2)
(t + 2)
1
= lim
= lim
=
2
t1 (t + 1)(t 2)
t1 (t 2)
t t2
3

T HE S ANDWICH T HEOREM
Sometimes the limit rules arent enough to determine the limit
of a function at a given point.
The following theorem allows us to determine the limit of a
function at such a point by sandwiching it between two other
functions.

The Sandwich Theorem

Let f , g, and h be functions and c and L real numbers. If
lim g(x) = L = lim h(x)
xc

xc

and
g(x) f (x) h(x)
for all x in some open interval containing c, then
lim f (x) = L.
xc

T HE S ANDWICH
T HEOREM
66
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
This is a bit easier to see graphically:

aid of som
or throug
useful.

y
h
f

The San
g

FIGURE 2.12 The graph of is

sandwiched between the graphs of g and h.

The follo
Theorem
of two ot
tween the
(Figure 2

E XAMPLES
We can use the sandwich theorem to prove two important
limits:
lim sin(x) = 0
and
lim cos(x) = 1
x0

x0

In order to apply the sandwich theorem we need to find to

functions to serve as the bread.
In Chapter 1 the following two inequalities are proven
(you wouldnt be expected to know these):
|x| sin(x) |x|

and

1 |x| cos(x) 1.

So, by the sandwich theorem we have

lim |x| = 0 = lim |x|

lim 1 |x| = 1 = lim 1

x0
x0

x0

x0

lim sin(x) = 0

x0

lim cos(x) = 1.

x0

E XAMPLES
Use the sandwich theorem to determine the following limit:
lim x2 sin(x)

x0

(Note that we could find this limit using the product rule.)
In order to apply the sandwich theorem we need to find to
functions to serve as the bread.
Since 1 sin(x) 1 for all x 6= 0, we know that
x2 x2 sin(x) x2
So, by the sandwich theorem we have
lim x2 = 0 = lim x2

x0

x0

lim x2 sin(x) = 0

x0

E XAMPLES
This is a bit easier to see graphically:

P RACTICE P ROBLEMS

P RACTICE P ROBLEMS
Determine the following limits:
(1) lim x3 2x2 + 4x + 8
x2

(2) lim 8(t 5)(t 7)

t6

(3) lim

y2 y2

y+2
+ 5y + 6

(4) It can be shown that 1

x2
x sin(x)

1.
6
2 2 cos(x)

Use this fact to determine

lim

x0

x sin(x)
2 2 cos(x)

L IMITS AT I NFINITY

L IMITS AT I NFINITY
Up to this point weve only considered the limit of a function at
a real number c, that is, as x c.
We can also consider the limits of functions as x grows
positively or negatively without bound, i.e.
lim f (x)

and

lim f (x)

Limits at Infinity (intuitive)

We say that a real number L is the limit of a function f as x
approaches (resp., ), if the values of f (x) can be made
arbitrary close to L by taking x to be sufficiently large (resp.,
sufficiently negative).

E XAMPLES

Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs

2.6

Conisder the function f (x) =

4
3
y ! 1x

1
1 0
1

again.

In this section we investigate the behavior of a fun

Notice
that
as x increasingly
, the large, or x
pendent
variable
x becomes
of limit
to infinite
limits,
which
So,are not limits as b
value
of f (x)
0.
limit. Infinite limits provide useful symbols and l
functions whose values become arbitrarily large in
1
analyze the graphs
limof functions
= 0 having horizontal o

1
x

FIGURE 2.49 The graph of y = 1>x

approaches 0 as x : q or x : - q .

Finite Limits as x :

Similarly, as x , the

The symbol for infinity s q d does not represent a

value
f (x) when
0. So,
behavior
of of
a function
the values in its dom
For example, the function sxd = 1>x is defined
positive and becomes 1increasingly large, 1>x be
= 0
lim
negative and its
magnitude
x
x becomes increasingly
summarize these observations by saying that
x : - q , or that 0 is a limit of sxd = 1>x at i
precise definitions.

E XAMPLES
For any integer n > 0, the graph of f (x) =

n even

n odd

So we see that
lim

for all integers n 1.

1
is given by:
xn

1
=0
xn

E XAMPLES
The limit of a function at need not exist:
f (x) = x3 x
f (x) = cos(x)

lim cos(x) = DNE

lim x3 x =

lim x3 x =

f (x) = ex

lim ex =

lim ex = 0

L IMIT R ULES
The limit rules also hold for limits at :

Limit Rules
Let L and M be real numbers and suppose
lim f (x) = L

and

lim g(x) = M

Then:
lim (f (x) g(x)) = L M

lim (f (x) g(x)) = L M

lim (f (x)/g(x)) = L/M if M 6= 0

lim (f (x))r/s = Lr/s

(r, s are integers with no common factors, and L > 0 if s is even)

T HE S ANDWICH T HEOREM
The sandwich theorem also hold for limits at :

The Sandwich Theorem (for limits at )

Let f , g, and h be functions and L real numbers, with
lim g(x) = L = lim h(x)

and
g(x) f (x) h(x)
for all sufficiently large x, then
lim f (x) = L.

(The analogous statement holds for limits at .)

E XAMPLE
Use the sandwich theorem to determine the following limit
sin(x)
x
x
lim

We need to find functions that we can sandwich sin(x)/x

between for sufficiently large and sufficiently negative x.
Since 1 sin(x) 1, for all x 6= 0 we have
1
sin(x)
1

x
x
x
So, by the sandwich theorem
lim

sin(x)
=
x

lim

1
= 0.
x

E XAMPLE
Graphically, we have

L IMITS OF R ATIONAL F UNCTIONS

Even with our limit rules, determining limits at can be
difficult.
However, for rational functions finding these limits is relatively
easy.
For example, suppose f (x) =
determine lim f (x).

x1
and we want to
4x2 + 2

First, we rewrite f (x) by dividing the numerator and the

denominator by the term involving the largest power of x. In this
case the term 4x2 :
x
4x12
x1
4x2
lim
=
lim
.
x 4x2 + 2
x 1 + 1
2
2x

L IMITS OF R ATIONAL F UNCTIONS

Next we can apply the limit rules, specifically the quotient rule:
x
4x12
x1
4x2
lim
= lim
x 4x2 + 2
x 1 + 1
2x2

x
1
lim
4x2 x 4x2 = 0 0 = 0
1
1+0
lim 1 + lim
x
x 2x2

lim

Notice: The degree of the denominator was greater than that of

the numerator and the limit was 0.

L IMITS OF R ATIONAL F UNCTIONS

Suppose f (x) =

x2 1
.
4x2 + 2

We rewrite f (x) by dividing the numerator and the

denominator by the term involving the largest power of x and
employ the quotient rule:
1
1
1
lim lim
x2 1
1
x 4
x 4x2
4 0
lim
=
=
=
1
x 4x2 + 2
1+0
4
lim 1 + lim
2
x
x 2x
Notice: The degree of the denominator was equal to that of the
numerator and the limit was a non-zero constant.

L IMITS OF R ATIONAL F UNCTIONS

Suppose f (x) =

x3 1
.
4x2 + 2

We rewrite f (x) by dividing the numerator and the

denominator by the term involving the largest power of x and
use the quotient rule:
1
lim 1 lim 3
x3 1
1
x
x x
lim
=
=
=
2
2
4
4
x 4x2 + 2
lim + lim 3
lim + lim 3
x x
x x
x x
x x
Notice: The degree of the denominator was less than that of the
numerator and the limit was infinite.

L IMITS OF R ATIONAL F UNCTIONS

More generally we have:

Theorem
If f is a rational function, with
f (x) =
Then

an xn + + a1 x + a0
.
bm x m + + b1 x + b0

lim f (x) =

lim

an xn
.
bm xm

Note that if m n
an xn
lim f (x) = lim
=
x
x bm xm

0
an
bm

m>n
m=n

E XAMPLES
Determine the following limits:
lim

7x3
7x3
=
lim
= lim 7 = 7
x x3
x
x3 3x2 + 6x

lim

lim

lim

3x
3
3x + 7
= lim 2 = lim
= 0
2
x x
x x
x 2

2x + x2
x2
= lim
= lim x =
x x
x
x4

x4
x4
1
1
=
lim
= lim =
2
4
2
4
x 7x
x
7
7
x + 7x 7x + 9

H ORIZONTAL A SYMPTOTES
Definition
We say that a function f has a horizontal asymptote of y = L if
either
lim f (x) = L
or
lim f (x) = L.
x

7x3
For example, as was just shown lim 14 3
= 7.
x x 3x2 + 6x

7x
So f (x) = x3 3x
2 +6x has a
horizontal asymptote of
y = 7.

13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1

P RACTICE P ROBLEMS

P RACTICE P ROBLEMS
For each of the functions below, determine the limit as x
and the equation of any horizontal asymptotes:
(1) f (x) =

3 (2/x)
4 + (1/x2 )

(2) g() =

cos()

(3) h(y) =

y+2
y + 5 + 6y2

(4) q(x) =

7 + 3x2
x+6