EXPERIMENT A1

Aim: To determine the resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential
difference versus current.
Apparatus: a resistance wire about 1 meter long, a battery eliminator, rheostat, voltmeter,
ammeter, a resistance box, one way key, connecting wires and sand paper.
Theory:
According to Ohms law The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions of the conductor
remains the same.
Let I be the current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential drop across the
ends, then
IV
or,
VI
or,
V/ I = constant = R
where R is a constant called the electrical resistance. Its S.I. unit is ohm and its value
depends upon the dimensions (length and area of cross section) and material of the wire.
If a graph is plotted with V on the x-axis and I on the y-axis, then it will be a straight line as V
is directly proportional to I. The slope of this graph (I/V) can be used to find the resistance
of the wire. R = 1/slope.

Circuit Diagram:
OBSERVATIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Range of instruments: Ammeter A, Voltmeter . Volt

Least count of ammeter = A
Least count of voltmeter = . Volt
Zero error of ammeter = .. A
Zero correction of ammeter = .. A

6. Zero error of voltmeter = .. volt

7. Zero correction of voltmeter = .. volt
8. Length of the wire = .. cm
S.No.

Voltmeter reading (V)

(Volt)
Observed
Corrected

Ammeter reading (I)

(Ampere)
Observed
Corrected

R=V/I
(Ohm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean value of resistance, R =
Graph: Choose appropriate scale and plot a graph between V on the x-axis and I on the yaxis. Find the slope of the graph, after drawing the suitable triangle on the graph.
Calculations:
Substitute values from the graph
Slope = I / V = (I2 I1) / (V2 V1) = 1/R
Therefore, R = V / I = 1/slope
R = . ohm from the graph
Resistance per unit length = R / L = ohm/cm
Result:
(i) The graph between potential drop V and current I through a conductor is a straight line.
(ii)The value of the resistance of the given wire is . .
(iii) The resistance per cm of the given wire is ./ cm
Precaution:
1. Before connecting, the ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with a sand paper
to remove the insulation properly.
2. Connections should be neat and tight.
3. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel with proper
polarities.
4. The key should be plugged in only while taking observations, otherwise the current
would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit.
5. Measuring instruments of proper range should be used and zero error, if any, must
be taken into account.
6. Too high currents should not be drawn from the battery and care must be taken to
avoid short circuiting.

7. The length of the resistance wire should be measured from the point where the wire
leaves one terminal to the point where the wire enters the second terminal. The
length at ends of the wire which is wound around the terminal should not be
included otherwise it will contribute to error.
Sources of error:
1. Due to heating effect of current, the resistance of the wire may change during the
course of experiment.
2. The ammeter and voltmeter are not ideal and hence introduce some error on
account of their resistances.
3. Error due to parallax may creep in.
4. The length of the wire may not have been measured accurately.

EXPERIMENT A2
Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using a meter bridge and hence determine the
specific resistance of its material.
Apparatus: a metre bridge, a resistance wire about 1 metre long, a resistance box, jockey,
one way key, galvanometer, Daniel cell, connecting wire, screw gauge and sand paper.
Theory:
Metre Bridge is a simple apparatus based on the principle of Wheatstone bridge.
A Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistances P, Q, R and S joined such that they form a
quadrilateral ABCD as shown in the figure. The current i drawn from the cell is divided in A
into two parts. One part i1 flows along the path AB and the other part i2 flows along AD.
Since the potential falls equally along the two conductors, it is possible to find two points B
and D, such that they are at the same potential. If B and D are connected to a galvanometer
through a key K, no current will flow through it. Hence there will be no deflection in the
galvanometer and the bridge is said to be balanced. Let i1 and i2 be the currents in the arms
ABC and ADC respectively and let Va, Vb, Vc and Vd be the potentials at the points A, B ,C and
D respectively. Then, applying Ohms law, we get
Va- Vb = P .i1
Vb Vc = Q .i1
Va - Vd = R .i2
Vd Vc = S .i2
In balanced condition
Va- Vb = Va - Vd
And Vb Vc = Vd Vc
(since, Vb = Vd)
Therefore, P i1 = R i2
Q i1 = S i2
Or,
P/Q=R/S
If the resistances Q, R and S are known, P can be calculated.

Therefore,

P = (R / S) x Q

Measuring an unknown resistance

In Meter Bridge, let unknown resistance X be inserted in gap P (left gap) and a resistance
box in gap Q (right gap). For a particular value of resistance from the resistance box, if the
balance point is obtained at D such that the galvanometer shows no deflection, then from
the principle of the Wheatstone bridge
X/Q = resistance of length AD / resistance of length DC
= k x length AD / k x length DC
where k is the resistance per unit length.
If length AD = l cm then DC = (100 l) cm
Therefore,
X = [l / (100 l)] x Q
Specific resistance
The resistance of a resistor varies directly as its length L and inversely as its area of cross
section r2, where r is the radius of the wire.
Therefore, the resistance of the wire can be written as
X = 4L / d2,
where d is the diameter of the wire and is the specific resistance of the wire.
Therefore,
= (d2 /4L) X

Circuit Diagram:

OBSERVATIONS:
(a) Length of the wire = .. cm
(b) Least count of meter bridge scale = . Cm
(c) For measurement of resistance of the wire
No. of
Resistance P
observation
(ohm)

Balancing
length (l)
(cm)

Length DC =
(100 l)
(cm)

X =[ l / (100 l) ]
xQ
(ohm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean value of resistance, X =
(c)For measurement of diameter of wire
Pitch of screw gauge (p) = mm
No of div on the circular scale (n) = .
Least count of screw gauge = p/n = .. mm
Zero error = (+ or -) div = mm
No
of
obs

Reading along one dir.

Reading along perpendicular Mean Corrected

dir.
obsd diameter
Main Circular Observed Main Circular Observed dia
scale
scale
dia
scale
scale
dia
reading reading
reading reading
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)

1
2
3
Mean corrected diameter = . mm
Calculations:
Substitute the value of X, d and L in the working formulae to obtain the specific resistance
of the material of the wire.
Result:
(i) The value of the unknown resistance as determined by the meter bridge was found to be
.
(ii) The value of specific resistance of the material of the given wire is . cm.

Precautions:
1. Before connecting, the ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with a sand paper
to remove the insulation properly.
2. Connections should be neat and tight.
3. The jockey wire should be long.
4. The key should be plugged in only while taking observations, otherwise the current
would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit.
5. Tightness of each plug in the resistance box should be ensured.
6. The key of the battery should be closed first and then the jockey is touched on the
wire when the reading is being taken. After taking the reading, the jockey is removed
first and then the battery key. This helps to save the galvanometer from a
momentary kick due to self induced e.m.f. produced at the time of make or break
of current in the circuit.
7. While moving the jockey to and fro to locate the null point, the jockey should be
lifted again and again and should not be pressed and slided on the wire, otherwise
the uniformity of the wire will be damaged.
8. At the null point also, the jockey should not be pressed too hard.
9. The null point should be obtained between 30 cm 70 cm to minimize end errors.
10.The length of the resistance wire should be measured from the point where the wire
leaves one terminal to the point where the wire enters the second terminal. The
length at ends of the wire which is wound around the terminal should not be
included otherwise it will contribute to error.

Sources of error:
1. The wire of the meter bridge may not be of uniform area of cross-section through out
its entire length.
2. End errors: The resistance of the copper strips of the meter bridge and the soldering
at the ends of the bridge wire, which has been assumed to be zero, may not be
negligible.
3. The wire may get heated with passage of current and its resistance might change.
4. The screw gauge may have backlash error.
5. The length of the wire may not have been measured accurately.

EXPERIMENT A3
Aim: To verify the laws of combination of resistances (in series and parallel) using a meter
bridge.
Apparatus: a metre bridge, two resistance wire of different length, a resistance box, jockey,
one way key, galvanometer, Daniel cell, connecting wire, and sand paper.
Theory:
Laws of combination of resistances:

a) Series combination of resistances: two or more resistances are said to be connected in

series when they are connected end to end as shown in the diagram. The equivalent
resistance is given by Rs = R1 + R2 + .. + Rn
b) Parallel combination of resistances: two or more resistances are said to be in parallel
when one end of each resistance is connected to a common point and their other ends
are connected to another common point as shown in the figure. The equivalent
resistance is given by
1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + .. + 1/Rn
Measuring an unknown resistance using Metre Bridge
In Meter Bridge, let unknown resistance X be inserted in gap P (left gap) and a resistance
box in gap Q (right gap). For a particular value of resistance from the resistance box, if the
balance point is obtained at D such that the galvanometer shows no deflection, then from
the principle of the Wheatstone bridge
X/Q = resistance of length AD / resistance of length DC
= k x length AD / k x length DC
where k is the resistance per unit length.
If length AD = l cm then DC = (100 l) cm
Therefore,
X = [ l / (100 l) ] x Q
Circuit Diagram:

OBSERVATION:
Resistanc
e used

X1

X2
X1 and X2
in series

S.No.

1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3

Resistanc
eQ
()

Balancing
length (l)
(cm)

(100 l)
(cm)

Unknown
resistance
(X)

Mean value of
resistance

X1 = .

X2 = .

Xs =

X1 and X2
in parallel

1
2
3

Xp =.

Calculations:
For verifying the laws of combination
S.No.
1

Nature of
Experimental
Theoretical value ()
combination
value ()
series
Xs = .
X s = X1+ X2 = .

Difference
()
X s - X s =

parallel

X p - Xp=

Xp = .

X p = X1. X2 / (X1 + X2) = .

Result
1. The values of the individual resistances measured by metre bridge are
X1 = and X2 = .
2. The experimental value of resistance of series combination of X1 and X 2 (.) is found to
agree with the theoretically calculated value () within the limits of experimental
error. Hence the law of series combination of resistances stands verified.
3. The experimental value of resistance of parallel combination of X1 and X2 (.) is found
to agree with the theoretically calculated value (.) within the limits of experimental
error. Hence the law of parallel combination of resistances stands verified.
Precautions:
1. Before connecting, the ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with a sand paper
to remove the insulation properly.
2. Connections should be neat and tight.
3. The jockey wire should be long.
4. The key should be plugged in only while taking observations, otherwise the current
would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit.
5. Tightness of each plug in the resistance box should be ensured.
6. The key of the battery should be closed first and then the jockey is touched on the
wire when the reading is being taken. After taking the reading, the jockey is removed
first and then the battery key. This helps to save the galvanometer from a
momentary kick due to self induced e.m.f. produced at the time of make or break
of current in the circuit.
7. While moving the jockey to and fro to locate the null point, the jockey should be
lifted again and again and should not be pressed and slided on the wire, otherwise
the uniformity of the wire will be damaged.
8. At the null point also, the jockey should not be pressed too hard.
9. The null point should be obtained between 30 cm 70 cm to minimize end errors.

Sources of error:
1. The wire of the meter bridge may not be of uniform area of cross-section through out
its entire length.
2. End errors: The resistance of the copper strips of the meter bridge and the soldering
at the ends of the bridge wire, which has been assumed to be zero, may not be
negligible.
3. The wire may get heated with passage of current and its resistance might change.
4. The screw gauge may have backlash error.
5. The resistance of the overlapping portions of the wires at the joints has not been
taken into account.