CHAPTER 3

CONTAINER CARGO

In the first year you have seen the general development of container
ships. Those who are serving on container ships would have first hand
knowledge of its operation. Let us fill the gap for the distance- learning
students who may not get to know a container ship at close hand. We
still recommend that on completion of this module try and visit a
container ship and test what you have learnt.
Containers
A standard container is basically a rectangular box with 5 sides closed
and the sixth being the door. A box can be constructed in many ways,
two most commonly used methods are:
(a)

Construction using same material throughout

(b)

Using a frame and varying materials attached to the frame.

The main components of a container are described below with

accompanying diagram as below:

15

Corner Post: Vertical frame components located at the corners of

freight containers and integral with the corner castings and floor
structures.
Corner Castings: Fittings located at the corner of the freight container,
which provides means for lifting, handling, stacking and securing the
container.
Header and Sill: In way of door entrance with overhead horizontal
header frame and similar floor level threshold sill.
Front-End Frame: The structure at the front end of the container
(opposite the door end) consisting of top and bottom rails attached to
the front corner posts and the corner castings.
Top Rail: Longitudinal structural members located at the top edge on
either side of the freight container.
Bottom Rail: Longitudinal structural members located at the bottom
edge on either side of the freight container.
Cross-members: A series of transverse beams at approximately 12inch centers attached to the bottom side rail and an integral part of the
floor frame support.
Floor: The floor may be hard or soft laminated wood, planks or plywood.
Roof bows: Roof bows are the under most structure of the roof and are
usually placed at 18 or 24 inch centers. Modern steel GP containers
(except open top containers) are not fitted with roof bows but will have
corrugated or flat steel sheet roofs welded to the frame members.
Aluminum containers have aluminum sheathing, bonded with
adhesive to the roof bows and riveted to the top rails and headers. GRP
containers have fiberglass reinforced plywood panels fastened to the
rail and headers. The roof is the part of the container most vulnerable to
damage.
Sides & Front: Modern steel GP containers will have corrugated steel
panels. Aluminum containers have aluminum sheathing on the sides
and front of the container, which are affixed to aluminum stringers which
are in turn bolted to the top and bottom rails and also to the front end
frame. The stringers may be on the outside or inside of the sheathing.
GRP containers do not use stringers for supporting the fiberglass
16

reinforced plywood panels. The side and the front of steel containers
are made of corrugated steel sheets eliminating stringers.
Doors: Doors may be ply-metal (plywood core with steel or aluminum
facings), corrugated, or combinations with fiberglass. The hinged doors
have plastic or rubber lined door gaskets as seals against water
ingress.
Security seal: Used in conjunction with locking mechanism in order to
seal the containers for security purposes. These seals are numbered
and often colour coded.

CONTAINER SECURING ARRANGEMENT

17

18

Stresses on containers
Containers are subject to various stresses and failure of the container to
withstand these stresses will result in damage to container. The
stresses can be broadly grouped into:
(a) transport mode
(b) handling mode
(c) environment
(d) cargo and
(e) G force.
Transport mode
The containers are transported both at sea and on land; each mode
creates its own stresses.
Sea transport
In sea transport stage the container suffers from:

The racking stresses. This can cause severe damage to end frames,
doors and panels. This is prevented by cross-lashings.

Damage caused when a container comes loose. Besides the damage to

itself a single container coming loose from its lashings can cause very
severe damage to the ship and sometimes the environment.

Damage is also caused by cargo inside the container becoming loose

due to vessel rolling and pitching.
19

Damage caused during transfer of container to and from the ship. This
is generally caused either by wrong use of spreaders, which result in
damage to the roof.

Wrong use of slings cause damage to side rails and ends frames.

Loading in cell guides causes abrasion damage and any obstruction in

cell guide can cause panels to rip-off.

Wrong handling cause damage to top and bottom.

Handling mode
Containers are handled by various methods, chief of these are gantry,
forklifts and straddle carriers. These are used for lifting and short
movements of container. Top lifting can cause roof damage while
bottom lifts by forklifts can cause bottom rail damage. Sudden stoppage
of forklift and straddle carriers causes the container to swing and this
can cause deformation in the frame; it can also cause cargo inside to
shift causing panel damage.
Environment
Environment damage to the container is caused due to continuous
exposure of the container and the sea waves striking the containers on
deck. Temperature variations also cause damage; specially freezing
temperatures coupled with water, due to expansion of water freezing to
ice. This has severe effects on doors and hinges. Tropical high
temperatures also cause damage specially loosening of joints and
deformation of parts.
Cargo
Cargo damage can be due to:
(a) Improper weight distribution and
(b) Improper dunnage and securing.
The weight distribution should be even with the centre of gravity of the
container around its geometrical centre. Uneven distribution may cause
damage to the side rails during lifting or may even break the floor.
Improper securing and dunnaging can cause the cargo to shift and
cause side and end panel damage. It should be borne in mind that
almost all containers are loaded or stuffed by the exporter of the cargo
20

who is unaware of the importance of proper securing or even

distribution of weight and ignorant of its consequences.
G force
Containers, when they are being lowered, are subject to acceleration
due to gravity. When a container is landed, this force is transmitted to
the corner post of the container below and the container itself. This
force can increase the weight of the container to nearly double. Stack
weights for containers are calculated allowing for 1.8 g. Vibrations can
also cause damage to containers, especially if the container vibrates at
its natural frequency.
Container construction should take into account all these to ensure that
containers can withstand these forces, otherwise repairs to containers
will result in disproportionate expenditure.
Container Examinations
Every container must have a Container Safety Certificate (CSC) issued
by the manufacturer and this must be renewed every 30 months after
inspection by a competent inspector. An Approved Continuous
Examination Programme (ACEP) can be agreed as substitute for this
procedure and the ACEP number is stamped on the CSC plate. Most
companys containers are inspected under an ACEP scheme.
Container Damage
Common types of container damage are listed below.
Racking: Is the twisting of the structural shell of the container due to
static or dynamic forces and is commonly associated with movements
in a seaway. The standard ISO container racking limit is nominally 15
tonnes. To counter these forces, diagonal lashings may be applied in
accordance with the vessel's lashing system. In high stacks, the lower
container is subject to the greatest racking forces and the lashing
systems must be designed to take this into account.
Toppling: Can occur when containers are subjected to extreme rolling
motions aboard ship or standing in a stack, exposed to high winds.
Counter measures are twist locks and lashings.
Container collapse (corner-post compression) : Results from
exceeding allowable loads on the container corner posts and can be
21

avoided by staying within weights limits of the container. Where

lashings are applied aboard ship, avoid over tensioning of lashings.
Local structural failure: Is the separation of structural components of
a container such as sidewall separation from top and bottom rails and
separation of the corner castings from the side rails.
Holes in containers: are the most common kinds of damage. Lifting
spreaders indenting the roof when locating corner castings and twist
locks and lashing gear being thrown down on top often causes roof
damage. Forklift trucks can cause holes in container walls, collision with
other containers or lifting devices. Holes in containers can be easily
detected by interior inspection with the doors closed and noting any
light entering the container. This can also reveal faulty door seal
gaskets and is extremely important check to be made.
Interior Contamination: Container floors become seriously
contaminated by cargoes such as wet hides which can cause tainting to
future cargoes. Cargoes such as naphthalene and cloves can also strip
interior paintwork.

SIZE, DIMENSIONS, MARKING AND TYPES

Containers of various sizes are used in the industry and we shall now
understand how they are utilized for cargoes of various sizes and types.
Size of containers
The standard containers consist of the following size: 1)

20 ft 8 ft 8ft,

2)

20 ft 8`00 806

3)

40 ft 8ft 8ft,

4)

40 ft 800 806
Hi-cube containers have the dimensions of 20/40x800x900or906.
In addition you will find 35 ft, 45ft and 52 ft containers. Even 57 feet
containers are being tried out. Construction of the containers is
explained elsewhere in these modules.
The 20 feet container is commonly known as TEU. (Twenty Equivalent
Units) 40 Feet container is known as FEU (Forty Equivalent Units).
22

Dimensions of Containers
The container has 3 dimensions, width, height and length. Each of
these is determined by various factors. There is a tendency among
seafarers to think that since a ship carries a large number of containers,
it is the ship that finally determines the container, but it is the other way
around. The ships are adapted to fit the containers. The dimensions of
the container are determined by other considerations, such as rail and
road facilities etc.
Width
The width of the container is 8 ft. This is due to the fact that carriage
widths on roads are between 8 ft. and 8.5 ft. with all US roads being 8
ft. This has not changed from Roman days when 8 ft. was the space
required by two horses pulling a carriage. The width of the container
therefore has remained constant.
Height
Container heights started with 8 ft. and have gradually risen to 9.5 ft.
World over the maximum height of permitted on road transport has
ranged from 3.5 m to 4m which brought about the height restriction of 8
ft. Later developments in transportation especially the lowering of rail
carriages have allowed the increase of height to 8.5 ft. and then to 9.5
ft.
Length
Containers come in varying lengths ranging from 10 ft. to 45 ft. The first
container was a converted trailer, which was 20 ft., and hence the 20-ft.
length became the common size. Matsons (one of the earlier container
companies) started with 24-ft. containers because of California
regulation allowed 2 x 24-ft. trailers as one unit. This size is still current
in the Alaska trade. Sea-land started with 35-ft. containers but has
slowly switched over to the standard ISO 20-ft. size. The next size that
has come about is the double of 20 ft. the 40-ft. and thence the 45-ft.
52-ft. and 57-ft container are under consideration by the International
Standards Organization in draft stage. These changes have come

23

about as road regulations permitted such increase in trailer lengths on

account of the advances in road transport technology.
Types of containers
The GP or general-purpose container accounts for the large majority of
the fleet and is used for most general cargo commodities. The
containers are 20 ft or 40 ft in length with a limited stock of 45 ft.
The standard external height of GP containers is 8 ft 6 inches although
high cube containers at 9 ft 6 inches in height are becoming common.
Special containers are provided for specific carriage requirements and
examples are listed below.
Type

Open Tops

Sizes

20/40

Half Heights 20/40

(
I
n

Characteristics

Typical uses

Soft detachable
roof tarpaulin or
tilt
Soft detachable
roof tarpaulin or
tilt, half height
No sidewalls or
roof (and ends
may be
collapsible)
Flatbed with
corner castings.
Limited numbers
of high rated
equipment
Extractor fan
fitted

Machinery requiring top

loading and overheight
cargo.
High density cargoes
such as ingots, heavy
steelwork, drums.
For out of gauge cargoes
and restricted loading
situations.

Flat racks

20/40

Platforms

20/40

Fantainers

20/0

Highly
Ventilated

20

Side vents along

top and bottom
rails

Top
Ventilated

20

Side vents along

top rail

Open Sides

20

Side gates and

side curtains

Over-length cargoes and

special projects.

Agricultural products
requiring ventilation e.g.
onions, potatoes. Also
used as a normal GP
container.
Hygroscopic cargoes
such as coffee, cocoa,
tobacco and seeds.
Hygroscopic cargoes
such as coffee, cocoa,
tobacco and seeds.
Agricultural products
requiring ventilation,
livestock and side loading.
24

Bulk

20

Tank
Containers

20

Refrigerate
d - Integral
Refrigerate
dInsulated

20/40
20, (8
and
86)

Top loading ports

and door
discharge shoot
Tank within an
ISO frame of
various types
Refrigerated
Integral
Top & bottom
end ports and
connects to
ships
refrigeration
system

Dry cargoes in bulk e.g.

malt, sugar also used as a
normal GP container.
Liquid cargoes in bulks
including foodstuffs and
hazardous.
8'6" and 9'6"
Reefer cargoes on
specialised ships
operating in ANZ and SAF
Trades.

Markings on a container
The most visible markings on a container are the company name/logo.
In addition law and the practice of the trade require the following:
(1)

Name of the Owner or Ship owner with number.

(2)

Tare weight, Gross weight, Net weight and Cubic capacity.

(3)

Dimensions.

(4)

Date of Survey.

(5)

Date of Manufacture and Manufacturing Number

(6)

Refurbishing Date wherever applicable.

Other than this, the important markings are:
(a) The identification number (BIC code)
(b) The allowable weights and cubic capacity.
(c) The safety approval plate (see annex I), and
(d) The customs approval plate.

The ISO code

The ISO 2176 provides for a marking code for international identification
of containers. The markings give information of the owner, the number,
size and type of container. The National Registration Organisations and
The International container Bureau have developed the BIC code,
which identifies a container through Owner code and serial Number.
These can be verified by check digit and are registered with the Bureau.
25

The ISO standard has a four-alphabet code for the owner, the BIC code
uses 3 alphabets to identify the owner and the fourth alphabet is U,
which means a registered owner. Others can use other alphabets as the
fourth one. Today nearly all owners are registered and hence all owner
identification ends in a 'U'. The container number consists of 6 digits
followed by a seventh digit in a square called the check digit. This check
digit is the verification of the identification. The check digit is computer
calculated in data processing.
The next is a 2-alphabet code denoting the country of certification and a
4-figure code, which gives the size, & type of the container.

A B C U

D E

X X X X X X X

X X X X

Allowable Weights and cubic capacity

All containers are marked with the tare weight and maximum gross
weight of the container in both kilograms and pounds. The internal cubic
volume available for loading in both m3 and ft3 is also marked. This is as
per ISO standards.
Safety approval plate
This is as per the CSC convention. It includes the BIC code markings.
Additionally every container has to carry a CSC SAFETY APPROVAL
PLATE as shown in the diagram. The plate size is 200 x 100 mm. and
contains 9 lines of markings.
Customs approval plate
This is plate certifies that the container is permitted to be carried under
customs seal.
Materials used in manufacture of containers
Containers are built on a steel frame, the cladding may be constructed
either of steel or aluminum or Glass fiber reinforced plywood. A majority
of the containers are steel cladding with aluminum cladding a close
second. GRP clad containers are few in number.
26

Steel
This is very widely used because of its easy availability and cheap
price. Containers of steel are easy to construct as steel is easily
welded. The other advantages of steel containers are less susceptibility
to damage, & ease of maintenance. The disadvantages of steel are that
it is prone to corrosion and hence requires to be regularly painted. Its
tare weight is high and life of the container is short, about 10 to 15
years. The use of special alloys like CORTEN steel has reduced the
disadvantages. Corten steel is less susceptible to corrosion than
ordinary mild steel. It is high tensile steel and hence permits lower
scantlings thus reducing the tare weight. It compares quite well with the
tare weight of Aluminium. Cost wise, a steel container is the cheapest
and most leasing companies uses steel containers.
Aluminium
It is the lightest container due to low weight of aluminium. Aluminium
also does not corrode easily in a marine environment and therefore
maintenance is not required so frequently. Its disadvantages are that it
is easily damaged. (An impact, which will only dent a steel container,
will probably create a hole in an aluminium container). The repairs of
aluminium containers are expensive as it cannot be welded and repairs
are by riveting. Riveting is expensive and not available worldwide.
United States is the only place where riveting is cheaper. Aluminium
containers are more expensive than steel but have a longer life,
proximately 15 to 20 years.
GRP
These are containers where the panels are made of GRP. These
containers are practically corrosion free; offer better use of internal
space. The disadvantages are that their tare weight is the highest,
repairs are costly as any damage means replacing the whole panel.
They are the costliest containers. They are generally used for thermal
containers as they provide good thermal insulation. Life of a GRP
container is the longest among the three, about 25 years.
Types of containers
Over the years containers have evolved into various types depending
on their use. The first container was a basic closed box. This is called
the dry box and majority of the containers available today is of this
27

type. Some cargoes are such that loading them through the door is not
practicable and to accommodate such cargoes as well as to
containerise cargoes whose height exceeds the standard container
height, the roof of the container has been omitted and these are called
open top containers. The problem with open tops is that on the return
leg they cannot be used as dry boxes. To overcome this and to make
optimum use of the container a canvas top was developed. This is
sometimes called a soft-top and can be used as both a dry box as well
as an open top. To containerise other cargoes, which exceed athwart
ship dimensions, open sided containers are also available. Containers
are also available with side doors for loading cargo of long lengths that
can be loaded in the containers. Thus it is possible to have a container
with only the floor and the end frames, such frames are generally made
collapsible and this is called a collapsible flat rack (COFLAT). It can
be used both with the frames up and as a flat rack with the end frames
down. Flat racks without the end frames are also available and are
called artificial tween decks (ATD). These are used for carrying large
bulky pieces, which require more than one container space, like project
cargoes and machinery. The topmost tier loaded either under deck or
on deck is used for this purpose. The ATDs are placed on top of the last
tier to create a deck and this cargo is loaded over two or more rows as
required. The ATDs ensure that the weight of the cargo is divided over
all the rows used. These are variations of the basic box.
The other types of containers available are those used for specific
purposes or cargoes. Here we have reefers, tank containers, and even
garment containers or hangertainers where garments are carried hung
on rails at the top of the container. The dry box is also available with
ventilation and is called a ventilated dry box. Special containers are
also available for bulk cargoes; these have loading openings in the roof
and discharge chutes either at the bottom or sides.
The four corner pillars of the container take the entire weight of the
container & the cargoes stowed inside. The container should always be
lifted with the help of a spreader. The spreader is placed on the
container with its corner on the top of the corner pillars of the container
and locked. This lock is called as Twist lock operated either manually or
automatically.

28

SLOT IDENTIFICATION & STOWAGE PLAN

On a general cargo vessel the identification of the location of a parcel of
cargo was a simple process. Since the vessel was divided into holds,
the first parameter was the hold. Each hold was divided into lower hold
and tween decks hence the next parameter was either lower hold or
tween dk. Each of these areas is further specified by port, starboard or
hatch square, thus this was the next parameter and finally each was
further specified by ford, aft or centre. Thus if a parcel was said to be
stowed in #3UTD (P) (F) its location was complete. This system worked
because all cargo for a port was generally stowed in the same area and
the stevedores who were the parties most interested in the location had
enough time to familiarise themselves with the ship as the port stay of
the vessel was quite long.
Stowage on container vessels
The modern container vessel is also divided into holds, but using a
similar system for containers would be impossible as a hold may
contain anywhere between 50 to 250 containers and the port stay is in
hours.
Some system to identify each slot in which a container could be loaded
had to be developed to avoid errors in location and stowage.
Three-dimensional system
The system used on a container vessel is based on the principles of
identifying a point in space. In 3-dimensional co-ordinate geometry a
point in space is identified by its co-ordinates in the three axes, i.e. P (x,
y, and z) is completely identified. The slot numbering used on a
container vessel follows the same principle. The three axes are the
longitudinal axis, the athwartship axis and the vertical axis.
Simple Identification of bays
Every container slot in the longitudinal axis is called a bay. Each bay is
given a 2-figure number. The numbering of bays could be consecutive
numbering starting from 01 onwards. Some ships use this method. The
problem with this method is there is no way to distinguish between 20
foot and 40-foot bays and when two 20-ft. containers are loaded in a
40-ft. bay.

29

Identification of bays taking into account the 20 and 40 foot containers

In order to overcome this problem, another numbering system is used,
where the first 40-ft. bay starts with 02 and four are added to the
previous bay to identify the subsequent bay. Thus we have bays 02, 06,
10, etc. Where a 20-ft. bay exists they are numbered with odd numbers
on either side of the 40-ft. bay number. Thus 2 -20ft containers in say,
bay 10, would have the numbers 09 and 11. This system is also in use
on some vessels. The problem with this system is that given a bay
number its not readily apparent which container is being referred to.
Most commonly used system
The most commonly used system, which overcomes all the problems, is
where the first 40-ft. bay is numbered 04. Subsequent bays are in
multiples of 4, thus 04, 08, 12 etc. If 20-ft. containers are loaded in a 40ft. bay they are numbered with the odd numbers on either side of the
number of the 40-ft. bay. Thus two 20-ft. containers in bay 16 would
result with the forward one being numbered bay 15 and after one being
numbered bay 17.
It is to be noted that in the absence of a formal convention, all three
systems are in use but the last one is the most common.
Rows
Every slot in the athwartship axis is called a row; the numbering of rows
is by consecutive numbers, 01, 02, 03, etc. In keeping with tradition, all
odd numbers are to starboard and all evens to port. Numbering starts
from center outward; this is because rows in various bays of the ship
will vary depending on the position of the bay. Maximum rows are in the
mid-length area decreasing to the ends. This row numbering provides
uniformity at all bays. Where odd numbers of rows exists, the central
row is numbered 00.
Tier
In the vertical axis, each slot is called a tier and is numbered using
consecutive even numbers, thus we have 02, 04, 06, etc., tiers on deck
are numbered starting from 82 onwards, thus 82, 84, 86, etc. This is
again because numbers of tiers in various bays vary as per location and
such numbering clearly differentiates between under deck and on deck
stowage.
30

Thus if we say a container in slot 27 05 86, we have the following:

a.

27 being odd number, it is a 20-ft. container. Since the nearest number

divisible by 4 is 28, it is in the seventh 40-ft bay in the forward slot.

b.

The row is the 3rd from centre to starboard.

c.

It is on the third tier on deck.

The main advantage of such slot numbering systems is that they can be
used with data processing systems.

Bay plans
On a general cargo vessel a cargo stowage plan is a graphical display
using side elevation and plan view.
Such systems cannot be used for a container vessel. On a container
vessel a stowage plan is depicted for each bay separately. The rows
and tiers at each bay are shown as squares and each square is filled
with the container data. Separate plan is used for deck and under deck
for each bay. A main line container vessel having bays up to say 44,
(i.e. 11 x 40-ft. bays) may have a bay plan consisting of more than 22
pages.

31

Stowage planning
The planning of the stowage of containers on a container vessel is
generally done ashore, this is because the turn around time of a
container vessel is very short and expecting the ships officers to plan
would unnecessarily delay the vessel. On main line vessels (i.e. those
going on definite routes mainly round the world or across the pacific or
Atlantic) most companies use a central planner who plans the vessel for
the whole voyage. Central planners are sometimes called central coordinators. They plan vessels for the ports in their areas. More than one
planner in one complete voyage may therefore handle a ship.
32

Such planning becomes necessary, as data of all containers booked at

various ports would have to be accounted for in the stowage plan.
Every port sends its bookings for the vessel, giving details of container
size, approximate weight and cargo characteristics to the central coordinator who prepares a pre-stow plan. Such plans are generally
based on weight categories. This pre-stow plan is sent to the respective
ports and these will then enter the actual container number and weight
and load the vessel accordingly. The central co-ordinator will then be
updated and he will make the necessary changes to the next port plan.
Even though the planning is done ashore and the ship's staff is not
involved, this is only as an aid to the ships staff and legally the Master
is still responsible for the correct stowage of the vessel. The Chief
Officer therefore has to check this stowage to ensure that the vessel will
be safe throughout the voyage and it is his duty to approve the stowage
plan. The ships officers will therefore have to be conversant with the
factors that affect the stowage plan.
Factors affecting stowage plan
The factors to be taken into account when preparing a stowage plan are
as follows:
1.

Port rotation.

2.

Stability, including GM and trim.

3.

Stack weight.

4.

Strength calculations, SF and BM.

5.

Torsional moments.

6.

Size and type of containers.

7.

Flexibility.

8.

Special containers.

Port Rotation
As with all stowage planning, this is the first and the most important
factor. All cargo for a discharge port must be available directly for
discharge, without the need for any shifting. Any shifting involved will
mean additional cost as well as delay.
Stability
33

The main consideration here is the vessels GM. Container vessels tend
to have a low GM because of the large amount of deck cargo involved.
The loss of GM on passage is also high because of the high speeds
and hence high consumption of fuel on these vessels. Consumption in
the range of 70 to 120 tons / day are normal for a 2500 teus (twenty
equivalent units) vessel having a speed of 24 kts. Due to the deck
cargo, a large windage area also exists. The Stability requirements for
wind heeling moments also have to be satisfied. Low GM creates
problems for manoeuvring because of heel during turning at high
speeds and large rate of turns have to be avoided. Container vessels
generally carry ballast in D. B. tanks as well as large amount of fuel to
increase GM. Ballast carried in wing tanks including upper wing tanks
helps to improve the GM and the rolling period. As far as possible,
heavy containers are loaded at the bottom. Reduction of free surface,
especially in fuel tanks also helps considerably.
A quick check of stowage can be achieved by comparing tier weights at
each bay. In general, upper tiers should have less weight than the lower
once unless different ports are involved.
Additional constraints
The additional ballast and fuel adds to the dead weight and load line
limits have to be taken into account. Generally a container vessel is full
by volume rather than weight, except when winter load lines apply. The
trim should also be considered and cargo should be distributed evenly
for optimum trim.
Stack weight
On a general cargo vessel, the load at any point must not exceed the
permissible load density. In case it does, then laying dunnage increases
the area over which the load rests. The weight of a container is
distributed over the Four Corners. On a container vessel, the internal
structure of the vessel distributes the load over the strength members of
the hull. The maximum load that can be borne at the Four Corners of
the cell guides is termed as the stack weight. In planning the stowage,
this maximum stack weight must not be exceeded.
Strength calculations
Planning must ensure that the shearing forces and bending moments
do not exceed the permissible values for the ship. An even distribution
34

of the weight will ensure this. In case even distribution is not possible
then it can be compensated for by ballast.
Torsional forces
This is an angular force, which tries to twist a structure. Consider a
beam as shown in the diagram.

W1

Consider two weights W and W1 hung as shown. The beam will remain
horizontal but torsion moments will exist at the ends. If the torsion
becomes excessive then the point will tend to deform and shear as
shown.
Torsional forces exists on all ships, the two causes of torsional forces
are (a) sea and swell and (b) uneven distribution of cargo. The effect of
these forces depend on:

Length of the vessel

The freeboard of the vessel and

The beam of the vessel.

Cargo ships being small in length do not suffer large torsional forces.
Bulk carriers and tankers being large both in length and beam do give
rise to large Torsional forces. However there is generally very little
uneven distribution of cargo in the athwartship direction in such ships
and therefore the maximum Torsional forces are due to the sea only
and the vessels are built to withstand such forces.
In the case of container vessels, the length, beam as well as the
freeboard is large. Container ships have, in addition, uneven distribution
of cargo; this results in the ship experiencing large Torsional moments.
The only controllable factor is proper distribution of weights on board.
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The distribution of cargo in each bay must be even when planning

stowage. Where it is not possible to have an even distribution in the
bay, the Torsional moments at the bay must be reduced to below the
allowable Torsional moments using ballast in the tanks at the bay.
Correcting the imbalance at another area will not reduce the Torsional
moment at that bay.
Remember Torsional stress is a local stress
The moments caused by the cargo can be calculated by stack weight x
distance from centreline on each side. The difference between the two
gives the torsion at that point. Torsional moments at any point are the
summation of the Torsional forces at all such points before the bay in
question.
Size and type of containers
In planning the stowage, the size and type of containers need to be
known so that the right containers are planned for the right slot. 40-ft
containers can only be loaded in 40-ft. bays. 20-ft. containers can be
loaded in 40-ft. bays but the ends away from the cell guides cannot be
secured and are free to shift. To prevent this either they have to be
secured to deck vertically using twist locks or stackers, or over stowed
with a locking 40-ft. container. The latter method is the most commonly
used, because loading a row with 20 ft. containers will generally result
in excess stack weight, as the load in two 20 ft. containers is more than
one 40 ft. container. A 40-ft. container can be loaded on two 20-ft.
containers, but two 20-ft. containers cannot be loaded on a 40-ft.
container, as the container has no vertical supports in the middle and
hence, will collapse. 45-ft. containers can only be loaded in bays meant
for such containers or on the third tier of 40-ft. bay. 45 ft. containers
have corner fittings at 40 ft. and 45 ft. hence they fit on top of 40 ft. and
can be locked. The third tier stowage is to ensure that lashings lead
properly and the extension does not obstruct anything. Any other sizes
will have to be stowed in dedicated slots.
Containers, which are ventilated, should be stowed on deck or in holds
where ventilation is possible. Other specific containers will have to be
stowed as per requirements.
Flexibility

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A container vessel calls at a large number of ports and loads and

discharges at each. Having ensured that the port rotation is accounted
for initially, it now becomes necessary to ensure that it is maintained at
all subsequent loading ports immaterial of the destination of the
container. This is flexibility.
Consider a 4 x 4 matrix of slots and 16 containers to be loaded 4 for
each ports A, B, C & D in that order. A simple distribution would be as
shown, but this creates problems if 4 containers are to be loaded at Port
A for all three remaining ports.
A

Alternatively the distribution could be as follows:

A

Such a distribution again creates problems if no cargo is available at

port A or at any subsequent port. An acceptable distribution would be as
follows:
A

In short every port should in general have a bottom stow from where the
loading sequence can be built up. On main line vessels every port is
given a bottom stow. The amount of slots allotted would depend on the
cargo expected from that port. A bay is divided into (P) (C) & (S) and for
large quantities of cargo the whole bay may be allotted or either (P) &
(S) or only (C). For trimming purposes slots are allotted both ford and
aft.
Special containers

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Special containers like Reefers are discussed separately. Other special

containers will have to be stowed depending on their requirements.
Ships Responsibility
In actual practice, the planner for that port presents the Chief Officer
with a discharge plan and the proposed load plan. The discharge
plan is a bay plan indicating all the containers, which will be discharged
in that port. Although the port of discharge is clearly indicated in all the
Bay Plans, this updated list is the one, which the Chief Officer has to
consider, as discharge ports are sometimes subject to change.
Moreover, some containers may have their discharge port as an option
between 2 or more ports and this discharge plan will indicate which
exactly will be discharged in the present port. The proposed load plan
is a bay plan indicating the weight, port of discharge, and special
characteristic of the container, if any (e.g.- IMDG code, oversize etc). As
most container ships have computer-based loading programs, the Chief
Officer will then discharge and load the containers in his computer
program as per the plans given to him. If there is a violation of any of
the parameters like the stack weight, SF, BM, maximum allowable
trim/list etc., he will get an automatic warning indication. If this happens,
he then brings this to the notice of the planner who then changes the
proposed stow so as to come within the permissible stability
parameters. The Chief Officer has to pay particular attention to the
IMDG containers and ensure that they are stowed in accordance with
the IMDG code, which specifies the segregation and separation
requirements for all IMDG cargo. It must be remembered that all this
goes on while container operations are in progress, and any proposed
changes have to be quickly brought to the notice of the planner to avoid
delays and any extra moves.

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