Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Eee Formula Sheet PDF
Eee Formula Sheet PDF
GATE/IES/PSU-2014
(Formula Sheet for EEE Dept.,)
Formula Sheet
(EEE Department)
Index
Page. No.
1. Mathematics
---
---
1 to 9
---
---
17 to 22
5. Power Systems
---
7. Measurements
---
2. Electromagnetic Fields
-----------
-------------------
*For updates
Facebook: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Twitter: www.twitter.com/ies_bangalore
Contact:
info@gateiespsu.com
Mob: (+91) 99003 99699
10 to 16
23 to 58
59 to 89
90 to 92
93 to 114
115 to 123
124 to 126
127 to 130
131 to 143
Through Mobile app also you can take Online Tests, Practice
Questions, Report Questions and Check Solution of any
question with the Question ID provided at the end of each
question in our books.
Silver
Few Online Tests
Gold
Premium Online Tests
(for both GATE/PSU)
Premium Downloads
Shift
Premium Online Tests
(for both GATE/PSU)
Premium Downloads
Diamond
Premium Online Tests
(for both GATE/PSU)
Premium Downloads
Answering to
reported Qns with
Highest Priority
Answering to
reported Qns with
Highest Priority
Answering to
reported Qns with
Highest Priority
Practice Questions in
online with Solutions
-NA-
Practice Questions in
online with Solutions
Practice Questions in
online with Solutions
AT = A then Hermition
AT = A then Hermition
Diagonal elements of Skew Hermition Matrix must be purely imaginary or zero
Diagonal elements of Hermition matrix always real .
A real Hermition matrix is a symmetric matrix.
|KA| = K n |A|
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 1 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
KA K 1 , K 2 ..K n
m
Am 1m , m
2 .. n .
A + KI
1 + k , 2 + k , .. n + k
(A KI)2 (1 k)2 , (n k)2
Complex Algebra :
=
;
=
1
=
r
1
= r
c f(z)/(Z a)n+1 dz =
f(z) = f(z0 ) + f (z0 )
(zz0 )
1!
2i
n!
+ f (z0)
(zz0 )2
2!
(zz )n
fn (z0 )
n
if z0 = 0 then it is called Mclauren Series f(z) =
0 a n (z z0 ) ; when a n = n !
If f(z) analytic in closed curve C except @ finite no. of poles then
c f(z)dz = 2i (sum of Residues @ singular points within C )
= (a) / (a)
Calculus :-
= lim (1)!
1
1
(c) f(a) = f(b) then there exists at least one value C (a, b) such that f (c) = 0 .
Langranges Mean Value Theorem :If f(x) is continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b) then there exists atleast one value C in (a, b)
f(b)f(a)
such that f (c) =
ba
f(b)f(a)
g(b)g(a)
a f(x). dx = 2 0 f(x)dx
= 0
0 f(x). dx = 2 0 f(x)dx
= 0
na
0 f(x). dx = n 0 f(x)dx
b
f(x) is even
f(x) is odd
if f(x) = f(2a- x)
if f(x) = - f(2a x)
if f(x) = f(x + a)
/2
/2
sinn x = 0
/2
(n1)(n3)(n5)2
n (n2)(n4).3
cosn x =
sinm x . cosn x . dx =
(n1)(n3)1
n (n2)(n4).2
if n odd
. if n even
Working Rule :-
s f(s) ds
dn
dsn
f(s)
0 f(u) du f(s) / s .
Inverse Transforms :-
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 4 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
t sin at
2
2 2 =
(s +a )
2a
s2
(s2 +a2 )2
1
(s2 +a2 )2
s
s 2 a2
a
s 2 a2
=
=
1
2a
1
2a3
= Cos hat
= Sin hat
0 est f(t)dt
Numerical Methods :-
1esT
Bisection Method :(1) Take two values of x1 & x2 such that f(x1 ) is +ve & f(x2 ) is ve then x3 =
+ve then root lies between x3 & x2 otherwise it lies between x1 & x3 .
x1 +x2
2
x x
0
Same as bisection except x2 = x0 - f(x 1)f(x
1
Pi cards Method :x
= f(x, y)
h
2
f(x0 )
f(xn )
f (xn )
yn+1 = y0 + x f(x, yn )
0
0)
dy
dx
= f(x, y)
y = y0 + (x- x0 ) (y )0 +
dy
dx
y1 = y0 + [f(x0 , y0 ) + f(x0 + h, y1 )
(x x0 )2
2!
(y)
0 + .
(x x0 )n
n!
(y)n0
= f(x, y
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 5 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
:
:
h
2
k 2 = h f( x0 + , y0 +
k1
2
k = h f(x0 +h , y0 + k1 )
1
6
k 3 = h ( f (x0 +h , y0 + k ))
Runge Kutta Method :k1 = h f(x0 , y0 )
h
2
k 2 = h f( x0 + , y0 +
h
2
k 3 = h f(x0 + , y0 +
k1
2
k2
2
)
)
1
6
k 3 = h f (x0 +h , y0 + k 3 )
approximation vale
y1 = y0 + K .
x 0
0
f(x). dx =
h
2
[ ( y0 + yn ) + 2 (y1 + y2 + . yn1 )]
@ x0 , x1 , x2 ..
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 6 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
h
3
3h
8
f(x). dx =
f(y) dy = (x) dx
General form is
General form
f(x,y)
(x,y)
dy
dx
Sol : Put y = Vx
=V+x
General form
(i)
a
a
b
b
Sol : Put
(ii)
dy
dx
a
a
Sol : Let
x=X+h
a
a
dy
dx
b
b
& solve
y=Y+k
Choose h, k such that
dy
dx
1
m
ax+by+c
m(ax+by)+c
Put ax + by = t
dv
dx
ax+by+c
a x+b y+c
ax+by+(ah+bk+c)
a x+b y+(a h+b k+c )
b
b
dy
dx
/b
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 7 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
dy
dx
I.F = e p.dx
M f (x, y)
General form M dx + N dy = 0
If
M
y
N
x
N f(x, y)
then
Sol : M. dx
+ (terms of N containing x ) dy = C
( y constant )
eax =
= x
eax
1
f (a)
= x2
1
f(b2 )
1
f(D)
1
f(a)
eax
if f (a) = 0
1
f (a)
sin (ax + b) =
eax
1
f(a2 )
= x
x m = [f(D)]y x m
1
f(D)
Vector Calculus :-
sin (ax + b)
1
f (a2 )
= x2
if f (a) = 0
sin (ax + b)
1
f (a2 )
1
f(D+a)
sin (ax + b)
f(- a2 ) 0
f(- a2 ) = 0
f(x)
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 8 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
C ( dx + dy) = x y dx dy
This theorem converts a line integral around a closed curve into Double integral which is special case of
Stokes theorem .
Series expansion :Taylor Series :f(x) = f(a) +
f(x) = f(0) +
f (a)
1!
f (0)
1!
(x-a) +
x +
(1 + x)n = 1+ nx +
x2
f (0)
2!
n(n1)
2
ex = 1 + x + 2 ! + ..
Sin x = x -
Cos x = 1 -
x3
3!
x2
2!
x5
5!
f (a)
2!
(x a)2 + +
x 2 + +
fn (0)
n!
x 2 + | nx| < 1
fn (a)
n!
(x a)n
- ..
x4
+ 4 ! - ..
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 9 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
|B|
(A.B) B
|B|2
Q
40
Qk (rrk )
Q Q
12
; F12 = 41 R23 . R
|rrk |3
0
1
(rrk )
N
=
Q
40 K=1 |rrk 3 k
L
. a (depends on distance)
2
N
k=1
E = s an - s ( )
20
20
Q
40 R2
ar .
D independent of medium
Gauss Law : Total flux coming out of any closed surface is equal to total charge enclosed by surface .
= Q enclosed D . ds = Q enclosed = v . dv
v = . D
VAB = - A
Q
40 r2
w
Q
= - A E. dI (independent of path)
Potential @ any point (distance = r), where Q is located same where , whose position is vector @ r
Q
V=
|rr |
V(r) =
40
Q
40 r
E = 0, E = - V
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 10 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
r
1
V ;
V 2
r
r
Electric lines of force/ flux /direction of E always normal to equipotential lines .
1
1
1
Energy Density WE = N
Q V = D. E dv = 0 E 2 dv
2 k=1 k k
2
2
v
t
Continuity Equation .J = v = v 0 e
t/Tr
2t
tan
B12 =
B1n = B2n
1
2
H1n =
B2 t
2
1
r2
H2n
d
dt
B. ds
B
Transformer emf = E. dI = -
ds E = t
s
B
t
D
t
E = -
B = H
J = E
. D = v
.B = 0
Ey
Hz
=-
Ez
Hy
= / ; E.H = 0
= 1 + 1
2
2 E =
2 H =
E H in UPW
= j( + j) = + j.
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 11 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
= 1 + + 1
2
E(z, t) = E0 ez cos(t z) ; H0 = E0 / .
|| =
=
+j
1+
| | <
tan 2 = /.
1/4
2
| Np | = 20 log10 = 8.686 dB
= + j
attenuation constant Neper /m .
For loss less medium = 0; = 0.
phase shift/length ; = / ; = 2/ .
Js
=
= / = tan loss tanjent = 2
Jd
Complex permittivity C = 1 = - j .
Tan =
Free space :- ( = 0, = 0 , = 0 )
= 0 , = 0 0 ; u = 1/ 0 0 , = 2/ ; = 0 /0 < 0 = 120 0
Here also E & H in phase .
Good Conductor : > >
/ =
= 0 ; = 0 r
= = f ; u = 2/ ; = 2 / ; =
Skin depth = 1/
1
1+j
= 2 ej/4 =
Skin resistance R s =
Rs .l
w
l
R dc = .
s
R ac =
450
Poynting Vector :
1
(E H) ds = - [ E 2 + H 2 ] dv E 2 dv
dt
2
S
v
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 12 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
ave (z) =
1 E20 2z
e
2 ||
cos az
Total time avge power crossing given area Pavge = Pave (s) ds
S
Direction of propagation :- ( )
ak aE = aH
aE aH = ak
Both E & H are normal to direction of propagation
Means they form EM wave that has no E or H component along direction of propagation .
Reflection of plane wave :(a) Normal incidence
E
Reflection coefficient = Er0 = 2 + 1
E
i0
22
2 + 1
Medium-I Dielectric , Medium-2 Conductor : > :>0 , there is a standing wave in medium & Txed wave in medium 2.
Max values of | E1 | occurs
n
Zmax = - n/1 = 2 1 ; n = 0, 1, 2.
Zmin =
(2n+1)
21
(2n+1)1
4
(2n+1)
2
1 Zmin = n Zmin =
1||
1 min
n
1
Zmax =
n1
2
(2n+1)
21
(2n+1)1
4
s+1
Since || < 1 1
d2 Vs
dz2
- r 2 Vs = 0 ;
d2 Is
dz2
- r 2 Is = 0
= (R + jL)(G + jC) = + j
V(z, t) = V0+ ez cos (t- z) + V0 ez cos (t + z)
V
Z0 = I0 =
0
R+jL
G+jC
R+jL
G+jC
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 13 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
R
G
= RG ; = L = C = LC
R
G
L
C
Z0 = = ; = 1/f LC ; u =
LC
Zin =
0
L
+ Z0 tan l
Z0 + Z tan l
0
L
Z Z
VSWR = L = ZL+Z0
L
CSWR = - L
Transmission coefficient S = 1 +
V
I
1+| L |
Z
SWR = Vmax = Imax =
= ZL
|
min
|Zin |max =
|Zin |min =
Vmax
Imin
Vmin
Imax
min
1|L
= SZ0
= Z0 /S
Shorted line :- L = -1 , S =
L = -1 , S =
Z0
ZL
l < / 4 capacitive
< l < /2 inductive
=0
l = /4
l = /2 : Zin = Z0
impedance inverter @ l = /4
=0
impedance reflector @ l = /2
m 2
h2 = k 2x + k 2y
n 2
b
+ 2
2
2
1
m + n
a
b
n 2
Evanscent mode
b
n 2
k2 <
m 2
a
m 2
k2 >
fc =
up
2
where k =
= 0; = 0 =
; =; =0
+ Propegation mode = j = 0
b
m 2
= k 2
n 2
b
m + n up = phase velocity =
a
c = u /fc =
m
n
( a )2 +(b)2
f 2
f
= 1 c
= / W
TM = Hx = - Hy =
y
TM = 1 fc
TE Modes :- ( = 0)
Hz = H0 cos
f
= 1 fc
enz
cos
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 15 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
= / 1 fc
TE > TM
Antennas :jI dl
Hertzian Dipole :- Hs = 0
sin ej
Half wave Dipole :Hs =
4r
Es = Hs
Es = Hs
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 16 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
2
Energy of a signal |x(t)|2 dt =
= |[]|
1
T |x(t)|2 dt = lim
2+1
x1 (t) P1 ; x2 (t) P2
x1 (t) + x2 (t) P1 + P2 iff x1 (t) & x2 (t) orthogonal
2
N
n=N |x[n]|
Shifting & Time scaling wont effect power . Frequency content doesnt effect power.
if power = neither energy nor power signal
Power = 0 Energy signal
Power = K power signal
S (t) = h(t)
Step response s(t) = h(t) * u(t) = h(t)dt
ex
/22
2 /22
dx = 2 ; x 2 ex
dx = 3 2 > 0
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 17 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
+j
1
X(s) est
2j j
ds
x() = lim ()
0
Properties of ROC :-
4. x(t) Right sided then ROC right side of right most pole excluding pole s =
5. x(t) left sided
ROC is a strip
8. if x(t) stable
7. if x(t) causal
Z-transform :x[n] =
1
2j
x(z) z n1 dz
n
X(z) =
n= x[n] z
Properties of ROC :-
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 18 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Group delay
= c
P(AB)
P(B)
P(Ai B)
P(B)
B
Ai
P P(Ai)
B
Ai
n
i=1 P P(Ai)
Fx () = P { X } = 1
Fx (- ) = 0
Fx (x1 X x2 ) = Fx (x2 ) - Fx (x1 )
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 19 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
d
dx
Fx (x)
Pmf = fx (x) =
i= P{X = xi } (x = xi )
Properties: fx (x) 0
P { x1 < X x2 } = x 2 fx (x)dx
Variance 2 = E { (X x )2 } = E {x 2 } - 2x
fx (x) =
Fx (x) =
Mean =
; <
0 ,
a+b
2
1 ; >
; < <
0 ;
Variance = (b a)2 / 12
E{ x 2 } =
a2 + ab+ b2
3
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 20 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
X ~ N (1 2)
Mean = x
Variance =
22
22
2 /22
e(x)
x 2 e(x)
dx =
2 /22
Exponential Distribution :-
dx = 2
fx (x) = ex u(x)
Fx (x) = ( 1- ex ) u(x)
Laplacian Distribution :
fx (x) = e |x|
2
FXY (x , y) = P { X x , Y y }
FXY (x , ) = P { X x } = Fx (x) ; Fxy ( , y) = P { Y < y } = FY (y)
Fxy (-, y) = Fxy (x, - ) = Fxy (-, -) = 0
FY/X x =
fY/X (y/x) =
P{Y y, X x}
P{X x}
fxy (x,y)
FXY (x,y)
FX (x)
fx (x)
Auto correlation
Auto covariance
cross correlation
cross covariance
R x (0) = E { x 2 }
R x () = R x (-) even
| R x () | R x (0)
Cross Correlation
R xy() = R yx(-)
R2xy() R x (0) . R y (0)
2 | R xy()| R x (0) + R y (0)
P.S.D
Sx (j) = R x () ej d
R x () =
1
(j)ej d
2
2
1
(j) d
2
R x () = k () white process
Properties :
Sx (j) even
Sx (j) 0
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 22 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
DC MACHINES : -
Lap Winding
Wave Winding
Ycs = P
Ycs = P
Yb = U Ycs
Yc = 1
for Progressive winding
Yc = -1
for Retrogressive winding
Yf =Yb +2
for Progressive winding
Yf =Yb -2
for Retrogressive winding
A=P
I
Ic = Aa
(7) No of brushes
S = No of commutator segments
P = No of poles
Yc =
A=2
I
Ic = 2a
No of brushes = 2
0electrical = 2 0mechanical
2 (c+1)
2C
Yb = U Ycs
No of brushes = A = P
Pitch factor ( K p ) =
1800
*100%
chord
arc
ZI
a
Armature mmf/Pole (Peak) , ATa = 2AP
ZI
pole arc
a
AT (Compensating Winding) = 2AP
* pole pitch
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 23 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
AT(Inter pole)
Ia
pole arc
ZNP
60A
PZ
Shunt Generator:
Vnl Vfl
Vfl
* 100 %
nl fl
fl
* 100 % =
Nnl Nfl
Nfl
* 100 %
For a shunt generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular
speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 24 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
(d) The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by
Isf =Isf +
Nse
Nf
Ia - (
Nf
(d)
The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by
Isf =Isf -
Nse
Nf
Ia - (
Nf
Shunt Motor:
For a shunt motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular
speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a shunt motor:
- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.
The airgap power Pe for a shunt motor is:
Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia
V
Ra
The speed of the shunt motor , = K - (K)
2T
PZ
Where K = 2A
Series Motor :
For a series motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia,
armature resistance Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 26 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
constant losses (P k) = Pw f + Pi o
Where, Pio = No of load core loss
Efficiency
The per-unit efficiency of an electrical machine with input power Pin, output
power Pout and power loss Ploss is:
= Pout / Pin = Pout / (Pout + Ploss) = (Pin - Ploss) / Pin
Rearranging the efficiency equations:
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 27 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Temperature Rise:
The resistance of copper and aluminium windings increases with temperature,
and the relationship is quite linear over the normal range of operating
temperatures. For a linear relationship, if the winding resistance is R1 at
temperature 1 and R2 at temperature 2, then:
R1 / (1 - 0) = R2 / (2 - 0) = (R2 - R1) / (2 - 1)
where 0 is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.
The ratio of resistances R2 and R1 is:
R2 / R1 = (2 - 0) / (1 - 0)
The average temperature rise of a winding under load may be estimated from
measured values of the cold winding resistance R1 at temperature 1 (usually
ambient temperature) and the hot winding resistance R2 at temperature 2, using:
= 2 - 1 = (1 - 0) (R2 - R1) / R1
Rearranging for per-unit change in resistance Rpu relative to R1:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = (2 - 1) / (1 - 0) = / (1 - 0)
.Copper Windings:
The value of 0 for copper is - 234.5 C, so that:
= 2 - 1 = (1 + 234.5) (R2 - R1) / R1
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / (1 - 0) = 1 / 254.5 = 0.00393
The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 20 C is 0.00393 per
degC.
Aluminium Windings:
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 28 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / (1 - 0) = 1 / 248 = 0.00403
The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 20 C is 0.00403 per
degC.
Dielectric Dissipation Factor:
If an alternating voltage V of frequency f is applied across an insulation system
comprising capacitance C and equivalent series loss resistance RS, then the
voltage VR across RS and the voltage VC across C due to the resulting
current I are:
VR = IRS
VC = IXC
V = (VR2 + VC2)
The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the
dielectric loss angle between VC and V:
tan = VR / VC = RS / XC = 2fCRS
RS = XCtan = tan / 2fC
The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power QC by:
P = I2RS = I2XCtan = QCtan
The power factor of the insulation system is the cosine of the phase
angle between VR and V:
cos = VR / V
so that and are related by:
+ = 90
tan and cos are related by:
tan = 1 / tan = cos / sin = cos / (1 - cos2)
so that when cos is close to zero, tan cos
TRANSFORMERS:
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 29 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Net cross sectional area = Area occupied by only magnetic material excluding area
of insulation material.
Hence for all calculations, net cross sectional area is taken since (flux) majorly
flows in magnetic material.
= BAn
t
f
Weight of
t
f
KVA rating of
Effective C.S.Area
mmF
Instantaneous value
of emf in primary
ry
E2
N2
= 4.44 Bmax An f
E1
N1
E1
E2
E2
N2
N1
N2
Transformation ratio = K =
E2
E1
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 30 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Turns ratio = K = N1 N2
E1
f
V1
f
Bmax = constant
V1
f
= constant
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 31 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
I0
Iw
R0
V1
X0
N2
E1
E2
v1
Iw1
; X0 =
v1
I
Transferring from
R1
R 21
to :-
Iw =
No load power
V1
I22 R 2 = I12 R 21
I
R 21 = R 2 I2
R
= 22
K
R
1
R 2 = K22
I12
. R1
I22
R11 = R1 . K 2
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 32 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
I1 R01
E1
ry I2 R02
II = E
2
I2 R02
E2
1. Copper losses
2. Iron losses
3. Stray load losses
4. Dielectric losses
1. Cu losses in t/f:
VA rating of t/f
E1
ry VA rating of t/f
Similarly current on II =
E2
Cu losses I12 or I22. Hence there are called
FL Cu loss in watts
P.U Full load Cu loss =
VA rating of t/f
Rated current on I ry =
as variable losses.
I12 R01
E1 I1
If VA rating of t/f is taken as base then P.U Cu loss I12 as remaining terms are constant.
ry
P. U resistance drop ref to I =
or
P. U resistance ref to Iry
I1 R01
E1
I12 R01
E1 I1
I1
I1
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 33 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Wh = Bmax . f . v
Where
= stienmetz coefficient
Bmax = max. flux density in transformer core.
f = frequency of magnetic reversal = supply freq.
v = volume of core material
x = Hysteresis coeff (or) stienmetz exponent
= 1.6 (Si or CRGo steel)
2. Eddycurrent loss:
Eddy current loss ,(We ) R ce Ie2
As area decreases in laminated core resistance increases as a result conductivity decreases.
2
We = K. Bmax
f 2. t2
thickness of laminations.
Supply freq
Constant
(it is a function of )
During operation of transformer :Case (i) :-
V1
f
Bm
V1
f
we = B f 2
Const.
wi = wh + we
wi = Af + Bf
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 34 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
we f1 . f 2
we V1 2
wi = wh + we
wi =
A V11.6
f0.6
+ BV1 2
As VA rating is choosen as base then the P.U iron loss are also constant at all load conditions.
To find out constant losses : W0 = Losses in t/f under no load condition
= Iron losses + Dielectric loss + no load primary loss (I02 R1)
Wi
(Wi )SC
V1 rated 2
VSC
(Wi )S.C = Wi
VSC
V1 rated
VSC
1 rated
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 35 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
WSC
2
ISC
=E
F.L =
of F.L
E2 I2 cos 2
x (E2 I2 ) cos 2
x (E2 I2 ) cos 2 + x 2 (I2 2 R 02 ) + Wi
S.C test
Transformer efficiency =
Efficiency = =
O.C test
KVA cos
KVA cos + wi + Cu losses
x MVA Pf
x MVA Pf + wcu x2 + wi
1
Iron loss
F.L culoss
02
Iron loss
*100
F.L.cu loss
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 36 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
24
hrs
I R02
=2
V1
V1
I X02
cos 2 2
V1
100
sin 2
P.U resistance
P.U reactance
% Regulation = (P. U R) cos 2 + (P. U X) sin 2 100
d regn
d 2
=0
Tan 2 =
%X
%R
X02
R02
X02
R02
2 = Tan1
lagging
X
XL
RL
X02
R02
X
Tan1 R02
02
(% X)
(% X)
%Z
max. % regn = % Z
%R
%X
02
X
RL
R02
X02
R02
X02
Ia
86.6%
0.577
0.866
3
V1 0.866
V1
0.289
B
ia
IB
IC
C
VAM = 0.866 V1
2
:
1
IA
2
M
V1
Va
IBC
IA
2
Vb
ib
VAN = 31 = 0.577 V1
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 38 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Operation of Scott Connection with 2 balanced load at UPF :Teaser t/f :Ia
ia
Ia =
N2
0.866 N1
N2
0.866 N1
ia
Let N1 N2 = 1 1
IA = 1.15 ia
Main t/f
IBC
ib
= N2
1
IBC =
N2
N1
ib
Let N1 : N2 = 1 1
IBC = ib
IB = IBC IA
IC = IBC IA
3 V1 I1
2V1 I1
= 0.866
N2
Vab =
N1 N2
N2
K of auto transformer =
LV
HV
(KVA)induction = (V1 V2 ) I1
I/P KVA = V1 I1
(KVA)induction
i/p KVA
(V1 V2 ) I1
=1
V1 I1
LV
HV
=1K
(KVA) induction = (1 K) i/p KVA
2(N1 N2 )I1
2N1 I1
N
1 2
N1
=1K
Wt. of conductor in auto t/f = (1 K) (wt. of conductor in 2 wdg t/f)
Thus saving of conductor material if auto t/f is used} = K {conductor wt in 2 wdg transformer.
(% FL losses)Auto t/f = (1 K)(% FL losses)2 wdg t/f
(% Z)AT = (1 K) (% Z)2 wdg t/f
(KVA)AT =
1
(KVA)2 wdg t/f .
1K
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 40 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Principle of operation :Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in that conductor
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
Coil span () :- It is the distance between two sides of the coil. It is expressed in terms of
degrees, pole pitch, no. of slots / pole etc
Pole pitch :- It is the distance between two identical points on two adjacent poles.
Pole pitch is always 180 e = slots / pole.
elec =
P
2
mech
Slot pitch or slot angle :- (T)Slot angle is the angle for each slot.
For a machine with P poles and s no. of slots, the slot angle = =
=
180
s
p
P(180)
d
K p = cos /2
Kd =
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 41 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
m
2
m sin
2
sin
mr
2
mr
2
180
mn
2
n
m sin
2
sim
sin
360
n
Generally, KVA rating, power output kd and Eph (induce emf) k d . Tph .
KVA60 (3 )
KVA120 (3 )
KVA60 (3)
KVA90 (2)
KVA90 (2 )
KVA180 (1 )
Pout60 (3 )
Pout120 (3)
Pout60 (3)
Pout90 (2)
KVA60 (3)
KVA180 (1)
kd60
kd90
Pout60 (3)
Pout180 (1 )
Pout90
Pout180
kd60
kd120
60
2
90
sin
2
sin
kd60
kd180
kd90
kd180
60
2
120
sin
2
sin
90
60
60
2
180
sin
2
sin
sin902
sin1802
m120
m60
sin 30
sin 60
120
60
= 1.15
= 1.06
180
60
180
90
= 1.5
= 1.414
1
. Ns
1)
120 f
p
Slot harmonics can be eliminated by skewing the armature slots and fractional slot winding.
The angle of skew = s = (slot angle)
m
2
m sin
2
sin
s = 2fs / p
Slip S =
NS N
NS
Where NS =
120 f
p
= synchronous speed
Synchronous Generator:
For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and
synchronous impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and synchronous
impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
% regulation =
E V = Ia Zs
|V|
EV
V
Ia Zs
% regulation =
=
100
100
regulation Zs
As Zs increases, voltages regulation increases.
1
Xa
Ifm
Ifa
1
Armature reaction
1
Zs (adjusted)|unit
Ia Zs
2V
1
Xs (adjusted)|unit
1
Voltage regulation
armature mmf
reluctance
armature mmf
airgap
1
Air gap length
Armature reaction a
1
Airgap length
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 44 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
1
Armature reaction
Airgap length
EV
sin
Xs
1
Xs
SCR
Power SCR
dp
d
d
EV
sin
d Xs
EV
cos
Xs
1
Xs
SCR
Stability SCR
When the stator mmf is aligned with the d axis of field poles then flux d perpole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is X d .
Xd =
maximum Voltage
minimum current
Xq =
minimum voltge
maximum voltage
When the stator mmf is aligned with the q axis of field poles then flux q per pole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is X q.
=
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 45 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Ef Vt
Xs
sin
Ef Vt
Vt2
sin
+
Xd
2
1
sin 2
Xd
X
q
Condition for max. power: For cylindrical rotor machine :At constant Vt and Ef , the condition for max. power is obtained by putting
dp
d
Ef Vt
cos
Xs
=0
dp
d
=0
Cos = 0
= 90
Hence maximum power occurs at = 90
For salient pole synchronous machine :
Vt Ef
cos +
Xd
Cos = 4V
Vt 2
Ef Xq
1
Xq
Xd Xq
1
cos 2
Xd
=0
E Xq
1
f
+ 4V
2
X
t
d Xq
dp
d
=0
Synchronizing
EV
cos(
Zs
V2
cos
Zs
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 46 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
EV
sin(
Z2
EV
cos(
Zs
V2
cos
Z2
V2
sin
Zs
EV
Zs
V2
Z cos
s
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS:
NN.L NF.L
100
NF.L
N N
= S S 100 = 0%
NS
NS N
NS NS
= N = 0%
NS
S
120 f
NS =
p
Speed regulation =
Slip S =
V
f
P = Z cos
2
EV
cos( +
ZS
:
If R a = 0 ; ZS = X S ; 90
EV
Pin = X sin
S
) :
V2
Q = Z sin
2
EV
sin(
ZS
+ )
Q = X [V E cos ]
S
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 47 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Pmax =
EV
ZS
Expression for mechanical power developed : Mechanical power developed = Pm = active component + [E Ia ]
EV
cos(
ZS
Pm =
) +
E2
cos
ZS
EV
sin(
ZS
) = 0
Sin ( ) = 0 = sin 0
=
EV
ZS
Pm max =
E2
cos
ZS
This is the expression for the mechanical power developed interms of load angle and the
internal machine angle , for constant voltage Vph and constant E i.e., excitation
Gross Torque =
Pm
w
Pm
2 Ns
60
Tg =
60
2
9.55 Pm
Ns
Pm
NS
Condition for excitation when motor develops Pmax :For max power developed is
dPm
=0
dE
d EV
cos(
dt ZS
E2
cos
ZS
= 0
VZS
2Ra
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 48 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Pmax = 2R
a
V2
4Ra
Stator
copper loss
2
Ra
3 Iaph
3 VL IL cos
(input)
Mechanical power
developed in armature
Pm = 3Ebph . Iaph cos
( )
Tsh =
+ ve lead
Pout
ve for lag
2 Ns
60.
Friction
and Iron
losses
Pout
output
Ia Xq cos + Ra sin
t + Ia
Xq sin Ra cos
Eb Vph
Xd
sin +
Vph2
INDUCTION MACHINES:
X
q
1
sin 2
Xd
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 49 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Stator
I2R
loss
Mechanical power
developed, Pm
Pg
Power of
rotor shaft
Stator
core
loss
P . SNs
120
=S
ns nr
ns
Ns Nr
Ns
PNs
120
= Sf1
For an induction machine with rotor resistance Rr and locked rotor leakage reactance Xr, the
rotor impedance Zr at slip s is:Zr = Rr + jsXr
The stator circuit equivalent impedance Zrf for a rotor / stator frequency ratio s is:
Zrf = Rrs / s + jXrs
For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed s running at angular speed m and
slip s, the airgap transfer power Pt, rotor copper loss Pr and gross output power Pm for a
gross output torque Tm are related by:
Pt = sTm = Pr / s = Pm / (1 - s)
Pr = sPt = sPm / (1 - s)
Pm = mTm = (1 - s)Pt
The power ratios are:
Pt : Pr : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency m (neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:
m = Pm / Pt = 1 - s
Rotor emf, Current Power :At stand still, the relative speed between rotating magnetic field and rotor conductors is
synchronous speed Ns ; under this condition let the per phase generated emf in rotor circuit
be E2 .
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 50 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
But during running conditions the frequency of the rotor becomes, running with speed Nr
P(Ns Nr )
120
P SNs
120
= Sf1
fr = Sf1
Emf under running conditions is
E = 2 fr Kw2 Nphr 1
= SE2
Rotor leakage reactance = 2 (Rotor frequency)
(Rotor leakage Inductance)
Rotor leakage reactance at stand still = 2 f1 2
= x2
Rotor leakage reactance at any slips = 2 f2 2
= sx2
= r22 + (sx2 )2
r22 + x22
The rotor current I2 lags the rotor voltage E2 by rotor power factor angle 2 given by
sx
2 = tan1 r 2
2
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 51 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
cos 2 =
r2 /s
r2 /s
Pg = E2 I2
E2
= I22
r2
s
I2
r2
s
Pg is the power transferred from stator to rotor across the air gap. There fore Pg is called air
gap power
r
Pg = I22 s2
= I22 r2 + I22 r2
1S
1S
1S
Pm = SPg
Te =
Pm
r
(1S)Pg
(1S)s
Pg
Pg
1
s
I22 r2
Rotor ohmic loss
=
(s ) slip
S
Rotor ohmic loss
(s ) slip
Te =
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 52 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Psh
(1s) s
Ratio of Rotor input power, rotor copper losses and gross mechanical output is
1
1 : S : (1 S)
Rotor copper losses = S Rotor input
Gross mechanical output =(1 S) Rotor input.
Equal to rotor =
=
S
1S
=1S
=1
=
N
Ns
rotor
NS N
NS
N
Ns
Total torque is
Te =
m
s
Ve2
r2 2
Re + + (x2 + Xe )2
s
s
m
s
r2
s
Nm
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 53 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Substituting the value of maximum slip in the torque equation, gives maximum torque
Tem =
=x2
m
s
Ve2
If stator parameters are neglected then applying maximum transfer theorem to r2 /s then
r2
s
r2
x2
(Breakdown slip)
Nm = Ns (1 Sm )
Nm = Ns (1 R 2 /x2 )
Starting torque:-
Test =
r2
(Re + r2 )2 + X2
The torque expression of an induction motor can also be expressed in terms of maximum
torque Tem and dimension less ratio
S
.
Sm,T
Te
Tem
2Re + Re2 + X2
r 2
Re + 2 + X2
s
Since r1 or Re is neglected
Te
Tem
2X
r 2
2 + X2
s
r2
s
r2
s
Te
Tem
Te
Tem
2X
S
X 2
mT + X2
s
SmT
S
S
SmT
SmT X
s
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 54 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
2Tem
SmT
S
+
S
SmT
mVe2
r (1s)
Re + r2 + 2
+ X2
s
Maximum power transfer theorem is invoked again to obtain maximum value of internal
mechanical power developed. Since Pm per phase is the power delivered to r2
mechanical power developed is maximum, when
rs 1Smp
SmP
SmP =
internal
= (R e + r2 )2 + X 2
r2
(Re + r2 )2 + X2 + r2
1s
,
s
mve2
2[Re + r2 + (Re + r2 )2 + X2
r2 1 Smp
Smp
, in place of
r2 (1s)
s
in power equation
In order to get maximum power output from an induction generator, the rotor must be deiven
at a speed given by
r2
ns 1 +
(R e + r2 )2 + X 2 + r2
V
f
is constant. As Bm
Bm is constant
Ph f
and
V
f
Pe f 2
Case (ii) : If the ratio of voltage to frequency is not constant and flux is also not constant
v
const
const
f
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 55 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Ph v1.6 f 0.6
Pe v 2
= Kh f
Ph v1.6
Pe v12
V
Vbr
Cos br =
Pbr
3
V
br Ibr
R br =
Vbr
Ibr
output power
input power
Net mechanical output
Induction motor =
Electrical power input
Generally efficiency =
Efficiency of
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 56 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
GD
GF
Psc 3 Isc2 r1
3 Isc2 r1
Wound rotor
GD
GF
I22 r2
I12 r1
r2
r1
I2
1
Direct on line (across the line) starting : The relation between starting torque and full load torque is
Te.st
Te.fl
Te =
1
s
I22
2 r2
I2.st
2
I2.ft
1
r2
Sfl
r2
s
= I2 st Sfl
2 fl
Where
Ist
Ifl
= Ist Sfl
fl
Per phase short circuit current at stand still (or at starting) is,
V1
Zsc
Isc =
Ist = Isc =
I
fl
V1
Zsc
Stator resistor (or reactor) starting :Since per phase voltage is reduced to xv, the per phase starting current Ist is given by
xv
Ist = Z 1 = xIsc
As be fore
Te.st
Te.fl
sc
= Ist Sfl
fl
xI 2
I sc
fl
Sfl
xv
= v 1 = x2
1
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 57 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Auto transformer starting : Per phase starting current from the supply mains is Ist = x 2 Isc
Te.st
Te fl
Te.st
Te.fl
Ist Isc
Ifl2
Sfl
Sfl
xv
= 1 = x2
v
1
= [V
2
L]
1
3
star delta starter also reduces the starting torque to one third of that produced by direct switching
in delta.
With star delta starter, a motor behaves as if it were started by an auto transformer starter with x =
1
2r
1
12
I
ws st .y
1
r
(I )2 2
ws fl d
Sfl
2
1
I
3 st .d
(Ifl .d )2
Sfl =
1
3
d 2
I sc . d Sfl
fl .
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 58 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Power systems:
Water Power equation: Water Head : The difference of water level is called the water head.
Gross Head : The total head between the water level at inlet and tail race is called as gross
head
Rated Head : Head utilized in doing work on the turbine
Net Head : It is the sum of the Rated Head and the loss of head in guide passage and
entrance
H = Head of water in metre
Q = Quantity of water in m3 /sec or lit/sec.
W = specific gravity of water
= 1 kg/lit when Q represented in lit/sec.
= 100 kg/m3 when Q represented in m3 /sec.
= efficiency of the system.
Effective work done
or
= WQH kg- m/sec.
Output of system
Metric output =
WQH
75
(H.P)
1H.P = 75 kg-m/sec
Metric output in watt =
Output =
WQH
102
kw
WQH
75
735.5
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 59 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
overall
alt
engine
mech. of englnd
Heat produced by fuel per day = coal consumption / day caloritic value
Terms and Definitions :1. Connected load :It is the sum of ratings in kilo watts of equipment installed in the consumers premises
2. Demand :It is the load or power drawn from the source of supply at the receiving end averaged over a
specified period.
3. Maximum Demand :Maximum demand (M.D) of a power station is the maximum load on the power station in a given
period.
4. Average load:If the number of KWH supplied by a station in one day is divided by 24 hours, then the value so
obtained is known as daily average load.
KWH deliverd in one day
24
KWH delivered in one month
Monthly average load =
30 24
KWH delivered in one year
Yearly average load =
365 24
5. Plant capacity :It is the capacity or power for which a plant or station is designed. It should be slightly more than
M.D. it is equal to sum of the ratings of all the generators in a power station.
6. Firm Power :It is the power which should be always be available even under emergency
7. Prime Power :It is the maximum power (may be thermal or hydraulic or mechanical) continuously available for
conversion into electrical power.
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 60 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
.
The load factor will be always less than one (< 1)
Demand factor:It is defined as the ratio of maximum demand on the station to the total connected load to
the station.
Demand factor =
Diversity Factor :Diversity factor may be defined as the sum of individual maximum demand to the station
to the maximum demand on the power station.
Diversity factor =
Where KW1, KW2, KW3 etc. are the kilowatt ratings of each generator and H1 , H2 , H3 etc.
are the number of hours for which they have been worked.
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 61 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Coincidence factor:It is the reciprocal of diversity factor and is always less than 1
Maximum demand
Plant capacity
Service hours
Operation factor =
Total duration
Actual energy produced
Use factor =
Plant capacity Time (hrs)the plant has been in operation
Utilization factor =
A
i
A
B
dx
Fig. (a)
= 0 ir ( x)dx = ir x
1
2
1
2
ir 2
x2
= IR
Where
=
x
dx
A
C
V
i
=V
IR
8
1
8
ir
2
(x x 2 ).
IR
volts
(ii) Distributor fed at both ends with unequal voltages :The point of minimum potential C is situated at a distance x meters from the feeding point A.
Voltage drop in section AC =
x
A
VA
i
x=
i
VA VB
ir
irx2
2
volts.
- x
VB
5
8
1
2a
5
16
If the neutral has the same cross section as the outer, then.
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 63 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
= 37.5%
3
4
1
2a
3
8
Transmission Lines:
The empirical formula for the economical voltage line to line is V = 5.5
3P
+
1.6
100
Performance of Lines
By performance of lines is meant the determination of efficiency and regulation of
lines.
The efficiency of lines is defined as
% efficiency =
% efficiency =
% regulation =
100
100
100
Where Vr is the receiving end voltage under no load condition and Vr the
Receiving end voltage under full load condition.
Effect of Earth on a 3 line:S. No
Line Description
1.
Length Increases
Increases
Increases
2.
Increases
XL
XC
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Increases
Decreases
Increases
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 64 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Symmetrical spacing.
Decreases
Increases
Decreases
5.
Unsymmetrical spacing.
Increases
Decreases
Increases
6.
No change
No change
Increases
Decreases
7.
No change
No change
Decreases
Increases.
C=
2 0
ln 2hr
F/metre
Daa
ln
0
Dab Daa
r Dab
F/metre
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 65 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
x
h
C=
C=
1 transmission line
F/metre.
2
h
h
+ 2
r
r
L
V
0
ln hr
F/metre.
C = Va =
a
2 D
3 D D D
ab bc ca 3 Daa Dbb Dcc
D
r
D
D
ab bc ca
ln
F/metre.
C = Va =
a
20
ln
GMD
r
F/metre
Vertical Spacing:h
a
d
b
g
f
c
1
a
c
a
3
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 66 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
For Vertical Spacing conductors, The capacitance C per phase of the system is
C=
4 0
d g
ln 2
r f
2
3
F/metre/phase.
C = Va =
a
20
3D
2
ln
F/metre/coloumb
Bundled conductors: For a two conductor bundle, the equation for maximum gradient at the surface of a
sub-conductor is
g=
V1+
2r ln
2r
s
d
rs
P0 = (rd) 2 = r 2 d 2
When there are 3 conductors
1
3
P0 = (r d d )
For 4 conductors
P0 = r
d
2
d
2
= r
1
3
1
4
2
3
= r
1
4
1
3
3
4
3
4
5
1 d 6
6
2
1
2
1
4
1
6
d 5
= 6r
2
1
6
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 67 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
g
f
c
1
a
c
a
3
1
6
1
2
d
r
g
f
1
3
H/metre/phase
2
1
3
n
A
B
A
LA = 2 10
ln
m2
mn
The mnth root of the product of the mn distances between m strands of conductor A and n strands
of conductor B is called geometric mean distance (GMD) and is denoted as Dm .
The m2 th root of m2 distances i.e., the distance of the various strands from one of the strands
and
the radius of the same strand, the distances of such m groupings constitute m2 terms
in the denominator, is called the geometric mean radius (GMR) of self GMD and is denoted
as Ds .
LA = 2 107 ln
Dm
Ds
Henry/metre.
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 68 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Composite Conductors,
Inductance L per unit length
0
D
ln Henry/metre.
R
D
7
10 ln Henry/metre [where
R
= 40 +
=4
1
4]
R = R. e
b
Ic
L=
Ib
a
3 transmission with
Unsymmetrical spacing
La + Lb + Lc
3
= 2 107 ln
abc
R
Henry/metre.
Vr
1 +
2Ir R cos r
Vr
2Ir X sin r
Vr
Ir2
Vr2
(R2 + X 2 )
In practice the last term under the square root sign is generally negligible; therefore.
2Ir R
cos r
Vr
VS = Vr 1 +
R + JX
vS
IS
1
2
2Ir X
sin r
Vr
Ir
vr
vS
r a
vr
jIrX
IrR
Ir
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 69 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
%regulation =
100
= Vr cos r + Vx sin r
Where Vr and Vx are the per unit values of resistance and reactance of the line.
Vs = AVr + BIr
Is = CVr + DIr
V
A = Vs Ir = 0
r
This means A is the voltage impressed at the sending end per volt at the receiving end when
receiving end is open. It is dimensionless.
B=
Vs
Ir
Vr = 0
B is the voltage impressed at the sending end to have one ampere at the short circuited receiving
end. This is known as transfer impedence in network theory.
I
C = Vs Ir = 0
r
C is the current in amperes into the sending end per volt on the open circuited receiving end. It
has the dimension of admittance.
I
D = s Vr = 0
I
r
D is the current at the sending end for one ampere of current at the short circuited receiving end
.
The constants A, B, C, and D are related for a passive network as follows
AD BC = 1
The sending end voltage and current can be written from the equivalent network as,
Vs = Vr + Ir Z
Is = I r
The constants for short transmission lines are,
A=1
B=Z
C=0
D=1
% regulation =
VS Vr
A
Vr
100
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 70 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
%=
Medium Length Lines: Transmission lines with lengths between 80 km and 160 km are categorized as medium lines
where the parameters are assumed to be lumped. .
The two configurations are known as nominal T and nominal respectively.
vS
IS
R
jX
+2
2
R
jX
+2
2
vC
IC
Ir
vr
Y = jwc
R + jX
vS
Y
2
Y
2
Ir
IC1
vr
Nominal T
vS
vr
IC
Vr =
wc
R jX
j
+
2 2 wc
Vr Vr
IS
P+3
Vr
P
X
2
R
2
jIr X/2
IS
Ir
|VS |
% of regulation =
%=
vc
jIS
100
R
I 2 + I52
2 r
100
YZ
2
B = Z 1 +
C=Y
Nominal
D = 1 +
YZ
YZ
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 71 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Z = R + jx
IC2
Y
2
vS
Vr =
jwc
2
Y
2
I
jwc
2
IC1
vr
2j
C
j
R+jX C
2
|VS |
% regulation =
%=
vS
IC & IC
IS
Ir
vr
IR
jIX
Vr LVr
100
Vr
P
100
P+3 I2 R
Y
2
C = Y 1 +
D = 1 +
YZ
YZ
Long Transmission Lines: In case the lines are more than 160 km long
I + I
V + V1 I + I ZX
vS V + V
vr
V1 I
CX
YX
I
(Aerx Berx )
ZC
V +I Z
V I Z
V = r 2 r c erx + r 2r C erx
1 V +I Z
V I Z
I = r 2 r C erx r 2 r C erx
ZC
I=
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 72 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
z
y
r+jL
g+jC
The propagation constant r = + j ; the real part is known as attenuation constant and the
quadrature component the phase constant and is measured in radians per unit length.
Vr + Ir ZC
2
V=
ex . ejx +
Vr Ir ZC
2
sin hrl
+
Zc
A = cosh rl
B = Zc sinh rl
C=
Ir cos hrl
ex . ejx
sinh rl
Zc
D = cosh rl
The equivalent Circuit Representation of a Long Line equivalent Representation
y1
VS
Z1 =
Z sinhr
r
y1
2
y Tanhr/2
2
r/2
IS
VS
Z
2
Z
2
Tanhr/2
r/2
Y1 = Y
sinh r
r
Vr
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 73 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
vS
Ir
I
A1 , B1
C1 , D1
A
A B
equivalent
= 1
C1
C D
IS 1
A2 , B2
V
B1 A2
D1 C2
C 2 , D2
B2
D2
vS
A1 , B1
C1 , D1
IS
IS 2
vr
A2 , B2
C 3 , D2
A=
Equivalent
Single
Network
Parameters
Ir
vr
A1 B2 + A2 B1
B1 + B2
B .B
B = B 1+ B2
1
A=D=
A1 B2 + A2 B1
B1 + B2
C = C1 + C2 +
D1 B2 + D2 B1
B1 + B2
(A1 A2 )(D2 D1 )
B1 + B2
3.92 b
273+t
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 74 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
V = rg 0 m0 ln kV
Where m0 = average value for the ratio of breakdown voltage and smooth conductor
Polished wires
Roughened or weathered wires
Seven strand cable
Large cables with more then seven strands
1
0.98 to 0.93
0.87 to 0.83
0.90 approx
The distance between g v and g 0 is called energy distance. According to peek this distance
is equal to (r + 0.301r) for coaxial conductors.
g v = g 0 1 +
vv = rg 0 1 +
0.3
r
0.3
d
r
ln kV
0.3
ln r kV rms
(f+25)
d Vp V0 kw/km/phase
wl2
2T
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 75 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Sag =
Wl2
2T
Factor of Safety
factor of safety =
Max. Stress
permissible stress
Wx12
2T
x1 =
x2 =
; S2 =
+
2
Th
w
Th
w
Wx22
2T
x1 + x2 =
S2 S1 = h
The sag is provided in over headlines so that the safe tension is not exceeded.
Most Economical Conductor size in a cable : g max =
2V
d loge
D
d
volts/m
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 76 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
D
2.718
2V
d
volts/m
If Pi and Q i are scheduled electrical generation, PDi and Q Di are the respective load demands,
Pi PDi P = Mi = 0
where
Q i Q Di Q = Ni = 0
Mi and Ni represent the power residuals at bus i and P and Q the power flow to the neighbouring
system given by
P = N
j=1 Vi Vj Yij cosij ij
Q = N
j=1 Vi Vj Yij ij ij
For proper operation, each generator should have a minimum and maximum permissible output
and the unit production should be constrained to ensure that
Pimin Pi Pimax , i = 1, 2, , NP
Q imin Q i Q imax , i = 1, 2, , Na
Np and NQ being total number of real and reactive sources in the system
The condition for optimum operation is
dF
dF1
dP1
dF2
dP2
= =
dFn
dPn
The incremental production cost of a given plant over a limited range is represented by
dFn
dPn
= Fnn Pn + fn
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 77 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
PL
Pn
PL
Pn
= 2 m Bmn Pm also
d Fn
d Pn
= Fnn Pn + fn
fn
2 Bmn Pm
m n
Pn =
Fnn
+ 2 Bnn
Where Pm and Pn are the source loadings, Bmn the transmission loss co efficient.
1
Where Pm and Pn are the source loadings, Bmn the transmission loss co efficient.
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 78 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
100
V= phase voltage
X= reactance in ohms per phase
Alternatively percentage reactance (%X) (an also be expressed in terms of KVA and KV
under
%X=
()
10()2
100
)
%
Isc= = I (
i.e short circuit current is obtained by multiplying the full load current by 100/%X
Short- circuit KVA=Base KVA
100
%
Symmetrical components in terms of phase currents: The unbalanced phase current in a 3-phase system can be expressed in terms
of symmetrical components as under.
= 1 +2 +0
=
1 +2 +0
=
1 +2 +0
Where The positive phase current (
1 , 1 , &1 )
Negative phase sequence currents (
2 , 2 , &2 ) and
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 79 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
The operator ais one, which when multiplied to a vector rotates the vector through 1200
in the anticlockwise direction.
A=-0.5+j 0.866
;
a2=-0.5- j 0.866
a3=1
Properties of operator a:
1+a+a2=0
a-a2=j 3
= 1 + 2 + 0
2
=
1 + 2 + 0 = a 1 + 2 + 0
= a 1 + a 1 + 0 = 0 +1 +2
+ + = 1 (1+a+a ) + 2 (1+a+a ) + 30
= 3
0
1
0 = [
+ + ]
3
1
[
3
1
= 3
2
+a +a ]
R2 = [
+a +a ]
3
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 80 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
The sequence currents in the red phase in terms of line currents shall be :-
1 +
2
Since the generated emf system is of positive sequence only ,the sequence
components of emf in R-phase are:
Line To-Line fault:Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 81 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Also,
Fault current:
Phase voltages: - since the generated emf system is of positive phase sequence only,the
sequence components of emf in R-phase are:
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 82 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Also,
Fault current:
Now
b) Inductance only:- when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit will be given by
() =
() =
()
()
= .
1
2
= .
c) Capacitance only:- when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit is given
I(s) =
()
()
= .CS =VC
d) R-L circuit: when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
()
1
1/
= .
= .
()
+
+/
1
1
=
.
+/
1
1
=
+/
() = 1
I(s) =
e) R-L circuit: After the switch s is closed, current in the circuit is given by
I(s) =
1
.
+1/
=
+1/
(t)= . /
=
i
()
()
1
+1/
R-L-C circuit: - After the switch S is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
Type equation here.
I(s) =
1
++1
1
I(s) = .(+)(++)
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 84 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
()+
(+)
i(t) =
2
where
2
42
= a and
= b; then
If 42 >
If
If
42
2
42
<
2
1
2 2 .
,b is real
,b is zero
,b is imaginary
2 + 42 + 2 42
{ } which is indeterminate.
Now at b=0
i (t) =
2
1
2 2
(/2)
. . = 2 . 2
2
.2 sin 42 +
A.C source:
R-L circuit: when switch is is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 85 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
()
()
2+2
=
+
2+
2+
+/
2+
i(t) =
= ;
=
(+)( 2+2 )
(2 +2 2 )12
Where = 1
(+)( 2+ )
{sin( + ) sin( ) }
Where L,C are the inductance and capacitance upto the circuit breaker
The average RRRV =
2Vr
Lc
Where wn = 2fn ,
1
1
2 LC
Where L , C are the reactance and capacitance up to the location of circuit breaker
1
1
1
2 2
2 LC
4R C
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 86 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Where
= 2 + 2
Is the rated service line voltage in volts, then for 3-phae circuit? Breaking capacity = 3
V I 106 MVA
String efficiency =
Z<
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 87 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Z=
Reactance Relay:
The directional element is so designed that its maximum torque angle is 900
i.e. in the universal torque equation.
T = K1 I 2 K 3 VI cos( )
= K1 I 2 K 3 VI cos( 90)
= K1 I 2 K 3 VI sin
For the operation of the relay
KI 2 > K 3 VI sin
VI
I2
sin < K1 /K 3
K
Z sin < 1K
3
K1
X < K
3
The mho relay: In the relay the operating torque is obtained by the V I element and restraining torque due
tot the voltage elemen
T = K 3 VI cos( ) K 2 V 2
For relay to operate
K 3 VI cos ( ) > K 2 V 2
V2
K
< 3K cos( )
VI
2
K3
Z < K cos( )
2
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 88 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 89 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
C(t) = 1-
e(t) =
ess = lim
12
e n t
12
12
(sin n 1 2 t tan1
12
sin tan1
e n t
12
sin tan1
12
C(t) = 1- =
e n t
12
Sin tan1
= 0 (un damped) :-
12
c(t) = 1- cos n t
Rise time t r =
Peak time t p =
n
n
d
12
12
= tan1
2
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 90 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
(ln Mp )2
Damping factor 2 2 =
2 + (ln Mp )2
2
Time period of oscillations T =
d
t
t
No of oscillations = s = s d
2/d
2
t r 1.5 t d t r = 2.2 T
Resonant peak Mr =
212
>
>
; r = n 1 22
Bandwidth b = n (1 22 + 4 4 4 2 + 2)1/2
r < n < b
()
1+
0
1
1+KP
(positional error)
1
Kv
K p = lim () ()
0
K v = lim ()()
0
K a = lim s 2 ()()
0
A/A
K/K
sensitivity of A w.r.to K.
S=
1
1+G(s)H(s)
Stability
RH Criterion :
G(s)H(s)
1+G(s)H(s)
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 92 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Derived Units:
Area
Volume
Density
Angular
Velocity
Angular
Acceleration
Pressure,
stress
Luminance
Work ,
Energy
Charge
Electric field
strength
Capacitance
Magnetic
flux density
m2
m3
Kg/ m3
rad / sec
rad / sec 2
Kg/m/sec 2
cd/m2
Joule
(Nm)
Coulomb
V/m
(AS/v)
Wb / m2
L2
L3
L3 M
[L]0 T 1
MMF
Frequency
Velocity
Acceleration
Force
L1 MT 2
Kg m/sec 2
Luminous flux
lm(cd Sr)
Illumination
Power
EMF
Resistance
lm/m2
Watt
(J/sec)
Volt (W/A)
V/A
Magnetic flux
Inductance
Vs
Vs / A
[L]0 T 2
2
L MT
TI
LMT 3 I 1
L2 M1 T 4 I2
MT 2 I 1
A
Hz
m/sec
m/sec 2
I
T 1
LT 1
LT 2
LMT 2
L2 MT3
L2 MT 3 I1
L2 MT 3 I2
L2 MT 2 I1
L2 MT 2 I2
Static error:Static error is defined as the difference b/w the measured value and the true value of
the quantity.
A = 0 = Am At
A
At
= A0
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 93 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
c = Am At
= - A
Sensitivity :
Static sensitivity =
A measurement system is considered to be linear if the output is linearly proportional to the input .
Non-linearity =
Non-linearity =
actual reading
100
100
A a = A s [ 1 r ]
Xi
Mean : Arithmetic Mean = = i=1
n
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 94 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
d1 + d2 +dn
n
S.D , =
2
n
i=1 di
Where d1 = xi x, d2 = x2 x, etc the deviation from the mean of the individual readings
2
n
i=1 di
n1
Where I is the current through fixed coil and moving coil (connected in series) and
M is the mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils.
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 95 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Linearization of scale:
.(dL/d)=K.
d.c supply Im = R
Vdc
m +RL
Im = (2V) / ((R L + R m ))
= (0.45 V)/(R m + R L )
= (2 V)/()
In half wave rectifier type instrument , the sensitivity of a.c is 0.45 times that of d.c.
Full wave rectifier type instruments:
d.c. supply Im = R
m +RL
2Vm
a.c supply Im = (R
m +RL )
0.9 V
Rm +RL
In full wave rectifier type instrument , the sensitivity of a.c is 0.9 times that of d.c.
Thermal instruments :
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 96 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
b is a constant (1 to 2 v / 0C )
qr
R= S.Q p+q+r
p+q+r
VR +Va
IR
In this method, always the measured value of resistance is greater than true value
of resistance.
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 97 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Where I= IR = IV = RR + RR
Which gives R m2 =
1+
R
Rv
Rm2
Rv
VR
I
Error = R m2 -R = R m2 R
% error =
R
Rv
In this method, the measured value of resistance is always less than the true value
of resistance.
This method is suitable for measurement of low resistance among the range.
The resistance where both the methods give same error is obtained by equating the
two errors.
Ra
R
=R ,
v
R = R a R v
Wheatstone Bridge:
Balanced condition Q = S
Q
P
S
R
P
R
=
P+Q
R+S
= (E - Vab )- (E - Vad )
= Vad - Vab
(R+R)
R+R+S
E.P
P+Q
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 98 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
(R+S)
Sensitivity of galvanometer, Sv =
Or = Sv
E.SR
(R+S)2
SBmax =
When
S
R
+2+
= Sv = P
+2+
(R+S)2
E.S.
R
R
Q
P
Sv .E
4
=S=1
Q
(a) Selecting the galvanometer with which the given unbalance can be observed.
(b) Determining the deflection to be expected for a given unbalance.
t
2.303C log(V/v)
R=
0.434 t
C log10 (V/v)
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 99 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Z1 Z4 (Q1+Q 4 ) = Z2 Z3 (Q 2+Q 3 )
(Q1+Q 4 ) = (Q 2 +Q 3 )
At balance condition,
L1 = R 3 L2 /R 4 ; R1 = R 3 (R 2 +r2 )/R 4
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 100 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
At balance conditions,
R1 = R 2 R 3 /R 4 ; L1 = R 2 R 3 C4
Q-factor,
3.Hays Bridge:-
At balance conditions,
R R C
3 4
L1 = 1+W22 +C
2 +R2 ; R 1 =
4
2 R2 R3 R4 C24
4.Andersons Bridge:-
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 101 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
5.Owens Bridge:-
This bridge may be used for the measurement of an inductance in terms of capacitance.
Under balance conditions,
L1 = R 2 R 3 C4
C
R 1 = R 3 C4
2
Measurement of Capacitance:-
1. De Sautys Bridge
2. Modified De Sautys Bridge
3. Schering Bridge.
1.De Sautys Bridge :- This bridge is the simplest method of comparing two capacitances.
R +r
D2 = tan 2 = c2 r2
D1 - D2 = c2
3.Scherings Bridge :-
1 4
3
The following bridges are used for the measurement of mutual inductance:
measuring capacity
Im R m = Ish R sh
R
m
= m1
These are used for increasing the voltage measuring capacity of basic met
Rse + Rm
=R
R se = R m (m-1)
Where m is the multiplying power of voltmeter.
Multi Range Ammeter: A range of current settings can be obtained using different shunts.
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 103 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
R sh2 = m m1 , m2 = I 2
2
R sh3 = m m1 , m3 = I 3
3
I1
Im
I2
Im
I3
Im
R1 = m m1 , m1 =
1
R 2 = m m1 , m2 =
2
R 3 = m m1 , m3 =
3
Where V and I are r.m.s values of voltage and current and cos is the power factor of the
load.
3.Electro Dynamometer Wattmeter:
Many watt meters are compensated for errors caused by inductance of pressure coil
by means of a capacitor connected in parallel with a portion of multiplier.
Capacitance C = (L/r 2 )
In present case of wattmeter , i1 is the load current and is the current flowing
through pressure coil.
Td = iP iC (dM/d)
Td VI cos (dM/d)
At balance condition, Td = TC
K1 VI cos (dM/d) = k
VI cos
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 105 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
True power for lagging pf loads = cos cos() actual wattmeter reading
cos
True power for leading pf loads = cos cos(+) actual wattmeter reading
ERROR = tan tan true power = VI sin tan
= pf angle
= tan1 (X P/R P )
In the three wattmeter method to determine the power in 3-, 4 wire system.
Sum of the instantaneous readings of watt meters = P= P1 +P2 +P3
P= V1 i1 +V2 i2+V3 i3
Hence the summation of readings of three watt meters gives the total power of load.
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 106 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
In a 3-, three wire system we required 3 elements. But if we make the common
points of pressure coils coincide with one of the lines, then we will require only (n-1
l =2) elements.
Instantaneous reading of P1 wattmeter (P1 ) = i1 (V1 - V3 )
= V1 i1 - V3 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 i2
= V1 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 (i1 +i2 )
= V1 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 (-i3 )
= V1 i1 + V2 i2 + V3 i3
Hence, the sum of two watt meter readings is equal to power consumed by load.
Let the load be balanced, V1 , V2 , V3 be the rms value of phase voltage and I1 , I2 , I3 be the rms
values of phase currents.
Phase voltages
Line voltages
V1 = V2 = V3 = V (say)
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 107 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Power factor
I1 = I2 = I3 = I
cos (lag)
Wattmeter reading = current through wattmeter current coil * voltage across its
pressure coil * cos( phase angle between this current and voltage).
Reading of P1 wattmeter = V13 I1 cos(30- ) = 3 VI cos(30-)
3 (P1 P2 )
P1 +P2
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 108 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
The readings of two watt meters are equal , each watt meter reads half of the total power.
P1 = (3/2) VI, P2 =0
When power factor is 0.5 , one of the watt meter reads zero and the other reads total power.
P1 = (3/2) V I ,
P2 = - (3/2) V I
Therefore , width zero power factor, the readings of two meters are equal but of opposite
sign.
Measurement of Energy:
Energy is the total power delivered or consumed over a time interval, that is.
Energy = Power time
W= 0 VI dt
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 109 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
These two fluxes will be produced by two currents which are described earlier.
At steady speed the driving torque must equal to the breaking torque.
k 4N= k 3 VI sin (-)
= k x(power)
The values of R and L are so adjusted that the two coils carry the same value of
current
at normal frequency (i.e) R = L
Deflecting torque acting on coil B is: TB = KVI Mmax cos (900 -) sin (900 +)
= KVI Mmax sin cos
At equilibrium , TA = TB =
Therefore the deflection of the instrument is a measure of phase angle of the circuit.
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 110 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Q-Meter:
L
R
1
IX
= IRL
CR
So the voltage across the capacitor or coil is Q times the applied voltage
) :
1
1 =
=
1
=
=
=
b) :
1 2
1 2
1 1 2 2
1 2 1 2
(1 2 )1 2
1 1 2 2
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 111 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
RP
C1
Q2
XP = (C
= RQ
2 C1 )
Rp
Qx = X =
p
(C1 C2 )Q1 Q2
Q1 C1 Q2 C2
C1 C1 C2
3
Lld Ed
2dEa
Ll
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 112 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
2dEa
lLB
2m , m
Deflection factor G is G= S =
Magnetic Deflection D =
Va
Lld
, V/m
Va - acceleration potential
Oscilloscope Specifications:
1.Sensitivity:
It means the vertical sensitivity . It refers to smallest deflection factor G = (1/S) and
expressed as mv/div. The alternator of the vertical amplifier is calibrated in mv/div.
2.Band width:
3.Rise Time:
Rise time is the time taken by the pulse to rise from 10% to 90% of its amplitude.
1
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 113 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
2.2
BW = 2RC = 2RC =
0.35
Tr
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 114 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
EF = EC - KT ln = Ev + KT ln
Energy gap
= ne
Conductivity = ; = R H .
q
q
Max value of electric field @ junction E0 = - Nd . nn0 = - NA . np0 .
si
si
dp
Dn
n
Dp
p
= KT/q 25 mv @ 300 K
dn
dx
xn
N
= A
xp ND
= 12.93
2s 1
q NA
1
(V0
ND
+ VR )
q.NA ND
. A . Wdep
NA +ND
s A
Cj0 =
Wdep / VR =0
VR m
V0
s A
Wdep
Forward current I = Ip + In ;
Ip = Aq n2i L
In = Aq n2i L
Dp
p ND
+L
Dp
p ND
Dn
n NA
Dn
n NA
/ 1
/ 1
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 115 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Diffusion capacitance Cd = I = .g Cd I.
Poisson equation
Drift velocity of e
d2 V
dx2
d 107 cm/sec
nq
dv
dx
1+e
=E=
nqx
Co
ICEO = 1
Collector current when base open
ICBO Collector current when IE = 0
ICBO > ICo .
V
0
VBE,sat or VBC,sat - 2.5 mv / C ; VCE,sat BE,sat
= - 0.25 mv /0 C
10
IC
IB
IC ICBo
IB + ICBo
= hFE
R VCE
= hfe =
active
forced under saturation
hFE
h
1(ICBo + IB ) FE
IC
hoc = hoe
CB CE
h
hie hoe
h
hoe
hib = 1+hie ; hib = 1+h
- hre ; hfb = 1+hfe ; hob = 1+h
fe
fe
fe
fe
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 116 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
AI =
hf
1+h0 ZL
AV =
Zi = hi + hr AI ZL
AI ZL
Zi
Y0 = ho -
hf hr
hi + Rs
Avs =
AIs =
Av .Zi
Zi +Rs
Av .Rs
Zi +Rs
AI .ZL
Zi +Rs
AIs .ZL
Rs
Avs .Rs
ZL
For S = I C
Co
S = V C
BE
VB0,
IC = S. ICo + S VBE + S
1+
dI
1 B
Self bias S =
R1 =
Vcc Rth
Vth
1+
1+
RE
RE +Rth
1+
1+
1+
R
; R 2 = V ccVth
cc
IC
BE,ICo
=1+
dIC
IC0,
S =
th
RC
RC +RB
Rth
Re
0 < s < 1+ =
R E > 10 R 2
1+
RC + RE
RC + RE + RB
1+
VCE <
VCC
2
rb e = hfe / g m
rb b = hie - rb e
rb c = rb e / hre
g ce = hoe - (1+ hfe ) g b c
For CE :g
f = 2(Cb +e C
e
c)
gm
hfe 2(Ce + Cc )
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 117 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
For CC :
fH =
1+gm RL
2CL RL
For CB:
f = 2r
fT =
gm
2CL
1+ hfe
b e (CC + Ce )
fT Ce
CL
gm + gbe
2(CL + Ce )
= (1 + hfe ) f = (1 + ) f
f
1+
f > fT > f
I ICo = N IEo
0.35
0.35
=
fH
B.W
2
2
t r1 + t r2 +
Rise time t r =
t r = 1.1
fL
21/n 1
1
fH
1
f H1
= 1.1 2 +
1
f2H2
Differential Amplifier :
0 |IEE |
4VT
= 4VC = g m of BJT/4
h R
CMRR = R fe+he
s
Darlington Pair :-
ie
0 DC value of
R e , Zi , Ad & CMRR
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 118 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
(1+hfe )2 Re2
fe hoc Re2
Zi = 1+h
R o = (1+hs
fe )
2h
+ 1+hie
fe
g m = (1 + 2 ) g m1
f0 =
1
2LC
B.W = f0 /Q
BW
2
BW
f0 +
2
fL = f 0 fH =
2
iD = K n [ (VGS - Vt ) VDS - VDS
] triode region ( VDS < VGS - Vt )
iD =
1
2
rDS =
2
K n [ VDS
] saturation
Kn
(VGS
Vt )
K n = n Cox
PMOS :Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 119 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
1
2
2
iD = K p [(VGS Vt )2 - VDS
] K p = p Cox
NMOS
PMOS
VGS Vt
VGS Vt
VDS VGS - Vt
VDS VGS - Vt
induced channel
For n-channel
1
2
K n Vt2 .
MOSFET as Amplifier :
id = K n (VGS Vt ) gs
d
gs
= - gm RD
g m = K n (VGS Vt )
gm
gs +Cgd )
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 120 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
iD = IDSS 2 1
Triode
I
iD = IDSS 1 VGS = Vp 1
I
gm =
2IDSS
|Vp |
DSS
2I
I
1 = DSS
|V |
I
DSS
Saturation
Zener Regulators :
Vi Vz
Rs
Vsmin Vz0 IZmin rz
IZmin + ILmax
IZmin + ILmax
rz
Rs +rz
For finding min R L take Vs min & Vzk , Izk (knee values (min)) calculate according to that .
V0 =
OL
1
RC
V0 =
R
L
i dt ;
i dt ;
slew rate
2 . V0
V0
t
V0
t
Vi
t
= A.
Vi
t
V0 =
L dvi
R dt
(HPF)
Differentiator V0 = -
slew rate
2 Vi A
dvi
dt
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 121 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
V0 = - VT ln I
V0 = - VBE
= - VT ln I
0
Power Amplifiers :
1
CMRR
100 %
B
12
22
2
B21
2
RL
+ . .
= P1 1 + 2 + 3 +
1
Dn = Bn
= [ 1+ D2 ] P1
Class AB operation :-
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 122 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Class C operation : IC flows for < 180 ; Q located just below cutoff ; = 87.5%
Very rich in Distortion ; noise interference is high .
Oscillators : For RC-phase shift oscillator f =
f=
1
2RC 6+4K
1
2RC6
1
2RC6
29
k
hfe 4k + 23 +
> 29
where k = R c /R
| Af | 29 R f 29 R1
hfe 3
3
A 3 R f 2 R1
2R R C C
2(L1 +L2 )C
|hfe | L2
1
L
| | L2
1
L2
|A|
L1
C C
2L 1 2
C1 +C2
Rf
R1
|hfe | C1
2
| | C1
2
| A | C1
2
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 123 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Digital Electronics
IOH
IIH
IOL
IIL
or
DAC
FSV = VR 1
Resolution =
2
step size
FSV
1
VR /2n
VR 1 n
2
1
= n+1
2
Accuracy = LSB
2
Analog o/p = K. digital o/p
2n 1
100%
ADC
* LSB = Voltage range / 2n
* Resolution =
FSV
2n 1
OR
Programmable
Programmable fixed
PROM
PAL
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 124 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Fastest ADC :
Flip Flops :
a(n+1) = S + R Q
=D
= JQ + K Q
= TQ + T Q
Excitation tables :-
0
0
1
1
0 0
1 1
0 0
1 x
1
0
1
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 1
0 x
1 x
1
0
1 1
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 1
1 0
1
1
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 125 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Decoder :
required = 2n .
In Parallel (n bit ) total time delay = 2n t pd .
For carry look ahead adder delay = 2 t pd .
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 126 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Microprocessors
Software interrupts
RST 0
RST 1
2
:
:
7
S1
S0
Halt
write
Read
fetch
0000H
0008H
0010H
0018H
0024H
both edge level
Edge triggered
003CH
0034 H
level triggered 002C
Non vectored
Vectored
0038H
HOLD & HLDA used for Direct Memory Access . Which has highest priority over all interrupts .
Flag Registers :S
X AC X P X CY
Sign flag :- After arthematic operation MSB is resolved for sign flag . S = 1 -ve result
If Z = 1 Result = 0
AC : Carry from one stage to other stage is there then AC = 1
P : P =1 even no. of ones in result .
CY : if arthematic operation Results in carry then CY = 1
For INX & DCX no flags effected
In memory mapped I/O ; I/O Devices are treated as memory locations . You can connect max of
65536 devices in this technique .
In I/O mapped I/O , I/O devices are identified by separate 8-bit address . same address can be used
to identify i/p & o/p device .
Max of 256 i/p & 256 o/p devices can be connected .
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 127 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
8155 programmable peripheral Interface with 256 bytes RAM & 16-bit counter
8255 Programmable Interface adaptor
8253 Programmable Interval timer
8251 programmable Communication interfacing Device (USART)
8257 Programmable DMA controller (4 channel)
8259 Programmable Interrupt controller
8272 Programmable floppy Disk controller
CRT controller
Key board & Display interfacing Device
RAL :- Each bit shifted to adjacent left position . D7 becomes CY & CY becomes D0 .
CM
Call on carry
Call on minus
9 18 states
9-18
Call on +ve
CPE
RET : - 10 T
RC
: - 6/ 12 T states
Jump on Carry
7/10 T states
Jump on zero
JM
Jump on Positive
Jump on Minus
PCHL : Move HL to PC
6T
PUSH : 12 T ; POP : 10 T
SHLD : address : store HL directly to address 16 T
SPHL : Move HL to SP 6T
STAX : R p store A in memory 7T
STC : set carry
4T
XCHG : exchange DE with HL 4T
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 129 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 130 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Power electronics:
1.Turn on time of scr = t d + t r +t s
3.SERIES OPERATION:
. , voltage rating of each SCR
V1 + V2
2 V1
T1
T2
(n1) Q
n VbmVs
. , current rating of each SCR
I1 + I2
2 I1
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 131 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
V0
V2or / R
Vs Is
p.f =
Vor
Vs
Vor
Vs
3. Single Phase Half wave rectifier R.L load and free wheeling Diode:
Circuit turn off time = t c
m
Average output voltageV0 = 2
[ 1 + ]
1
(sin 2)2
2
Pf
V
= or
Vs
2 +1
,
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 132 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
1
[ (
2
I2 or R + I0 E
Vs Ior
1
2R2 VS2
+ E ( )
) ( )]
V2S
(sin 2
2
1
2
2Vm cos
2Vm cos
Vm
[1+cos ]
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 133 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
1
2
1
2
3
2
Vml cos =
VML 1
R 6
33
2
Vmp cos
1
2
3
(cos 2)
8
Vml cos
2
3
3
VML + 2 (cos 2)
2 3
3
2
Vml (1+cos )
VML 3 2
3
+ (1 +
2
2
3
cos 2)
1
2
11. For a 3- converter , The inductance of source results in an lesser value of voltage
V0 =
36
Vph cos -
3Ls
I0
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 134 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
CHOPPERS:
a.STEP UP CHOPPER:
T
Duty cycle, = on (T
on
= (Ton / T)
+ Toff )
VS
1
(Imin +Imax )
2
x ToFF
on
= (Ton / T)
+ Toff )
Vs
R
VS
R
Ton
Vs /R [1e Ta ]
T
[1e Ta ]
Ton
Vs /R [e Ta 1]
T
[e Ta 1]
Ripple I =
Vs
R
- (E/R)
- (E/R)
Toff
Ton
1e Ta 1e Ta
T
[1e Ta ]
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 135 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
1e Ta
(1)T
Ta
1e
T
[1e Ta ]
A.C.ripple voltage
D.C voltage
= 1
I0 tc
vs
Cvs (vs )
2tc
V 2
I0
, L S C
t1 = LC
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 136 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
C=
vs tc
xI0 2 Sin1
x
x I0 tc
1
x
vs 2 sin1
Where x = ICp / I0
t c = [ -2 sin1 (1/x) ] LC
t c = ICp sin t
2Vs
n
sin nt
2Vs
nZn
Sin(nt n )
4Vs
n
sin nt
4Vs
nZn
sin (nt - n )
Zn = R2 + nL
1 2
nc
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 137 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
n = tan
nL1/nc
2
THD = 1/V1
=2,3
V2or V21
V1
Vn
2
1 .n
Vab =
n=1,3
Vbc =
n=1,3
Vca =
n=1,3
4Vs
n
4Vs
n
4Vs
n
Cos
Cos
Cos
n
Sin n(t +
6
n
Sin n(t 6
/6)
/2)
n
Sin n(t +
6
5/6)
2/3
Vl = 0
Vph =
0.8165 Vs
3
= 0.4714 Vs
Va0 =
n=1,3
2Vs
n
Cos
n
6
Sin n(t+ )
Vc0 =
n=1,3
2Vs
n
Cos
n
6
Sin n(t+
Vb0 =
n=1,3
Vph =
2Vs
n
Cos
n
6
2/3 Vs 2
2
Sin n(t - )
5
)
6
d(t) = Vs 1/6
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 138 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Vor = Vs 2d/
4V
s
V0 =
n=1,3( n Sin n/2. sin nd) sin(nt)
Vor = 2 d/
8Vs
nd
V0 =
sin (nt)
n=1,3 n sin n sin
2
1/2fr
1/fc
fc
2fr
c
2r
VC =
n=1,3,5 An sin nt + n=1,3,5 Bn cos nt d(t)
Vm sin(+1)
sin(1)
(+1) (1)
Vm cos(+1)1
sin(+1)1
(+1)
(1)
Where An =
Bn =
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 139 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Vor =
Ior =
Vm
2
Vor
R
1/2
( ) + 2 sin 2
2
P = Ior
R=
V2or
R
V2
m
= 2R
(-) + sin 2
V2
1
2
= Rs ( ) + sin 2
Power factor =
1
Real power
V2 /R
V
= Vor /R = Vor
Apparent power
Vs or
s
1/2
1
2
= ( ) + sin 2
i0 =
Vm
2
sin (t - ) -
Vm
2
Vm
2
sin (t - ) -
Vm
2
( )
DC & AC DRIVES
DC Motor equations :
ZN
Ea =
N rpm
60
P
= Zn
n rps
A
If m = 2n
Ea = Z- 2m
=
Ea = k a m
Torque T =
1
P
Z Ia
2
A
Z P
Ia
2 A
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 140 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Te = k a Ia
= k a c Ia2
Te = k1 Ia2
k1 motor constant
volt sec
rad.amp
k1 Nm /Amp2
Vm
(1+cos 2 )
Is rms =
= Ia
1 2
I d(t)
2 a
1
(
2
Is rms = Ia [( )/2]1/2
IF.D.R = Ia [( + )/2]1/2
Supply power factor =
=
Ea Ia +I2a ra
Vs Isr
Ia [Ea +Ia ra ]
Vs Isr
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 141 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies
Vm
[1+ cos 1 ]
Vm
[1+cos 2 ]
Isr = Ia ( )/
Ifdr = Ia 2/2 = Ia /
ITr = Ia ( )/2 = I0r
VI
Input supply pf = V tI a
s sr
2V
2Vm
cos 1
Vf = m cos 2
Isr = Ia
ITr = Ia /2 = Ia /2
Pf = Vt Ia / Vs Isr
36
V cos 1
2 ph
36
Vph cos
36
V (1 +
2 ph
cos )
Toff
= R (T-Ton )/T
R eff = R(1-)
Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com Pg.No. 143 of 143
Site: www.GateIesPsu.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies