Failure Theories

Why do mechanical components fail? Mechanical components fail

because the applied stresses exceeds the materials strength (Too
simple).
What kind of stresses cause failure? Under any load combination,
there is always a combination of normal and shearing stresses in the
material.

What is the definition of Failure?

Obviously fracture but in some
components yielding can also be
considered as failure, if yielding
distorts the material in such a way
that it no longer functions properly
Which stress causes the material to
fail?
Usually ductile materials are
limited by their shear strengths.
While brittle materials (ductility <
5%) are limited by their tensile
strengths.
Stress at which point?

Stress at which point?

Failure Theories
Load type
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Pure Shear

Material Property
Ductile
Brittle

Static Loading
Maximum Normal Stress
Modified Mohr
Yield strength
Maximum shear stress
Distortion energy

Application of Stress
Static
Dynamic

Dynamic Loading
Goodman
Gerber
Soderberg

Static Failure Theories

The idea behind the various classical failure theories is that whatever
is responsible for failure in the standard tensile test will also be
responsible for failure under all other conditions of static loading.

Ductile Material
Characteristic Yield Stress
Failure Stress
Important
Theories

Maximum
Shear Stress
Theory

Brittle Material
Ultimate Stress

1. Maximum Shear Stress 1. Maximum Normal

Stress
2. Maximum Octahedral
Shear Stress
2. Modified Mohr.

Ductile Materials
Failure occurs when the maximum shear stress in
the part exceeds the shear stress in a tensile test
specimen (of the same material) at yield.
Hence in a tensile test,

max =

Sy
2

For a general state of stresses

1 3 S y
max =
=
2
2
This leads to an hexagonal
failure envelop. A stress system
in the interior of the envelop is
considered SAFE

The Maximum Shear

Stress Theory for Ductile
Materials is also known
as the Tresca Theory.
for design purposes, the failure relation can be
modified to include a factor of safety (n):

n=

Sy

1 3

Several cases can be analyzed in

plane stress problems:
Case 1: 1 2 0
In this case 3=0
1 3 1 S y
max =
=
=
1 S y

Case 2: 1 0 3
Yielding condition

max =

1 3

2
1 3 S y

Sy
2

Distortion Energy Theory

Based on the consideration of angular distortion of stressed elements.
The theory states that failure occurs when the distortion strain energy
in the material exceeds the distortion strain energy in a tensile test
specimen (of the same material) at yield.

Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb
energy when it is deformed elastically and then,
upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.
Modulus of resilience Ur
If it is in a linear elastic region,

U r = d
0

1
1 y y
U r = y y = y =
2
2 E 2E

1
For general 3-D stresses: u = ( 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 )
2
Applying Hookes Law u = 1 2 + 2 + 2 2 ( + + )
1
2
3
1 2
2 3
3 1
2E

There are two components in

this energy a mean component
and deviatoric component.

M =

1, D = 1 M

1 + 2 + 3
3

2, D = 2 M

x + y + z
3
3, D = 3 M

The energy due to the mean stress (it gives a volumetric change but
not a distortion:
u Mean
u Mean

1
=
M2 + M2 + M2 2 ( M M + M M + M M )
2E
1
1 2 2
2
=
3 M (1 2 ) =
1 + 22 + 32 + 2 1 2 + 2 2 3 + 2 3 1
2E
6E

u D = u u Mean

1 + 2
=
1 + 22 + 32 1 2 2 3 3 1
3E

Compare the distortion energy of a tensile test with the distortion

energy of the material.

uTensile

1 + 2
1 + 2
=
S y = uD =
1 + 22 + 32 1 2 2 3 3 1
3E
3E

S y = 12 + 22 + 32 1 2 2 3 3 1
S y = + 3 1
2
1

2
3

Plane Stress

Von Mises effective stress : Defined as the uniaxial tensile stress

that creates the same distortion energy as any actual combination of
applied stresses.

This simplifies the approach

since we can use the following
failure criterion

VM S y
n=

VM =

Sy

VM

2
2
2
)
(
)
(
)

+
6

x
y
y
z
z
x
xy
yz
zx
2

VM = x 2 + y 2 x y + 3 xy2

2
2D

Case of Pure Shear

VM = 3 xy S y
Max =

Sy
3

= 0.577 S y

Brittle Materials
Several theories have been developed to describe the failure of
brittle materials, such as:
Maximum Normal Stress Theory
Coulomb-Mohr Theory
Modified-Mohr Theory

Maximum Normal Stress Theory

1 > 2

Failure occurs when one of the three principal

stresses reaches a permissible strength (TS).
Failure is predicted to occur when
1=St and 2<-Sc
Where St and Sc are the tensile and
compressive strength

2
St

For a biaxial state of stresses

-Sc

St

-Sc

Coulomb-Mohr Theory or Internal Friction Theory (IFT)

This theory is a modification of the maximum normal stress theory in
the which the failure envelope is constructed by connecting the opposite
corners of quadrants I and III.

The result is an hexagonal failure envelop.

Similar to the maximum shear stress theory but also accounts for the uneven material
properties of brittle material

Mohrs Theory
The theory predicts that a material will fail if a stress
state is on the envelope that is tangent to the three
Mohrs circles corresponding to:
a. uni-axial ultimate stress in tension,
b. uni-axial ultimate stress in compression, and
c. pure shear.

Modified Mohrs Theory

2 1

1
C T

This theory is a modification of the Coulomb-Mohr theory and is

the preferred theory for brittle materials.

Maximum Normal-Strain Theory

Also known as the Saint-Venants Theory.
Applies only in the elastic range.
Failure is predicted to occur if 1 2 = S y
Where Sy is the yield strength.
For a biaxial state of stress

or

2 1 = S y

2
Sy

-Sy

Sy

-Sy

Maximum Strain-Energy Theory

Yielding is predicted to occur when the total strain energy in a given
volume is greater than or exceeds the strain energy in the same
volume corresponding to the yield strength in tension or compression.
The strain energy stored per unit volume (us)
during uniaxial loading is
In a biaxial state of stress

u =

1 1
2

us =
+

2 2

S y2
2 E

1
u =
12 + 22 2 1 2
2E
This theory is no longer used

Example:
Given the material SY , x , v and xy find the safety factors for all the
applicable criteria.
a. Pure aluminum
SY = 30 MPa x = 10 MPa y = 10 MPa xy = 0 MPa

1 = 10 MPa

3 = 10 MPa

Is Al ductile or brittle?

Max = 10 MPa
Ductile

Use either the Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSST)

or the Distortion Theory (DT)

-10

10

MSST Theory
Sy
30
30
n=
=
=
= 1.5
1 3 10 (10) 20

DT Theory VM = x 2 + y 2 x y + 3 xy2 = 300 = 17.32MPa

n=

Sy

VM

30 MPa
=
= 1.73
17.32 MPa

b. 0.2%C Carbon Steel

SY = 65 Ksi x = 5 Ksi y = 35 Ksi xy = 10 Ksi

In the plane XY the principal stresses are 1.973Ksi and -38.03Ksi with a maximum
shear stress in the XY plane of 18.03Ksi
In any orientation
1 = 0 Ksi 2 = 1.973Ksi 3 = 38.03Ksi

Max = 19.01Ksi
Sy

65
=
= 1.71
MSST Theory n =
1 3 0 (38.03)

DT Theory

VM = 12 + 3 2 1 3 = 38.03Ksi
n=

Sy

VM

65 Ksi
=
= 1.71
38.03MPa

Ductile

C. Gray Cast Iron

Sut = 30 Ksi S uc = 120 Ksi x = 35 Ksi y = 10 Ksi xy = 0 Ksi

1 = 10 Ksi 2 = 0 Ksi 3 = 35 Ksi

Max = 22.5Ksi
-35

10
Brittle
Use Maximum Normal Stress Theory (MNST),
Internal Friction Theory (IFT), Modified Mohr
Theory (MMT)

MNST Theory (tensile)

MNST Theory (compression)

Sut

30
n=
=
= 3.0
1 10
Suc

120
n=
=
= 3.4
3 35

IFT

1 0 3 0 4th _ quadrant
line _ equation

2 1

1
C T

S uc
3 = Suc +
1
S ut

1 1 3 10 35
= 0.625
=

n Sut Suc 30 120

n = 1.6
MMT

1 0 3 0 4th _ quadrant
S ut
1 S uc S ut
1
3 =
S uc S ut
n S uc S ut
30
1 (120)(30)
10
(35) =
n (120 30)
120 30

1
= 0.54
n
n = 1.84

Example 1
The cantilever tube shown is to be
made of 2014 aluminum alloy
treated to obtain a specified
minimum yield strength of
276MPa. We wish to select a stock
size tube (according to the table
below). Using a design factor of
n=4.
The bending load is F=1.75kN, the axial tension is P=9.0kN and the
torsion is T=72N.m. What is the realized factor of safety?
Consider the critical area ( top surface).

P Mc
x = +
A I
Maximum bending moment = 120F

d
120mm 1.75kNx
9kN
2

x =
+
A
I
d
72
Tr
2 36d

=
zx = =
J
J
J

VM = ( + 3
2
x

VM

Sy
n

2
zx

0.276
GPa = 0.0690GPa
4

For the dimensions of that tube

n=

Sy

VM

0.276
= 4.57
0.06043

Example 2:
A certain force F is applied at D near the end of the 15-in lever, which
is similar to a socket wrench. The bar OABC is made of AISI 1035
steel, forged and heat treated so that it has a minimum (ASTM) yield
strength of 81kpsi. Find the force (F) required to initiate yielding.
Assume that the lever DC will not yield and that there is no stress
concentration at A.
Solution:
1) Find the critical section
The critical sections will be
either point A or Point O. As the
moment of inertia varies with r4
then point A in the 1in diameter
is the weakest section.

2) Determine the stresses at the

critical section

d
M
My
2 32 F 14in

x =
=
= 142.6 F
=
4
3
d
d
I
64

3) Chose the failure

criteria.

d
T
Tr
2 16 F 15in

=
= 76.4 F
zx = =
4
3
The AISI 1035 is a
d
(1in)
J
ductile material. Hence,
32
we need to employ the
distortion-energy
theory.

VM = x 2 + y 2 x y + 3 xy2 = x 2 + 3 zx2 = 194.5F

F=

Sy

VM

81000
=
= 416lbf
194.5

Apply the MSS theory. For a point undergoing plane stress with
only one non-zero normal stress and one shear stress, the two nonzero principal stresses (A and B) will have opposite signs (Case 2).

max =

A B
2

x
=
= + zx2
2
2
2

Sy

x
A B S y = 2 + zx2 = x 2 + 4 zx2
2
2

81000 = (142.6 F ) + 4 (76.4 F )

F = 388lbf

Example 3:
A round cantilever bar is subjected to torsion plus a transverse load at
the free end. The bar is made of a ductile material having a yield
strength of 50000psi. The transverse force (P) is 500lb and the torque
is 1000lb-in applied to the free end. The bar is 5in long (L) and a
safety factor of 2 is assumed. Transverse shear can be neglected.
Determine the minimum diameter to avoid yielding using both MSS
and DET criteria.
Solution
1) Determine the critical section
The critical section occurs at the
wall.

d
PL
Mc
2 32 PL

x =
=
=
4
d
I
d 3
64

1, 2

x + y

=
2

x y

+ ( xy )2 = x x + ( xy )2
2
2
2
2

1, 2
1, 2

xy

d
T
Tc
2 16T

= 3
=
=
4
d
J
d
32

16 PL
16
16 PL 16T
PL
=

+
=

3
3
3
3

d
d
d d
16
2
= 3 500 5 (500 5) + 1000 2

(PL )2 + T 2

26450
1 =
d3
26450
1 =
d3
MSS

980.8
2 = 3
d
980.8
3 = 3
d
1 3

MAX =

1 3 = 2 MAX

The stresses are in the wrong

order.. Rearranged to

26450 ( 980 . 8 ) 13715 . 4

=
3
d3
2d
Sy
50000

=
= 25 , 000
n
2

d 1 . 031 in
2

26450 980.8 26450 980.8

2
2
VM = 1 + 3 1 3 = 3 + 3 3 3
d d
d
d
DET
26950 S y 50000

=
VM =
3
n
2
d
d 1.025in

Example 4:

In the wheel suspension of a car, the spring motion is provided by a

torsion bar fastened to the arm on which the wheel is mounted. The
torque in the torsion bar is created by the 2500N force acting on the
wheel from the ground through a 300mm long lever arm. Because of
space limitations, the bearing holding the torsion bar is situated 100mm
from the wheel shaft. The diameter of the torsion bar is 28mm. Find
the stresses in the torsion bar at the bearing by using the DET theory.

Solution
The stresses acting on a torsion bar are:
d
( F arm _ length)( )
2 = 32 (2500 0.3)(0.014 ) Pa = 174 MPa
1. Torsion = Tc =
d 4
J
(0.028)4
32
d
(
)

F
bearing
_
length

2. bending
(
Mc
2500 0.1)(0.014)
2

=
= 64
Pa = 116MPa
=
4
d 4
I
(0.028)
64

The principal stresses are:

x + y

1, 2 =

x y

2
2

+ ( xy )2 = + ( xy )2
2
2

116.0
116.0
2
1, 2 =

+ (174.0 )
2
2
1 = 241.4MPa
2 = 125.4 MPa

DET

VM = 1 + 3 1 3 =
2

VM = 322.6MPa

(241.4) + ( 125.4) (241.4)( 125.4)

2

Sy
n

MSS

241.4 ( 125.4 )
= 183.4 MPa
Max =
=
2
2
SY
2 Max = 366.8MPa
n

1 3

Example 5:
The factor of safety for a machine
element depends on the particular
point selected for the analysis.
Based upon the DET theory,
determine the safety factor for
points A and B.
This bar is made of AISI 1006 cold-drawn steel (Sy=280MPa) and it is
loaded by the forces F=0.55kN, P=8.0kN and T=30N.m
d
Solution:
Fl
Mc
P
P
32 Fl 4 P
2

+
=
+ 2 =
+ 2
Point A x =
4
3
d
d
I
Area
d
d
64

( )

( )

32(0.55) 103 (0.1) 4(8) 103

x =
+
= 95.49 MPa
3
2
(0.02)
(0.02)

 xy
VM =
n=

Point B

Sy

VM

Tr 16T
16(30)
=
= 3 =
= 19.10 MPa
3
J d
(0.020 )

2
x

+ 3

2
xy

) = [95.49

+ 3(19.1)

= 101.1MPa

280
=
= 2.77
101.1

( )

4 P 4(8) 103
x = 2 =
= 25.47 MPa
2
d
(0.02)

xy

( )

16T 4V
16(30)
4(0.55) 103
= 21.43MPa
= 3+
=
+
3
d
3 A (0.02 )

2
3 (0.02)
4

VM = 25.47 + 3(21.43)
2

280
= 6.22
n=
45.02

= 45.02 MPa