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Ultrasonic Solution PDF
Ultrasonic Solution PDF
EI703 (a)
Soumyadev Adhikari
7th Semester
Instrumentation and Control Engineering
Academy Of Technology
Aedconagar-712121, Hooghly
DECEMBER, 2008
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SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
Part 1
Objective and MCQ
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8. Draw the graph that shows the decay of amplitude of the wave with distance
in an absorbing medium.
Wave velocity is called the phase velocity (V). It is the velocity with which planes
of equal phases (for transverse wave, crest & trough and for longitudinal wave
compression & rarefaction) travel through the medium.
V=
Where & = frequency & wavelength respectively of the wave
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i.
Isothermal
ii.
Adiabatic
iii.
Both (i) & (ii)
iv.
None of these
24. If a string of mass 1 gm/m is stretched with a force of 10N, the velocity of
transverse wave on the string is
i.
10m/s
ii.
1000m/s
iii.
200m/s
iv.
100m/s
25. For a loss less medium, the impedance is
i.
Real
ii.
Complex
iii.
Both (i) & (ii)
iv.
None of these
26. In case of a wave propagating through an absorbing medium, the amplitude
with distance
i.
Increases linearly
ii.
Decreases linearly
iii.
Falls exponentially
iv.
None of these
27. If E is the bulk modulus of a loss free gas and is its density, the
characteristic impedance offered by the gas to the sound wave traveling in it
is given by
i.
Z = E
ii.
Z = 2E
iii.
Z = (
E)0.5
iv.
none of these
28. During propagation of ultrasonic wave, if there is a rigid wall between two
media, the incident wave is
i.
Completely transmitted
ii.
Completely reflected
iii.
Partly reflected and partly transmitted
iv.
None of these
29. The condition for which all the incident energy with the incident wave is
transmitted with no reflection is that impedance of the coupling medium is
i.
Harmonic mean
ii.
Arithmetic mean
iii.
Product
iv.
Sum of the two impedances to be matched
30. The sum of reflection & transmission coefficient at junction between two
media is
i.
Zero
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ii.
One
iii.
Between zero and one
iv.
None of these
31. All the energy arriving at the boundary with the incident wave leaves the
boundary with the
i.
Reflected wave
ii.
Transmitted
iii.
Both (i) & (ii)
iv.
None of these
32. If Z, , A are respectively impedance, angular frequency, amplitude the the
rate at which energy is carried per unit length along with string is
i.
Z 2A
ii.
ZA 2
iii.
0.5 Z
2A 2
iv.
None of these
33. The piezo-electric material which are used to design ultrasonic trans-receiver
is
i.
barium chloride
ii.
potassium nitrate
iii.
ADP and barium chloride
iv.
None of these
34. Ultrasonic used for Doppler flow meter is of
i.
Low frequency
ii.
Medium frequency
iii.
Both (i) and (ii)
iv.
None of these
35. in case of ultrasonography, jelly used between probe and body surface for
the purpose of
i.
pain relief
ii.
removal of etching
iii.
coupling
iv.
None of these
36. The mounting of ultrasonic sensors at the ________ of a tank for the
measurement of level of fluid is advantageous
i.
Top
ii.
Side
iii.
Base
iv.
Both (i) and (iii)
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Part 2
5 Marks Questions
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10
= 272.72cm
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11
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I= 2
A2 2 2 V
6. Define acoustic impedance. Prove that acoustic impedance offered by a lossfree gas to the sound wave traveling in it is given by Z = E . Where, is the
density of the gas and E is the bulk modulus.
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13
Acoustic impedance: - When wave travels through a medium, the medium offers
an impedance to the wave propagating. In case of longitudinal wave (sound) this
impedance is called Acoustic impedance. From the force-voltage analogy,
acoustic impedance = Acoustic pressure / particle velocity, where acoustic
pressure is analogous to voltage and particle velocity is analogous to current.
Acoustic pressure generates due to wave propagation.
Let us consider a pipe of uniform cross sectional area which is filled with a lossfree gas of density and through which sound wave is propagating along positive
X direction (from left to right horizontally in fig-5). Consider two planes, separated
by a distance x, perpendicular to the axis of the pipe. Volume of this element is v
= ( * x )Due to the presence of a tuning fork at the left end of the pipe, the
displacements of the particles in the planes A & B are respectively given by y(x1)
& y(x2). The displacements might not be equal. At equilibrium, the particles of two
planes experience the same pressure(Po), but due to propagation of wave, the
change in pressure occurs. This is the acoustic pressure.
Now, increment in length x is = y(x2) y(x1)
Increment in volume V is V = * (y(x2) y(x1)) = v = (y/x)x
[Q y(x2) = y(x1) + ((y/x)x1)x + by Taylors series expansion with x2 =
x1+x, and neglecting higher order terms]
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Let us consider a pipe of uniform cross sectional area which is filled with a lossfree gas of density and through which sound wave is propagating along positive
X direction (from left to right horizontally in fig-6). Consider two planes, separated
by a distance x, perpendicular to the axis of the pipe. Volume of this element is V
= ( * x )Due to the presence of a tuning fork at the left end of the pipe, the
displacements of the particles in the planes A & B are respectively given by y(x1)
& y(x2). The displacements might not be equal. At equilibrium, the particles of two
planes experience the same pressure(Po), but due to propagation of wave, the
change in pressure occurs.
Now, increment in length x is = y(x2) y(x1)
Increment in volume V is V = * (y(x2) y(x1)) = v = (y/x)x
[Q y(x2) = y(x1) + ((y/x)x1)x + by Taylors series expansion with x2 =
x1+x, and neglecting higher order terms]
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15
Figure 7: Attenuation
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Attenuation length: - It is the distance traveled by wave over which the amplitude is
decreased by a factor e = 2.718, i.e. for x = 1/, A(x) = Ao exp(1) = Ao/e.
Now, We know, energy flux = intensity (Amplitude) 2
[A(x)] 2
= (Ao) 2 exp (2x) [K = constant]
= Io exp (2x)
[Io= Ao 2]
Energy flux =intensity = I = Io exp (2x)
10. Explain clearly what you mean by dispersive medium and dispersive
relation.
The displacement of particles of wave when traveling in an absorbing medium in
positive X direction s given by:
Y(x,t) = Ao exp(x) exp (i *(2/)(Vt x))
= Ao exp[(2i/)(Vt x)x]
= Ao exp[(2Vi/)(t x/V)x]
= Ao exp[2i(t x/V)x] [Q V/ = ]
= Ao exp[2i(t x/Vx/2i)]
= Ao exp[2i{ t x(1/V+/2i)}]
= Ao exp[2i{t x(1/Vi/2)}]
= Ao exp[2i(t x/V*)]
Where, 1/V* = 1/V
i/2
This V* is called the complex wave velocity applicable for the waves traveling
through absorbing medium. In practice this method of introducing the complex
wave finds application chiefly in optics in which we define the refractive index as
n=c/V
Where, c is the velocity of light in vacuum and v is the velocity of light at that
medium. In absprbing medium the complex refractive index is given as:
n* = c / V*
= c / V ci/2
= n ci/2
This shows that the refractive index (and hence the wave velocity) depends on the
frequency (or the wavelength ) of the wave in an absorbing medium. Such a
medium is called dispersive medium and this relation between wave velocity and
frequency (or wavelength) is called dispersive relation.
11. Define the terms Intensity Level (IL) and Sound Pressure Level (SPL). Give
the relation between them.
Intensity Level: - It is defined as the ten times logarithmic (base 10) of the ratio of
the sound intensity (I) to the reference intensity (Io).
IL = 10log 10 (I/Io)
[in dB]
Sound Pressure Level: - It is defined as the twenty times logarithmic (base 10) of
the ratio of the measured effective sound pressure to the reference pressure.
SPL = 20log 10 (P r.ms /Po, r.ms)
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SPL =
12. (a) The intensity of sound in a normal conversation at home is about 3*10^-6
W/m 2 and the frequency of normal human voice is about 1000Hz. Find out
the amplitude of waves, assuming that the air is at standard condition.
(Given; density of air = 1.29 kg/m^3 & velocity of sound =332m/s)
We know, the intensity of sound is I = 2 2A 2 2 V = 3*10^-6 W/m 2
Where, = density of traveling medium = 1.29 kg/m^3
A = Amplitude of the wave (to be calculated)
= Frequency of the wave = 1000 Hz
V = Velocity of the wave = 332m/s
Now, I = 2 2A 2 2 V gives:
3*10^-6 = 2* 1.29 * 2 A 2 1000 2 332
or = 1.88 10^-8 m
= 18.8 nm
(b) A sound has an intensity of 1W/cm 2. if the intensity of another sound is
14 dB higher, what is the intensity of the latter in dB?
Let the two intensities in SI unit is I1 (1W/m 2) & I2. Io is the reference one.
Now I1(dB) = 10log 10 (I1/Io), I2 (dB)= 10log 10 (I2/Io)
Given that,
I2(dB) I1(dB) = 14 dB
or
10log 10 (I2/Io) 10log 10 (I1/Io) = 14
or
10log 10 (I2/I1) = 14
or
log 10 (I2/I1) = 1.4
or
I2/I1 = 10^1.4
or
I2 = 10^1.4 * I1
= 10^1.4 * 1 (W/cm 2)
= 25.11 W/cm 2
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= 25.11*10^-2
= 0.25 W/m 2 (in SI unit)
13. (a) What is the need for matching layer in ultrasonic transmitter?
The needs are: For impedance matching. The TX and the test body have different
impedances. As a result, such a huge portion of transmitted wave may be
reflected back to TX portion from the interface of TX and test body that
the transmitted wave will be not enough to be detected by the receiver.
The matching layer is used to transmit as much as transmission possible
with nearly zero reflection from the interface.
Sometimes the matching layer provides isolation to the active element
from harmful test bodies.
(b) Derive the expression for characteristics impedance of matching layer for
maximum over all transmission coefficients.
Transmission energy coefficients (from medium1 to 2 and 2 to 3) are given by:12 = 4ZZ1 / (Z+Z1) 2 and 23 = 4ZZ2 / (Z+Z2) 2 respectively.
But, transmission energy coefficient from medium 1 to 3 is given by:13 = 12 * 23 = 16Z 2Z1Z2 / (Z+Z1) 2 (Z+Z2) 2
Now, for complete transmission from medium1 to 3, 13 should be maximum, i.e.
d (13) / dZ = 0
Or
=0
2 2
[(Z+Z1) (Z+Z2) ]
Or
=0
Z1Z 2
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(a) Delay line transducer: - As the name implies, the main feature of a delay line
transducer is that it provides a delay between the generation and arrival of
ultrasound from TX to RX. The delay is introduced by an acoustic path separated
by the test body and the transmitter probe as shown in fig-9. This prevents the
single element transducer from ring down effect. For example, say the
sender/receiver alternating time is below the total transit time. In this case if a
sufficient delay can be provided, then there will be no ring down effect. This
enables the transducer to complete its sending function before it starts receiving.
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Figure 11a: Arrangements of ac and dc sources in series (left). Waveforms for only ac input
(right)
The above happening is not a problem. But to obtain a US pulse whose frequency
is same as that of the input ac we need to connect a dc source in series with the ac.
After adding the dc source the resultant input waveform becomes as it is shown in
fig-11b (Blue). In this case, the output vibration (below the blue input) frequency
is as same as that of the input.
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Part 3
15 Marks Questions
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(a)
Let us consider a pipe of uniform cross sectional area which is filled with a lossfree gas of density and through which sound wave is propagating along positive
X direction (from left to right horizontally in fig-1). Consider two planes, separated
by a distance x, perpendicular to the axis of the pipe. Volume of this element is v
= ( * x )Due to the presence of a tuning fork at the left end of the pipe, the
displacements of the particles in the planes A & B are respectively given by y(x1)
& y(x2). The displacements might not be equal. At equilibrium, the particles of two
planes experience the same pressure (Po), but due to propagation of wave, the
change in pressure occurs.
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= (P(x)/x)x
= ((Po p)/x)x
= (p)/x)x
= ((
E(v/v))/x)x
= ((E(y/x))/x)x [Qv/v = (y/x)]
= Ex ( 2y/x 2 )
Net force = Cross sectional area of pipe * excess pressure
= Ex ( 2y/x 2 )
= F1 (Say)
Newtonian force = mass of the elemental area * acceleration
= density * volume * acceleration
= (x) ( 2y/t 2 )
= F2 (Say)
In dynamic equilibrium, F2 = F1
or, (x) ( 2y/t 2 ) = Ex ( 2y/x 2 )
or, ( 2y/t 2 ) = E( 2y/x 2 )
or, ( 2y/t 2 ) = (E/)( 2y/x 2 )
Comparing the above equation with the Differential equation of wave motion i.e.
( 2y/t 2 ) = V 2( 2y/x 2 ), we get, velocity of longitudinal wave V = E /
(b) Referring fig-7, the change in length is =x = y(x2) y(x1)
= [(y/x)|x1]x
Longitudinal strain at x1 is given by = change in length / original length
= (y/x)|x1
Longitudinal stress at x1 is given by S1 = Y = Y(y/x)|x1
Where, Y is the Youngs modulus of the rod material.
Similarly, S2 = Y(y/x)|x2
Now, S2 S1 = Y(y/x)|x1 Y(y/x)|x2
= Y{(y/x)|x1 Y(y/x)|x2}
= Y ( 2y/x 2 )x
Net force = area * stress = Y ( 2y/x 2 )x =F1 (say)
Newtonian force = mass * acceleration = (x)* ( 2y/t 2 ) = F2 (say)
In dynamic equilibrium, F2 = F1
Or (x)* ( 2y/t 2 ) = Y ( 2y/x 2 )x
( 2y/t 2 ) = (Y/)( 2y/x 2 )
Comparing the above equation with the Differential equation of wave motion i.e.
( 2y/t 2 ) = V 2( 2y/x 2 ), we get, velocity of longitudinal wave V = Y /
(c)
i.
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= (2 * 10^10) /(7800)
= 1601.28 m/sec
2. (a) Obtain an expression for total energy per wavelength in a string when
transverse waves travel in it.
(b) Show that the time averaged input power of the source generating waves in a
string is equal to the total energy per unit length of string times the wave
velocity.
(a) Consider a small element of length dx of the string that carries the transverse
wave through it.
Total energy of the small element in vibration = kinetic energy + potential energy
Now, kinetic energy of element = (1/2) (mass) (velocity) 2
Or
dK = (1/2) (dx) (dy/dt) 2 (1)
(Where, = linear density of string and dy/dt = particle velocity)
Now, potential energy of element is given by the work done by the tension T to
change the length of the element from dx to ds during vibration.
Therefore, potential energy of the element = dU = T (ds dx)
Now, from fig-2,
dx/ds = cos
Or (ds/dx) 2 = sec 2 = 1 + tan 2 = 1 + (dy/dx) 2
ds =sqrt[1 + (dy/dx) 2]dx [Q tan = slope of the displacement curve = dy/dx]
= [1 + (1/2)(dy/dx) 2]dx [neglecting higher order terms]
ds dx = [1 + (1/2)(dy/dx) 2]dx dx = (1/2)(dy/dx) 2dx
Potential energy = T (ds dx) = dU = (1/2) T (dy/dx) 2dx ------------------(2)
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Now, from (1) and (2) the kinetic and potential energy density are given respectively
by: dK/dx = (1/2) () (dy/dt) 2 --------------------------------------------(3)
dU/dx = (1/2) T (dy/dx) 2 --------------------------------------------(4)
Now, displacement of particle a wave traveling in positive X direction is given by:
y(x,t) = Asin ((2/)(Vtx))
dy/dt = (2AV/)cos ((2/)(Vtx))
and dy/dx = (2A/)cos ((2/)(Vtx))
dK/dx = (1/2) () (dy/dt) 2 = (1/2) ()[(2AV/)cos ((2/)(Vtx))] 2
dK/dx|t=0 = (1/2) ()[(4A 2V 2 2/ 2)cos 2(2x/)] ---------------------(5)
And dU/dx = (1/2) T (dy/dx) 2 = (1/2) T[(2A/)cos ((2/)(Vtx))] 2
dU/dx|t=0 = (1/2) T[(4A 2 2/ 2)cos 2 (2x/)] -------------------------(6)
Now, the total energy associated with one complete wavelength of the sinusoidal
wave on the string is given by:
[ Q 2cos 2A = cos2A + 1]
2 2
=TA / + A V /
= V 2A 2 2/ + A 2V 2 2/
= 2A 2V 2 2/
= 2A 2 2 2
E = 2
A 2 2 2
(b)
3. (a) Obtain an expression of average energy density of ultrasonic wave when
passing through acoustic medium.
(b) Show that the intensity of plane sound wave in a gas is equal to the energy
density times the wave velocity.
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I= 2
A2 2 2 V
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(a) Let, the ultrasonic wave is traveling from medium1 to medium2 and incident
normally on the boundary of the two mediums.
We know,
V1 = E / 1 , V2 = E / 2 , Z1 = 1V1, Z2 = 2V2
Where, V = Velocity of wave,
E = Bulk modulus.
= density of the medium
Z = Acoustic impedance
The displacement of particles in medium1 due to incident wave is given by:
yi(x,t) = Ai sin( t-k1x)
where, k1 = 2/1 = 2/V1
The displacement of particles in medium1 due to reflected wave is given by:
yr(x,t) = Ar sin(t+k1x)
The displacement of particles in medium2 due to transmitted wave is given by:
yt(x,t) = At sin( t-k2x)
where, k2 = 2/2 = 2/V2
Now, the boundary conditions gives:
a) The displacement of particles is same to the left and right of the boundary at
x=0, i.e. y(x,t) is continuous across the boundary at x=0, the velocity of the
particle is also contiuous
b) The excess pressure (p = -Ey/x) is continuous across the boundary at x =
0.
Now, boundary condition a) gives:
yi(x,t)[x = 0] + yr(x,t)[x = 0] = yt(x,t)[x = 0]
or, Ai sin( t-k1x)[x = 0] + Ar sin( t+k1x)[x = 0] = At sin( t-k2x)[x = 0]
or, Ai sin( t) + Ar sin( t) = At sin( t)
Ai + Ar = At -------------------------(1)
Now, boundary condition 2 gives:
-Eyi/x [x = 0] - Eyr/x [x = 0] = -Eyt/x [x = 0]
or, E Ai k1cos(t-k1x)[x = 0] - E Ar k1 cos(t+k1x)[x = 0] = E At k2 cos(t-k2x)[x = 0]
or, E Ai k1 cos(t) - E Ar k1 cos(t) = E At k2 cos(t)
or, E k1 Ai - E k1 Ar = E k2 At
or, Ai 2Z1 Ar 2Z1 = At 2Z2 [ Q Z = E / V ]
Ai Ar = At (Z2/Z1)---------------------------(2)
Now, adding (1) and (2) we get,
Ai + Ar +Ai - Ar = At (Z1+Z2) / Z1
Ai = 0.5 At (Z1+Z2) / Z1 -----------------------------------------(3)
Subtracting (2) from (1) we get,
Ai + Ar - Ai + Ar = At (Z1-Z2) / Z1
Ar = 0.5 At (Z1-Z2) / Z1 -----------------------------------------(4)
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Pi = Pr + Pt
(i.e. total energy is conserved at the boundary)
5. Deduce the expressions for the reflection and transmission amplitude and energy
coefficient when a transverse wave traveling in the positive X direction in the
string of impedance Z1 meets the junction of strings of impedance Z2.(15)
Let, the transverse wave is traveling from medium1 to medium2. Two mediums
are represented by two different types of strings having different parameters. We
know, V1 = T / 1 , V2 = T / 2 , Z1 = 1V1, Z2 = 2V2
Where, V = Velocity of wave, = Linear density of the medium
T = Tension in string, Z = characteristic impedance
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Ai + Ar = At -------------------------(1)
Now, boundary condition 2 gives:
-Tyi/x [x = 0] - Tyr/x [x = 0] = -Tyt/x [x = 0]
or, T Ai k1cos(t-k1x)[x = 0] - T Ar k1 cos(t+k1x)[x = 0] = T At k2 cos(t-k2x)[x = 0]
or, T Ai k1 cos(t) - T Ar k1 cos(t) = T At k2 cos(t)
or, T k1 Ai - T k1 Ar = T k2 At
or, Ai 2Z1 Ar 2Z1 = At 2Z2 [ T k1 = T 2/V1 = 2Z1 Q Z1 = T / V1
and similarly, T k1 = 2Z1]
Ai Ar = At (Z2/Z1)---------------------------(2)
Now, adding (1) and (2) we get,
Ai + Ar +Ai - Ar = At (Z1+Z2) / Z1
Ai = 0.5 At (Z1+Z2) / Z1 -----------------------------------------(3)
Subtracting (2) from (1) we get,
Ai + Ar - Ai + Ar = At (Z1-Z2) / Z1
Ar = 0.5 At (Z1-Z2) / Z1 -----------------------------------------(4)
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or 1 + (Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2) = At / Ai
(a)
We know, V= T / and Z = T/V. Therefore, Z = T
Z1/Z2 = 1 / 2
(i)For, 2/1 = 4, Z1/Z2 = 1/2, Z2 = 2Z1
Fraction of incident amplitude reflected = r12 = (Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2)
= (Z1 2Z1) / (Z1+2Z1)
= - 1/3
Fraction of incident amplitude transmitted = t12 = 2Z1 / (Z1+Z2)
= 2Z1 / (Z1+2Z1)
= 2/3
For, 2/1 = 1/4, Z1/Z2 = 2, Z1 = 2Z2
Fraction of incident amplitude reflected = r12 = (Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2)
= (2Z2 Z2) / (3Z2)
= 1/3
Fraction of incident amplitude transmitted = t12 = 2Z1 / (Z1+Z2)
= 4Z2 / (3Z2)
= 4/3
(ii) For, 2/1 = 4, Z1/Z2 = 1/2, Z2 = 2Z1
Fraction of the incident energy reflected = Ir/Ii = ((Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2)) 2
= 1/ 9
Fraction of incident amplitude transmitted = It/Ii = 4Z1Z2 / (Z1+Z2) 2
=8/9
For, 2/1 = 1/4, Z1/Z2 = 2, Z1 = 2Z2
Fraction of the incident energy reflected = Ir/Ii = ((Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2)) 2
= 1/ 9
Fraction of incident amplitude transmitted = It/Ii = 4Z1Z2 / (Z1+Z2) 2
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=8/9
(b)
Acoustic impedance of air = Z1 = air * Vair
= 1.29 * 334 kg/m^2/s
= 430.86 kg/m^2/s
Acoustic impedance of water = Z2 = water * Vwater
= 1000 * 1480
= 1480000 kg/m^2/s
Ratio of the amplitude enters water to that of incident wave = t12
= 2Z1 / (Z1+Z2)
= 5.82*10^-4
Fraction of the incident energy flux enters the water = It/Ii
= 4Z2Z1 / (Z1+Z2) 2
= 1.16*10^-3
In most flowing fluids there exist naturally occurring random fluctuations such as
density, turbulence, and temperature which can be detected by suitably located
transducers. If two such transducers are installed in a pipeline separated by a known
distance (say L), the upstream transducer will pick up a random fluctuation t seconds
before the downstream transducer and the distance between the transducers divided
by the transit time (say T) will yield flow velocity. In practice the random fluctuations
will not be stable and are compared in a cross-correlator which has a peak response at
transit time T, and correlation velocity V = UT, meters per second. This is effectively
a non-intrusive measurement and could in principle be developed to measure flow of
most fluids. Very few commercial cross-correlation systems are in use for flow
measurement because of the slow response time of such systems. However, with the
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This type of flowmeter uses Doppler Effect as the principle. The transmitter TX sends
an ultrasonic wave of frequency f1 & velocity c at an angle relative to the
direction of the flow. Bubbles, solid particles, eddies in the flow stream are
considered as the moving observers (relative to the fixed transmitter i.e. source) with
velocity V equal to that of flow velocity.
Now, if the apparent frequency of the wave seen by the moving particle observers is
f2 , then the Doppler shift for fixed source & moving observer is given by:
f2/ f1 = (velocity of waves relative to observer) / (normal wave velocity)
= (c + Vcos ) / c -----------------------------------------------------------(1)
The particles scattered the ultrasound in different directions. But a small amount of
the scattered wave is received by the receiver RX. Thus, RX now acts as a fixed
observer and particles act as moving source. Now, if the apparent wave length seen
by the fixed observer RX is 3 then the Doppler shift is given by:
3 / 2 = (velocity of wave relative to source) / (normal wave velocity)
= (c Vcos ) / c ---------------------------------------------------------(2)
Q 2 f2 = 3 f3 = c, (2) can be written as f3 / f2 = c / (c Vcos ) ------(3)
From equation (1) and (3), elimination of f2 gives
f3 = f1 (c + Vcos ) / (c Vcos )
the frequency shift in Doppler flowmeter is = f = f3 f1
= f1 (c + Vcos ) / (c Vcos ) f1
= (2 f1 Vcos) / (c Vcos )
Now, c Vcos = c (1 (V/c)cos) = c, for V<<c
f = 2 f1 Vcos / c
Thus, frequency shift is proportional to the flow velocity as well as volume flow rate.
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8. (a) Briefly discuss the working principle of pulse echo flaw detector.
(b) Draw and describe the schematic block diagram of pulse echo method of flaw
detection system.
(c) What are the influences that affect the amplitude of the received echo?
(d) What are the general specifications that are accessed in accordance with
particular applications of pulse echo flaw detector?
(e) What is the role of repetition frequency generator and base line voltage in
pulse echo method of flaw detection?
3+4+2+3+3
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The frequency generator triggers both the sweep generator and pulse generator. Now
the pulse generator excites the transducer. Now the fact to be noted is that, the sweep
generator is triggered a little before the pulse generator (as well as the transducer) is
triggered (Tt>Ts). This is because we want to obtain the main echo rather than the
side echoes for our measurement. Actually, during each ramp of the sweep generator
output, the bright voltage of CRO exists and echoes are visible. If, during the main
echo, ramp is not present then we will not be able to see that main echo.
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Figure 10: Waveforms of different blocks of pulse echo flaw detector forTt<Ts
9.
(a)????????????????????????
(b) Three strings are joined together and the composite string is stretched with a
tension of 10N. The linear densities of strings 1 & 3 are 1*10^-3Kg/m & 4*10^3Kg/m respectively. A transverse wave of frequency 100Hz is produced in string
1. Calculate the linear density and length of intermediate string 2 so that the
wave is completely transmitted through the composite string without any loss
due to reflection at the boundary.
We know, Z = T / V = T / T / =
Z1 =
and Z3 =
Z1Z 3 =
2 = Z2 2 / T = 0.1*0.2 / 10 = 2 * 10^-3kg/m
Now, velocity (V) = frequency (f) * wavelength ()
V2 = f * 2 (Frequency of the wave remains unchanged in 3 mediums)
2 = V2 / f = T / 2 / f = 10 /(2 * 10^ 3) / 100 = 5000 /100 = 0.707m
As per condition, the length of the 2nd medium should be = L = 2/4 = 0.176m
10. (a) Describe the integration method of thickness measurement.
(b) With the help of neat diagram, briefly discuss the method of level
measurement using ultrasonic level detectors.
(c) A longitudinal wave traveling in a rod encounters discontinuity where the
Youngs modulus suddenly doubles, the density remaining the same. Calculate
the reflection and transmission amplitude coefficients.
(d) Assuming the expression of reflection and transmission amplitude coefficient,
prove that if a ultrasonic wave traveling in a medium of lower impedance meets
the boundary of a medium of higher impedance, the wave reflected at the
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(b) The ultrasonic level measurement is based on transit time of ultrasonic wave
measuring (generally 30 to 300kHz is used) procedure. The ultrasound travels from
the transmitter TX and a part of it is reflected back from the liquid-air interface and
received by the receiver RX. When the TX & RX are placed at the bottom (bottom),
the transit time is directly proportional to the level. But when TX & RX are placed at
the (roof), the transit time is proportional to the gap (may be air gap) between roof
and liquid level. In this case, one has to subtract the directly obtained gap length from
the height of the tank to get the liquid level.
In fig-12, the transit time measuring arrangement is shown. The pulse generator (PG)
excites the Pulse oscillator (PO) at the same moment. Then and there the PO excites
the TX crystal and US wave is sent to the tank. At that moment, the SR input of the
SR F/F is S=1, R=0 and O/P=1. Now, after reflected back the US wave is received by
RX and the RX generates a pulse which is detected by the amplifier-comparator and
inputs of SR F/F becomes S = 1, R = 1 and output changes to 0. In fig-12, a single
element TX/RX is shown. Now the time taken by the SR F/F O/P from 1 to 0 is
nothing but the transit time and Fathometer is generally used to measure that time.
Figure 11: Ultrasonic level measurement. Unit at bottom (left) and unit at top (right)
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(d)
We know, r12 = (Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2) and t12 = 2Z1 / (Z1+Z2)
The condition given is Z2 > Z1
Always r12 < 0
But, r12 = Ar / Ai
(a) With a single crystal vertical probe (normal probe) the generated ultrasonic wave
passes into the test body in a perpendicular direction. The probe is shown in fig-14
and is coupled to the test body by coupling layers. It mainly consists of active
element, backing surface and wear plate. If necessary, there are also electrical
matching elements and all are kept in a single housing.
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The time taken by the pulse to go from transducer A to B is (with the flow)
tAB = L / (C + Vcos) (1)
The time taken by the pulse to go from transducer B to A is (against the flow)
tBA = L / (C Vcos) (2)
Where, V = fluid velocity
C = velocity of ultrasonic pulse in the fluid
L = acoustic path length (the distance the pulse traverse) in the fluid
= the angle between the acoustic path and the pipe axis
From (1) and (2) we get, tBA tAB = L / (C Vcos) L / (C + Vcos)
= 2LVcos / (C 2 V 2cos 2)
= 2LVcos / C 2 [ Q C>>V ]
V = C 2 t / 2Lcos -------------------- (3)
Now let t = tBA tAB
Now, tBA + tAB = L / (C Vcos) + L / (C + Vcos)
= 2LC / (C 2 V 2cos 2)
= 2L / C
[ Q C>>V ]
(tBA + tAB) / 2 = L / C = tA (say) = averaging transit time between the transducers
C 2 = (L / tA) 2
Now, equation (3) gives V = C 2 t / 2Lcos
= (L / tA) 2 t / 2Lcos
= L t / 2 tA 2 cos
= K t / tA 2 (where, K = L / 2cos = constant)
Now, if the cross sectional area (A) of the pipe is known, one can calculate the
volumetric flow rate (Q) by the equation: Q = AV
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(a)
(b)
Figure 16: A-scan representation
right, the BW (back wall) signal will be displayed but at the right most end because the
transit time, in this case, is maximum. Then signal B will appear and at last signal C will
be appear but it is positioned before B as the transit time in case of C is less than that of B
as the flaw C is nearer from the surface than flaw B is.
B-scan presentation
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It is a profile view of the test specimen. Here the time-of-flight of US wave is plotted
along the Y-axis and the linear position of the transducer is plotted along the X-axis.
Here, the depth of the reflector and the linear dimension of the reflector in the scanning
direction are approximated. The B-scan is typically produced by establishing a trigger
gate on the A-scan. When the signal intensity is great enough to trigger the gate, a point
on the B-scan is produced. In the B-scan image of fig-17, line IP & A is produced as the
transducer is scanned over surface A. then line BW, line B, line C will be gradually
appear as the body is scanned from left to right. The limitation is that, reflectors may be
masked by larger reflectors near the surface.
C-scan presentation
The C-scan representation produces a plane type view of the location and size of the test
body features. The plane of the image is parallel to the scanning plane. C-scan
representation is produced with an automated DAS. Typically, a data collection gate is
established on the A-scan. Amplitude or the time of flight of the signal is recorded at
regular interval as the test body is scanned. The signal amplitude or the time of flight is
displayed as a shade of gray or a color for each of the positions where data was recorded.
In this way, the C-scan produces an image of the reflectors within the test body (fig-18).
d. Attenuation of ultrasonic waves in an absorbing medium
In an absorbing medium (Sound waves in a viscous fluid), ultrasonic wave loses energy
as it propagates through the medium. It has been experimentally found that the amplitude
of the wave decays by a constant fraction of its value when the wave propagates through
a certain distance. This means that the amplitude falls exponentially with distance and the
amplitude (A(x)) and distance (x) relationship with respect to the origin at x = 0 is given
as follows:
A(x) = Ao exp(x) ------------------------ (1)
Where, Ao is the amplitude at x = 0, the constant term is called the attenuation
constant. From (1) we have:
dA(x)/dx = Ao exp(x)
= A(x)
= (1/Ao) (dA(x)/dx)
Thus, attenuation constant () is given by the decrement in amplitude, when wave
travels in an absorbing medium, per unit amplitude per unit length.
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The inverse of is called the attenuation length (1/). It is defined as the distance
traveled by wave over which the amplitude is decreased by a factor e = 2.718, i.e. for x
= 1/, A(x) = Ao exp(1) = Ao/e.
Dispersive medium and dispersion relation:- The displacement of particles of wave when
traveling in an absorbing medium in positive X direction s given by:
Y(x,t) = Ao exp(x) exp (i *(2/)(Vt x))
= Ao exp[(2i/)(Vt x)x]
= Ao exp[(2Vi/)(t x/V)x]
= Ao exp[2i(t x/V)x] [Q V/ = ]
= Ao exp[2i(t x/Vx/2i)]
= Ao exp[2i{ t x(1/V+/2i)}]
= Ao exp[2i{t x(1/Vi/2)}]
= Ao exp[2i(t x/V*)]
Where, 1/V* = 1/V
i/2
This V* is called the complex wave velocity applicable for the waves traveling through
absorbing medium. In practice this method of introducing the complex wave finds
application chiefly in optics in which we define the refractive index as n = c / V Where, c
is the velocity of light in vacuum and v is the velocity of light at that medium. In
absorbing medium the complex refractive index is given as:
n* = c / V*
= c / V ci/2
= n ci/2
This shows that the refractive index (and hence the wave velocity) depends on the
frequency (or the wavelength ) of the wave in an absorbing medium. Such a
medium is called dispersive medium and this relation between wave velocity and
frequency (or wavelength) is called dispersive relation.
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