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CHP 58 PDF
CHP 58 PDF
CONTENTS
Learning Objectives
+ 0 ) 2 6 - 4
LOAD LINES
#&
DC Load Line
Q-Point and Maximum
Undistorted Output
Need for Biasing a Transis-
AND DC BIAS
tor
Factor Affecting Bias
CIRCUITS
Variations
Stability Factor
Beta Sensitivity
Stability Factor for CB and
CE Circuits
Different Methods for Tran-
sistor Biasing
Base Bias
Base Bias with Emitter
Feedback
Base Bias with Collector
Feedback
Base Bias with Collector
and Emitter Feedbacks
Emitter Bias with two Sup-
plies
Voltage Divider Bias
Load Line and Output
Characteristics
AC Load Line
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
2220 Electrical Technology
VCE VCC
IC = +
RL RL
It is a linear equation similar to y = mx + c
The graph of this equation is a straight line whose slope is m = 1/R L
Active Region
All operating points (like C, D, E etc. in Fig. 58.1) lying between cut-off and saturation points
form the active region of the transistor. In this region, E/B junction is forward-biased and C/B
junction is reverse-biasedconditions necessary for the proper operation of a transistor.
Quiescent Point
It is a point on the dc load line, which represents the values of IC and V CE that exist in a transistor
circuit when no input signal is applied.
It is also known as the dc operating point or working point. The best position for this point is
midway between cut-off and satura-
VEE = 30 VCC = 20 V tion points where V CE = 12 V CC (like
mA point D in Fig. 58.1).
IE IC 4B Example 58.1. For the
RE = 15 K RL 5 K circuit shown in Fig. 58.2 (a), draw
IC 3
Q-POINT the dc load line and locate its quies-
2 cent or dc working point.
1 Solution. The cut-off point is eas-
0 A ily found because it lies along X -axis
VCB 0 5 10 15 20 where V CE = V CC = 20 V i.e. point A in
IB
VCB
Fig. 58.2 (b). At saturation point B,
saturation value of collector current
(a) (b)
is IC(sat) = V CC/R L = 20 V/5 K = 4 mA.
Fig. 58.2
Load Lines and DC Bias Circuits 2221
The line A B represents the load line for the given circuit. We will now find the actual operating
point.
IE = V EE /R E= 30 V/15 K = 2 mA neglecting V BE
IC = IE IE = 2 mA; V CB = V CC IC R L = 20 2 5 = 10 V
Hence, Q-point is located at (10 V ; 2 mA) as shown in Fig. 58.2 (b)
Example 58.2. In the CB circuit of Fig. 8.3 (a), find
(a) dc operating point and dc load line
(b) maximum peak-to-peak unclipped signal
(c) the approximate value of ac source voltage that will cause clipping.
(Electronics and Telecom Engg. Jadavpur Univ.)
Solution.
10 V 20 V VCC
IE IC IC (a) IC(sat) = R = 2 mA
L
mA
RE 20 K 10 K RL 2.0 B point B
V CB at cut-off =V CC = 20 V
1.5 point A
1.0 Hence, AB is the dc load line
RS 1K and is shown in Fig. 58.3 (b).
0.5 Q
VCB Now, IE =10/20 = 0.5 mA
VS A
0
IC IE = 0.5 mA
5 10 15 20 V
CB VCB = V CC IC R L
(a) (b) = 20 0.5 10
Fig. 58.3
=15 V
Let us find the dc working point from the given values of resistances and supply voltage.
IB = 30 V/1.5 M = 20 A; IC = IB =100 20 = 2000 A = 2 mA ;
VC = V CC IC R L = 30 2 5 = 20 V
Hence, Qpoint is (20 V ; 2 mA) as shown in Fig. 58.4.
Cut-Off I CQ Q3
Q1
0 VCE 0 0
VCE VCEQ VCE
A A
A
B B
B
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 58.5
If the Q-point Q2 is located near saturation point, then clipping first starts at point B as shown
in Fig. 58.5 (b). It is caused by saturation. The maximum negative swing = V CEQ.
In Fig. 58.5 (c), the Q-point Q3 is located at the centre of the load line. In this condition, we get
the maximum possible output signal. The point Q3 gives the optimum Q-point. The maximum
undistorted signal = 2VCEQ.
In general, consider the case shown in Fig. 58.6. Since I C
A < B, maximum possible peak-to-peak output signal = 2 A.
If the operating point were so located that A > B, then maxi- Q
mum possible peak-to-peak output signal = 2B.
When operating point is located at the centre of the load
line, then maximum undistorted peak-to-peak signal is = 2 A
= 2 B = V CC = 2 V CEQ.
Under optimum working conditions corresponding to Fig.
0
58.5 (c), ICQ is half the saturation value given by V CC/R L (Art. 8.1). VCE
A B
1 VCC VCC
I CQ = . = Fig. 58.6
2 RL 2 R
Example 58.4. Determine the value of RB required to adjust the circuit of Fig. 58.7 to opti-
mum operating point. Take = 50 and VBE = 0.7 V.
Solution. As seen from above
V 20
ICQ = CC = =1mA
2 RL 2 10
The corresponding base current is
ICQ 1
I BQ = = = 2 A
50
Load Lines and DC Bias Circuits 2223
Now, V CC = IB R B + V BE
VCC
VCC VBE 20 0.7 20V
RB = = = 965
IB 20 10 6 RL 10K
RB
58.3. Need For Biasing a Transistor
C Vout
2
For normal operation of a transistor amplifier
circuit, it is essential that there should be a C1
(a) forward bias on the emitter-base junction and RS
(b) reverse bias on the collector-base junction.
VS
In addition, amount of bias required is important for es-
tablishing the Q-point which is dictated by the mode of opera-
tion desired.
Fig. 58.7
If the transistor is not biased correctly, it would
1. work inefficiently and
2. produce distortion in the output signal.
It is desirable that once selected, the Q-point should remain stable i.e. should not shift its
position due to temperature rise etc. Unfortunately, this does not happen in practice unless special
efforts are made for the purpose.
58.4. Factors Affecting Bias Variations
In practice, it is found that even after careful selection, Q-point tends to shift its position. This
bias instability is the direct result of thermal instability which itself is produced by cumulative
increase in IC that may, if unchecked, lead to thermal runaway (Art. 58.13).
The collector current for CE circuit is given by
IC = IB + ICEO = IB + (1 + ) ICO
This equation has three variables : , IB and ICO all of which are found to increase with tempera-
ture. In particular, increase in ICO produces significant increase in collector current IC. This leads to
increased power dissipation with further increase in temperature and hence IC . Being a cumulative
process, it can lead to thermal runaway which will destroy the transistor itself !
However, if by some circuit modification, IC is made to decrease with temperature automati-
cally, then decrease in the term IB can be made to neutralize the increase in the term (1 + ) ICO,
thereby keeping IC constant. This will achieve thermal stability resulting in bias stability.
16.95 11.3
Fig. 58.10 % I C = 100 = 50 (increase)
11.3
3.52 6.35
% VCE = 100 = 44.57 (decrease)
6.35
It is seen that Q-point is very much dependent on temperature and makes the base-bias
arrangement very unstable.
VE = I E RE IC RE ; V CE = VC VE
VCE VCC I C ( RL + RE )
1 + RB /( RE + RL )
S=
1 + RB / ( RE + RL )
1 IC
It can be proved that K = 1 +( R + R ) / R =1 I
E L B C ( sat )
Obviously, K will be degraded with increase in R B.
15V
Example 58.8. For the circuit shown in Fig. 58.13, find
(a) IC (sat) (b) VCE and (c) K . Neglect VBE and take = 100. IC
Solution. (a) IC(sat) = 15/(10 + 10) = 0.75 mA RL 10 K
RB
VCC 15
(b) IC = = = 0.6 mA 500 K
RE + RL + RB / 10 +10 + 500 /100
V CE = 15 0.6 (10 + 10) = 3 V VCE
=100
1
(c) K = = 0.2 RE
1 +100(10 +10) / 50 10 K
or K = 1 IC /IC(sat) = 1 0.6/0.75=0.2
Obviously, K will be degraded with increase in R B . Fig. 58.13
IC
Using Thevenins Theorem
RL
More accurate results can be R1 R1
obtained by Thevenizing the voltage I B R B
B A B A
divider circuit as shown in Fig. 58.17. +
Rth
The first step is to open the base lead at
R2 V2 =Vth R2 R th
VBB VBE _ I E
point A and remove the transistor along RE
with R L and R E thereby leaving the voltage Vth
divider circuit behind as in Fig. 58.17 (a)
and (b). (a) (b) (c)
Fig. 58.17
R2 R1 R2
Vth = V2 = VCC . and Rth = R1 || R2 =
R1 + R2 ( R1 + R2 )
The original circuit is reduced to that shown in Fig. 58.17 (c) where V th = V BB ;. R th = R B.
Now, applying K V L to the base-emitter loop, we get
V B B IB R B V BE IER E = 0
Substituting the value of IE = (1 + ) IB in (i) above, we get
VBB VBE
IB =
RB + (1+) RE
However, if we substitute the value of IB = IE /(1 + ), we
get
VBB VBE
IE =
RE + RB /(1+)
V CE = V CC ICR L IER E V CC IC(R L + R E)
Fig. 58.18
The above results could also be obtained directly by ap-
plying -rule (Art. 58.12)
Using -rule
As per -rule (Art. 58.12) when R E is transferred to the base circuit, it becomes (1 + ) R E and
is in parallel with R 2 as shown in Fig. 8.18. Now, V CC drops over R 1 and R 2 || (1 + ) R E
2230 Electrical Technology
R2 || (1+) RE
VB =VCC
R1 + R2 ||(1+) RE
V E = V B V BE ; IE = V E/R E and so on.
Example. 58.10. For the circuit of Fig. 58.19, find
20 V
(a) IC(sat) , (b) IC , (c) VCE , (d) K. Neglect VBE and take = 50. IC
(Electronics, Gorakhpur Univ.) 14 K 2K
Solution.
VCC 20 VCE
(a) IC ( sat ) = R + R = 2 + 6 = 2.5 mA
L E +
(b) IC IE V 2 /R E = 6/6 = 1 mA V2 6K 6K
(c) V CE = V CC IC (R L + R E) = 20 1 (2 + 6) = 12 V
(d) R 1 || R 2 = 84/20 = 4.2 K
Fig. 58.19
1
K = = 0.0138
1 + 50 6 / 4.2
Example 58.11. For the circuit shown in Fig. 58.20
20 V 20 V
(a), draw the dc load line and mark the Q-point of the
IC
circuit. Assume germanium material with VBB = 0.3 V
4K
4K and = 50.
100 K
R B=20 K (Electronics-I, M.S. Univ. 1991)
Solution. VCC(cut off ) =VCC = 20 V
VCC 20
25 K V BB=4 V 6K IC ( sat ) = = = 2 mA
6K RL + RE 4 + 6
IE
(a) Approximate Method
(a) (b)
R2 25
Fig. 58.20 V2 = VCC
= 20 =4 V
R1 + R2 125
V V 4 0.3
I E = 2 BE = = 0.62mA
RE 6
V CE = V CC IC(R L + R E) = 20 0.62 10 = 13.8 V
This Q-point (13.8 V, 0.62 mA) is shown in Fig. 58.21 (a).
As seen from Fig. 58.20 (b)
VB B = 20 25/125
mA mA
=4V
2
V VBE 2
I B = BB
RB + (1+) RE
IC
4 0.3 IC
= 1
20 + 51 6 1
= 11.3 A 0.62 Q Q
0.565
I C = I B = 50 11.3 13.8 14.3
0 5 10 15 20V 0 5 10 15
= 0.565 mA VCE VCE
IE = (1 + IB (a) (b)
= 576 A Fig. 58.21
= 0.576 mA
Load Lines and DC Bias Circuits 2231
V CE = V CC ICR C IER E = 20 0.565 4 0.576 6 = 14.3 V
The new and more accurate Q-point (14.3 V, 0.565 mA) is shown in Fig. 58.21 (b).
C1 C2 Q
0.5
vS
30K
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30V
22.5
VCB
(a)
(b)
Fig. 58.27
Hence, dc operating point or Q-point is (15 V, 0.5 mA) as shown in Fig. 58.27 (b).
The cut-off point for ac load line is = V CBQ + ICQ R A C
Since collector sees an ac load of two 30 K resistors in parallel, hence R ac = 30 K || 30 K
=15 K.
VCBQ + ICQ R ac=15 + 0.5 15 = 22.5 V
Saturation current for ac line is = ICQ + V CBQ/R ac = 0.5 + 15/15 = 1.5 mA
The line joining these two points (and also passing through Q) gives the ac load line as shown
in Fig. 58.27 (b).
Note. Knowing ac cut-off point and Q-point, we can draw the ac load line. Hence, we need not find the
value of saturation current for this purpose.
As seen, positive swing starts clipping first because ICQ R ac is less than V CBQ. Obviously, maxi-
mum peak-to-peak signal that can be obtained from this circuit = 2 7.5 = 15 V.
Example. 58.15. For the circuit shown in Fig. 58.27 (a), find the approximate value of source
voltage us that will cause clipping. The voltage source has an internal resistance of 1 K.
Solution. As found out in Ex. 58.14, the maximum swing of the unclipped output = 2 7.5 =
15 V.
Vout Rac 15
Now, A = = = = 15
Vs RS 1
V 15V p p
VS = out = = 1Vp-p
A 15
RL 20K
VCB
50K RE 30K
-15V
Fig. 58.28 Fig. 58.29 Fig. 58.30 Fig. 58.31
OBJECTIVE TESTS 58
1. The dc load line of a transistor circuit (a) 4
(a) has a negative slope (b) 3
(b) is a curved line (c) 2
(c) gives graphic relation between IC and (d) 1.5
IB 6. A transistor circuit employing base bias with
(d) does not contain the Q-point. collector feedback has greater stability than
2. The positive swing of the output signal in a the one without feedback because
transistor circuit starts clipping first when Q- (a) IC decrease in magnitude
point of the circuit moves (b) V BE is decreased
(a) to the centre of the load line (c) of negative feedback effect
(b) two-third way up the load line (d) IC becomes independent of .
(c) towards the saturation point 7. The universal bias stabilization circuit is most
(d) towards the cut-off point. popular because
3. To avoid thermal run away in the design of (a) I C does not depend on transistor
analog circuit, the operating point of the BJT characteristics
should be such that it satisfies the condition (b) its -sensitivity is high
(a) V CE = 1/2 V CC (c) voltage divider is heavily loaded by
(b) V CE < 1/2 V CC transistor base
(c) V CE > 1/2 V CC (d) IC equals IE.
(d) V CE < 0.78 V CC 8. Improper biasing of a transistor circuit leads
4. In the case of a BJT amplifier, bias stability is to
achieved by (a) excessive heat production at collector
(a) keeping the base current constant terminal
(b) changing the base current in order to (b) distortion in output signal
keep the IC and V CB constant (c) faulty location of load line
(c) keeping the temperature constant (d) heavy loading of emitter terminal.
(d) keeping the temperature and the base 9. The negative output swing in a transistor cir-
current constant cuit starts clipping first when Q-point
5. For a transistor amplifier with self-biasing (a) has optimum value
network, the following components are (b) is near saturation point
used : (c) is near cut-off point
R 1 = 4 k , R 2 = 4 k and R E = 1 k (d) is in the active region of the load line.
the approximate value of the stability 10. When a BJT is employed as an amplifier, it
factor S will be operates
2236 Electrical Technology
B
E
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (b)
7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (d)
13. (a)
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