Geological time and Evolution

1. Define the term Fossil and recall how fossils are formed

Fossil: Remains of plants and animals which lived prior to historical terms.
Preserved by mud or silt
Usually sedimentary
Volcanic rock found by lava or ash

- It must posses hard parts and undergo rapid burial in a protective

medium
- In watery environments, when they die, they fall to the bottom, where
they are covered in sediments, soft tissues decomposes, pressure is
applied and a fossil is formed.

2. Relate the fossil record to the age of the Earth and the time
over which life has been evolving.

Radioactive Decay: Nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting

radiation

- Method that uses the natural rate of decay of radioactive isotopes.

- Radioactive elements decay at a known rate and release particles that
form radiation
- Geiger Counter measures it
- the elements that decay turn into new elements (can be measured)
- Allows scientists to estimate how long ago the rock was laid down

Radiometric Dating (Carbon Dating): Technique used to determine the

relative age of fossils up to 50,000 years old.

-Dating fossils help scientists (palaeontologists) work out when particular

species existed and became extinct
-Help reveal how groups of organisms change over time

Carbon 12- Mostly in living things

14 Not stable and decays into nitrogen over time (small amounts in
living things)

- Carbon 14 decays but 12 does not

- Ratio decreases gradually (14-12)

3. Describe evidence used to support the idea that organisms

change over time

Embryology: The study of the development of the anatomy of an

organism to its adult form
 Embryos of different Animals are studied
Similarities are seen, especially for vertebrates
Suggests that the genes that control the early growth of vertebrates
may come from common ancestors
Differences shown as the embryo develops are due to the other
genes, unique to each vertebrate.

Fossils Evidence
Horse used to be small
Changes in the environment, predators and diets led significant
changes

Evolution: Process by which modern organisms have descended from

ancient organisms

Theory: All life has evolved from pre-existing forms

Artificial Selection: The breeding of plants and animals to produce

desirable traits.
Human Interference with nature
Shown in farming
Farmers would only let the best crops reproduce
Breeders only let the animals with the desirable characteristics
reproduce, eg. Best meat.

4. Outline the Contribution of Charles Darwin to the theory of

evolution (i.e. Natural selection)

Contribution was natural selection

the process whereby organisms better adapted to their
environment tend to survive and produce more offspring
Common descent: organisms are descended from one, or several
common ancestors and have diversified from this original stock.
Eg. Humans and chimpanzees share 99% of the same genes
Variation of inheritable features which already exist
Environmental feature contribute to survival
Evolution can occur through mutation, natural selection or artificial
selection

Natural Selection: - Survival of the Fittest

Reproduction of the best

An environmental change or competition for food due to
overpopulation
Those better situated to the environment survive, the weak do
not
 The survivors breed and pass on genetically those favourable
characteristics
This helps their offspring survive

Eg. Darwin observed on the Galapagos Islands the Terrestrial

Iguanas. Had small but varying amounts of webbing.
- Live on land
- Population grows
- Competition for food and space
- Forces individuals to start feeding in water
- Those with more webbing between their toes will be better
suited to the water (and will find more food)
- Stronger and healthier, more likely to mate
- Pass on the gene for increased webbing
- Those with less webbing will likely starve and less likely to
mate
- Over many generation, this would cause new species to
evolve with webbed feet.

7. Resistance-
Pesticides are used to kill insects or pests
A few insects will survive and pass on their gene for
resistance
Then their offspring will reproduce until there is a whole
new population of insects resistant to pesticide.

Law of Superposition of Rocks-

Determine the relative age of rocks and fossils within them
S
Sedimentary rock

Pentadactyl limb-
 Chemical World
All matter is composed of atoms and has mass
Heaviest part of an atom is the nucleus
Atoms are mostly empty space
They combine to form molecules
Hydrogen and Oxygen are produced by the break down of water
Particle Accelerator helps scientists study atoms
Matter and Energy make up the Universe
Carbon is in everything
Organic Chemistry is the study of carbon

NAMING:

Metal Ions Metal Atoms lose 1 or more electrons to form an ion. The
name is the same.

Egg. Sodium atoms Sodium Ion

Non Metal Ions Gain electrons to form ions. Their names always
change to end in IDE.

Compounds- Put the two ion names together, metal ALWAYS first.
 Egg. Magnesium Chloride

Decomposition Reactions are chemical reactions where a

compound I broken down to smaller substances using heat. Usually
dont occur spontaneously.
Copper Carbonate Copper Oxide + Carbon Dioxide

Heat of Reactions- Small reactions cause an increase or

decrease in temperature

- H= mct m= mass of water

Combustion-

Warmth, movement and electricity

React with oxygen to create light and heat.

Hydrocarbon+ oxygen carbon dioxide +water

Fuel + oxygen carbon dioxide to water

Precipitation-

Lead Nitrate+ Potassium iodide lead iodide to potassium nitrate

Neutralisation:
Acid + base salt+ water

Eg. Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water

H20= water
CO2= carbon dioxide
02 = oxygen
NaCl- Salt
NaOH- Sodium Hydroxide
H2SO4- Sulfuric acid

Acid+ metal salt + hydrogen

Physical World

Distance- the length of the path taking by a moving object from

one position to another
Displacement- The direct path from one place to another
Speed- The rate at which something moves
Velocity- The speed of something in a given direction
Acceleration- the rate of change of velocity per unit of time.
Speed- S =D/T

Accelration- Change in velocity / time taken

Velocity S diplacement/T

NEWTONS LAWS

1. An object at rest will stay at rest unless acted upon by an

outside force
Inertia- An object in motion continues in motion with the same
speed and direction unless acted upon by an outside force.
2. Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass
3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

Moving body, constant velocity

Accelerating