Thermodynamics II PDF

THERMODYNAMICS Author: Pranjal K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur) www.vidyadrishti.
org
Notes for School Exams

Target IIT-JEE 2015
Physics
Thermodynamics
Author: Pranjal K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)
H. O. D. Physics, Concept Bokaro Centre
Mb: 7488044834
2007 P. K. Bharti
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www.vidyadrishti.org
2013-2015
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THERMODYNAMICS Author: Pranjal K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur) www.vidyadrishti.org
Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics is the science Zeroth law of Thermodynamics

of energy conversion involving heat and other forms of
energy, most notably mechanical work. It studies and If objects A and B are separately in thermal
interrelates the macroscopic variables, such as equilibrium with a third object C, then objects A and
temperature, volume and pressure, which describe B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
physical, thermodynamic systems. In other words, states that if two bodies A and C have
same temperature and B and C have also same
temperature then A and B have also same temperature.
Heat: Heat always refers to the transfer of energy between We can think of temperature as the property that
systems (or bodies), not to energy contained within the determines whether an object is in thermal equilibrium
systems (or bodies). with other objects.
Heat is energy in transit.
Heat of a body or heat contained in a body is a TEMPERATURE SCALE & THERMOMETERS
meaningless statement.
S.I. unit of heat: J (joules) There are three temperature scales in use today:
Celsius Scale
Fahrenheit Scale
Temperature: Loosely speaking, temperature is the degree of Kelvin Scale
hotness or coldness of a body or environment.
Celsius Scale
A body that feels hot usually has a higher temperature
than a similar body that feels cold.
On the microscopic scale, temperature is defined as the Some important temperatures on Fahrenheit Scale:
average kinetic energy of microscopic motions of a single o
particle in the system per degree of freedom. We will Freezing point of water: 0 C
o
learn about temperature at microscopic level in the Boiling point of water: 100 C
chapter Kinetic Theory of Gases. o
On the macroscopic scale, temperature is the unique Human body temperature: 32 C
o
physical property that determines the direction of heat Room Temperature: 25 C
flow between two objects placed in thermal contact. If no o
heat flow occurs, the two objects have the same Absolute Zero : 273.15 C
temperature; otherwise heat flows from the hotter object
to the colder object. Absolute Zero
Absolute Zero is the lowest possible temperature, at which
NOTE:
Heat & temperature are two different physical point the atoms of a substance transmit no thermal energy
quantities. Heat is a form of energy which flows from a
they are completely at rest. It is 0 degrees on the Kelvin scale,
body at higher temperature to the body at lower
o
temperature. Temperature is a measure of the internal
which translates to -273.15 C (or -459.67 degrees
energy of the system, while heat is a measure of how
energy is transferred from one system (or body) to Fahrenheit).
another.
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM: Two bodies are said to be in Fahrenheit Scale

thermal equilibrium if no transfer of takes place when they are
placed in contact.
Thus, two objects are in thermal equilibrium with each Some important temperatures on Fahrenheit Scale:
o
other when they are at the same temperature.
Freezing point of water: 32 F
o
Boiling point of water: 212 F
Answer the following question: o
Human body temperature: 98.6 F
o
Q1. All objects sitting in a room should reach the same Room Temperature: 77 F
temperature. Yet if you pick up a cup made of glass, it feels o
cooler than a cup made of plastic. Many people Absolute Zero: 459 F
unconsciously recognize plastic by its relative "warm feel." NOTE: Fahrenheit Scale is used by doctors.
How can two objects be the same temperature and yet one
feels cooler? What mistaken assumption are we making?
Kelvin Scale Answer the following questions:
Q2. What is the S.I. unit of temperature?

An absolute temperature scale is based on the definition that o
the volume of a gas at constant (low) pressure is directly Q3. Convert 32 F into Celsius and Kelvin scale.
o
proportional to temperature and that 100 degrees separates the
Q4. Convert 100 C into Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale.
freezing and boiling points of water.
Some important temperatures on Fahrenheit Scale: Q5. Is it correct to say that temperature of a body is 459 K ?
Freezing point of water: 273.15 K
Boiling point of water: 373.15 K Q6. Consider the following pairs of materials. Which pair
Human body temperature: 402.15 K represents two materials, one of which is twice as hot as the
Room Temperature: 298.15 K other?
Absolute Zero: 0 K (a) boiling water at 100C, a glass of water at 50C
NOTE: (b) boiling water at 100C, frozen methane at -50C
o
We dont use degree K ( K) to denote temperature on (c) an ice cube at -20C, flames from a circus fire-eater at
Kelvin scale. 233C
There are no negative Kelvin temperatures. (d) No pair represents materials one of which is twice as hot as
Kelvin is used as S.I. unit of temperature. the other
Relation between Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit scales: Answers:

2. K
Kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit o o
Scale Scale Scale 3. 32 F = 0 C = 273.15 K (Use formulae)
o o
Boiling 4. 100 C = 212 F = 373.15 K (Use formulae)
o o
373.15 K 100 C 212 F point 5. No, because there are no negative Kelvin temperatures.
6. (c) The phrase twice as hot refers to a ratio of

Point of
temperatures in Kelvin scale. When the given temperatures
K C interest
F are converted to Kelvins, only those in part (c) are in the
correct ratio.
Freezing
o o
point
273.15 K 0 C 32 F
Thermal expansion
We can write Most materials expand when their temperatures increase.

Point of interest Freezing point When an objects temperature is raised, every linear
dimension increases in size. This phenomenon is known
Boiling Point Freezing point Kelvin Scale
as thermal expansion.
Point of interest Freezing point
= The term thermal expansion refers to the increase in size
Boiling Point Freezing point Celcius Scale of an object as that object is heated. With relatively few
Point of interest Freezing point exceptions, all objects expand when they are heated and
=
Boiling Point Freezing point Fahrenheit Scale
contract when they are cooled.
Perhaps the most important exception to this rule is water.
Water contracts as it cools from its boiling point to about
K 273.15 C 0 F 32
= = 4C (39.2F). At that point, it begins to expand as it cools
373.15 273.15 100 0 212 32
further to its freezing point. This unusual effect explains
the fact that ice is less dense than water.
K 273.15 C F 32
= = When an object is heated or cooled, it expands or
100 100 180 contracts in all dimensions. However, for practical
reasons, scientists and engineers often focus on two
Hence, we have different kinds of expansion: linear expansion
(expansion in one direction only) and volume expansion
9 (expansion in all three dimensions). There is also third
F= C + 32 & K =+
273.15 C kind of expansion known as area expansion (expansion
5
in two dimensions only).
Q7. Do holes become larger or smaller when heated? Hence,

Answer: When an objects temperature is
L
raised, every linear dimension increases in = (Average coefficient of linear expansion)
size. This includes any holes in the material, LT
which expand in the same way as if the hole Let the new length of rod after expansion or contraction
were filled with the material. Keep in mind becomes L. Clearly, L = L + L. Hence, new length L
the notion of thermal expansion as being similar to a of rod becomes
photographic enlargement. L=' L (1 + T )
Linear expansion Area expansion
A good example of linear expansion (expansion in one If the area of an object is A and the temperature changes
direction only) railroad tracks distorted because of by a differential amount dT, then the differential change
thermal expansion on a very hot July day. in the area dA is given by:
Most materials expand as they are heated and contract if
they are cooled. Thus their length is a function of dA = AdT (Volume expansion)
temperature. If the length of an object is L and the
temperature changes by a differential amount dT, then the where is a constant known as the coefficient of area
differential change in the length dL is given by: expansion.
dL = LdT (linear expansion)
where is a constant known as the coefficient of linear A A+ dA
expansion.
T
L T T+dT
T+dT Clearly,
L+dL dA
Clearly, = (Coefficient of area expansion)
AdT
dL
= (Coefficient of linear expansion)
LdT Thus we can define coefficient of area expansion as
change in area per unit area of a solid when
Thus we can define coefficient of linear expansion as temperature changes by 1 K or 1 C at constant
change in length per unit length of a solid when pressure.
temperature changes by 1 K or 1 C at constant
pressure. Sometimes we are interested in average area expansion.
Sometimes we are interested in average linear expansion. Suppose area of material is A at some initial temperature
T. When the temperature changes by T, the area changes
Suppose a rod of material has a length L at some initial by . Experiments show that if T is not too large, A
temperature T. When the temperature changes by T, the is directly proportional to T.
length changes by L. Experiments show that if T is not Thus average thermal expansion is given by:
too large, L is directly proportional to T.
If two rods made of the same material have the same A
temperature change, but one is twice as long as the other, = (Average coefficient of area expansion)
then the change in its length is also twice as great. AT
Therefore L must also be proportional to L.
Thus average thermal expansion is given by: Let the new area of the material after expansion or
L = LT (Average linear thermal expansion) contraction becomes A. Clearly, A = A + A. Hence,
new area A becomes
T A=' A (1 + T )
L
T+T
L=L+L
Volume expansion Relation between and
If the volume of an object is V and the temperature

Let us consider a square sheet of side L at temperature T.
changes by a differential amount dT, then the differential
change in the volume dV is given by: Therefore, area of the square at temperature
dV = VdT (Volume expansion) A = L2 (i)
where is a constant known as the coefficient of volume L+L

expansion. L
A+ dA
A
V V+dV
T T T+dT
T+dT
Clearly,
dV When the temperature changes by T, the edge changes by
= (Coefficient of volume expansion)
VdT L. Therefore, new area of square becomes
A + A= ( L + L ) = L2 + L2 + 2 L L
2
Thus we can define coefficient of volume expansion as (ii)
change in volume per unit volume of a solid when
temperature changes by 1 K or 1 C at constant As change in length L is very small, its square L2 must be
pressure.
negligible. Therefore, neglecting L2 from (ii) we get,
Sometimes we are interested in average volume A + A= L2 + 2 L L (iii)
expansion.
Subtracting (i) from (iii), we get change in area A of the
Suppose volume of material is V at some initial
temperature T. When the temperature changes by T, the square plate, which is
volume changes by V. Experiments show that if T is A
= 2 L L (iv).
not too large, V is directly proportional to T.
Thus average thermal expansion is given by: Now, using definition of coefficient of area expansion we get,
V A
= =
V T
(Average coefficient of volume expansion)
AT
2 L L
=2 (using (i) and (iv))
Let the new volume of the material after expansion or L T
contraction becomes V. Clearly, V = V + V. Hence, L
new area V becomes = 2 ...(v)
LT
V=' V (1 + T )
From definition of coefficient of linear expansion we get,
L
= (vi)
LT
Using (v) and (vi), we get
= 2 (Relation between and )
Relation between and Relation between , and
Let us consider a cubical body of edge L at temperature T.

We have seen from last page that
Therefore, volume of the cube at temperature
= 2 and = 3
V = L3 (i)
Combining these two expressions, we get
L+L
L
= = (Relation between , and )
2 3
Thermal stress and strain

T T+dT
Do you know we can use concept of linear expansion to
find out strain developed in a rod? Using concept of
Youngs modulus we can also find out stress. How?
When the temperature changes by T, the edge changes by Suppose a uniform rod of natural length L is held fixed by
L. Therefore, new volume of cube becomes clamping its two ends at temperature T. Clearly the
tension is zero at this temperature T.
V + V= ( L + L ) Suppose we temperature is increased by T. Thus, rod
3
will also try to expand. But, as the rod is fixed at the
clamps, its length remains the same as the length at T.
V + V= L3 + 3L2 L + 3L L2 + L3 (ii) Hence, strain develops in the rod.
As change in length L is very small, its square L2 and cube
L3 must be negligible. Therefore, neglecting L2 and L3
from (ii) we get,
V + V= L3 + 3L L (iii) Suppose the rod length is increased by L when

temperature is increased by temperature T in the case
Subtracting (i) from (iii), we get change in volume V of the when rod is not clamped at the ends.
Assuming coefficient of linear expansion a to be constant
cube, which is over T, we have
V= 3L L (iv). L = LT (i)
Using definition of coefficient of volume expansion we get, Hence strain developed in the rod is
Change in length L
V =Strain =
= Initial length L
V T
Hence from (i), we have
3L L
=3 (using (i) and (iv)) L LT
L T Strain= = = T
L L
L
= 3 ...(v) Hence, thermal strain is given by
LT
From definition of coefficient of linear expansion we get, Thermal strain= T
L
= (vi) If Y is the Youngs modulus of the material, we can find
LT thermal stress as
Using (v) and (vi), we get
Stress = (Youngs Modulus) x Strain
Y T
Thermal stress =
= 3 (Relation between and )
Note: Here stress & strain are longitudinal stress &

longitudinal strain respectively.
Specific heat capacity Water equivalent
The specific heat capacity (or specific heat) of a The water equivalent of a body is defined as the mass of
substance may be defined as the amount of heat required water which requires the same amount heat as is required
to raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance by the given body for the same rise of temperature.
through one degree Celsius. It depends on the nature of Water equivalent = Mass Specific heat
the substance and its temperature. w = mc
If an amount of heat Q is needed to raise the temperature The SI unit of water equivalent is kg and the CGS unit is
of m mass of a substance through T, then specific heat is g.
given by
Q
c= (Specific heat capacity)
m T Calorimetry
1 1
The SI unit of specific heat is J kg K which is same as The branch of physics that deals with the measurement of
J kg1 0C1 and CGS unit is cal g1 oC1. heat is called calorimetry.
Clearly, the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of m mass of a substance through T is Principle of calorimetry or the law of mixtures
Q = mc T The principle of calorimetry states that the heat gained by
the cold body must be equal to the heat lost by the hot
Molar specific heat body, provided there is no exchange of heat with the
The molar specific heat of a substance is defined as the surroundings.
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one Heat gained = Heat lost
mole of the substance through one degree. It depends on
the nature of the substance and its temperature. This principle is a consequence of the law of conservation
If an amount of heat Q is required to raise the of energy and useful for solving problems relating to
temperature of n moles of a substance through T, then calorimetry.
molar specific heat is given by
Q
C= (Molar Specific heat)
nT Few Definitions
The SI unit of molar specific heat is J mol1 K1 which is Melting point: The temperature at which the solid and
same as J mol1 0C1 and CGS unit is cal mol1 oC1. the liquid states of a substance coexist in thermal
Therefore, the amount of heat required to raise the equilibrium with each other is called its melting point.
temperature of n moles of a substance through T is
Boiling point: The temperature at which the liquid and
Q = nC T. vapour states of a substance coexist in thermal
equilibrium with each other is called its boiling point. The
Heat capacity or thermal capacity boiling point of a substance at standard atmospheric
The heat capacity of a body is defined as the amount of pressure is called its normal boiling point.
heat required to raise its temperature through one degree. Sublimation: The process of transition of a substance
If an amount of heat Q is required to raise the from the solid state to the vapour state without passing
temperature of a substance through T, then molar through the liquid state is called sublimation, and the
specific heat is given by substance is said to sublime.
Q Substances like dry ice (solid CO2), iodine, naphthalene
S= (Heat capacity)
T and camphor undergo sublimation when heated. During
the sublimation process, the solid and vapour states of a
By definition, heat capacity = mass specific heat
substance coexist in thermal equilibrium with each other.
S = mc
Note: The melting point of those substances which
The SI unit of heat capacity is JK1 and the CGS unit is expand on melting (e.g., paraffin wax, phosphorus,
JoC1. sulphur, etc.) increases with the increase in pressure while
Therefore, the amount of heat required to raise the the melting point of those substances which contract on
temperature of a substance through T is melting (e.g., ice, cast iron, bismuth etc.) decreases with
Q = S T increase in pressure.
Regelation: The phenomenon in which ice melts when KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
pressure is increased and again freezes when pressure is
removed is called regelation (re = again; gelare = freeze): Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of gases
This phenomenon of freezing is called regelation. 1. All gases consists of molecules. The molecules of a gas
are all alike and differ from those of other gases.
Practical applications of regelation: 2. The molecules of a gas are very small in size as compared
(a) By pressing snow in our hand, we can transform it into a to the distance between them.
snow-ball. When snow is pressed, its crystals melt. As the 3. The molecules of a gas behave as perfectly elastic
pressure is released, water refreezes forming a snow-ball. spheres.
4. The molecules are always in random motion.
(b) Skating is possible due to the formation of water layer
5. During their random motion, the molecules collide against
below the skates. Water is formed due to the increase of one another and the walls of the containing vessel. The
pressure and it acts as a lubricant. collisions of the molecules with one another and with the
walls of the vessel are perfectly elastic. This implies that
Latent Heat total kinetic energy is conserved. The total momentum is
conserved as usual.
The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass 6. Between two collisions, a molecule moves along a
of a substance at constant temperature and pressure is called straight line and the distance covered between two
latent heat of the substance. successive collisions is called the free path of the
If m mass of a substance undergoes a change from one state to molecule.
another, then the amount of heat required for the process is 7. The collisions are almost instantaneous i.e. the time
during which a collision takes place is negligible as
Q = mL compared to the time taken by the molecule to cover the
free path.
where L is the latent heat of the substance and is a 8. The molecules do not exert any force on each other except
characteristic of the substance. Its value also depends on the during collisions.
pressure. Clearly,
Notations used in this chapter:
Q
L= (Latent heat) Avogadro number N A 6.02 1023 mol1
=
m
Universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/K-mol
SI unit of latent heat is J kg1 and CGS unit of latent heat is
Boltzmann constant k 1.38 1023 J/K
=
cal g1.
No. of moles n
Latent heat of fusion: The amount of heat required to change Total number of molecules N
the state of unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid at its Mass of each molecule m
melting point is called latent heat of fusion or latent heat of Total mass of molecules M
melting. It is denoted by Lf. Molecular mass M0
Density
Latent heat of vaporization: The amount of heat required to Average speed v
change the state of unit mass of a substance from liquid to Root mean square speed vrms
vapour at its boiling point is called latent heat of vaporization
Most probable speed vp
or latent heat of boiling. It is denoted by Lv.

No. of moles (n)
total mass M
=n = n
molecular mass M0
total no. of molecules N
=n = n
Avogadro number NA
Some useful relations
=
M nM = 0 Nm (total mass)
M 0 = mN A ( molecular mass )
M N

= = (density)
V NA
R = N Ak
Root mean square speed
=
vrms
v2
= v2 &=
vrms 2 v 2
N
Equation of state of an ideal gas Pressure exerted by a gas
PV = nRT 1
Derivation of P = 2 :
3
Pressure of an ideal gas Consider a gas contained
1 1 2 in a vessel. Let n be the
= p = vrms 2 v number of gas molecules
3 3
per unit volume inside
Kinetic energy of an ideal gas the vessel and m be the
1 3 mass of each molecule.
Total KE of the= gas K = Mvrms 2 nRT Let v be the velocity of
2 2
any gas molecule at any
1 3 instant. Let v x, v y and v z
Average KE of each molecule = mvrms 2 = kT
2 2 are components of the
In thermal equilibrium KE of all molecules are equal velocity v along X, Y and
Z-axis respectively.
1 1
m1vrms ,12 = m2 vrms ,2 2 The molecule moves with momentum mvx along X-axis and
2 2 strikes against the right face. Since the collision is perfectly
Important proportionality relations elastic in nature, the molecule rebounds back with same speed
vx. Therefore, change in momentum of the molecule along X-
K vrms 2 (KE) axis = 2mvx.
T vrms 2 (Absolute temperature) Now, in time t, all those molecules will hit area A,
therefore, such molecules lie in volume A vx t. Since the
Relation between KE and pressure of an ideal gas number of molecules per unit volume is n, the number of such
2 molecules is nAvx t. In fact, on the average, half of this
pV = KE number is expected to move along negative X-axis and the
3 other half along positive X-axis. Therefore,
Speeds in terms of temperatures The number of molecules hitting area A in time t along
3kT 3RT 1
=
vrms = (rms speed) positive X-axis = nAvx t
m M0 2
And the total change in momentum of molecules in time t
8kT 8 RT along X-axis,
=v = (average or mean speed)
m M0 1
px =( 2mvx ) nAvx t =mnAvx2 t
2
2kT 2 RT
=vp = (most probable speed) Since different molecules or even the same molecule at
m M0 different times may possess different speeds, in the above
Grahams law of diffusion expression for px; it is reasonable to replace vx2 by vx2 , where
1 vx2 , is mean square component of speeds of the molecules
Rate of diffusion, r vrms
along X-axis. Therefore,
px = mnAvx2 t
r1 2
= Therefore, force exerted by walls of the vessel on the gas
r2 1
molecules along X-axis is given by
px
Daltons law of partial pressures Fx = = mnAvx2
p = p1 + p2 + ... + pn t
If px is pressure exerted by gas molecules along X-axis, then
Equation of state of a real gas (van der Waals Fx mnAvx2
=
P = = mnvx2
equation) x
A A
a If Py and Pz are pressures along Y-and Z-axis respectively, then
p + 2 (V b ) =
nRT
V Py = mnv y2 and Pz = mnvz2
Mean free path: Pressure exerted by gas molecules must be same in all
direction i.e. Px = Py = Pz = P (say)
kT
=
2 d 2 P In other words, P=
1
3
( Px + Py + Pz )
STP (standard temperature and pressure) = P
1
3
(mnvx2 + mnv y2 + mnv
= )
2
z
1
3
( )
mn vx2 + v y2 + vz2
T = 273 K and P = 1 atm
1
P =mnv 2
3
where v 2 = vx2 + v y2 + vz2 is mean square velocity of the gas LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
molecules.
Now, m n = , density of the gas. Therefore, Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics is the branch of science
1 that deals with the concepts of heat and temperature and the
P = v2 inter-conversion of heat and other forms of energy.
3
Mean free path

Heat
The mean free path ( )of a gas may be defined as the average
Heat always refers to the transfer of energy between systems
distance travelled by the gas molecule in two successive
(or bodies), not to energy contained within the systems (or
collisions.
bodies).
kT Heat is energy in transit.
= (mean free path)
2 d 2 P Heat of a body or heat contained in a body is a
meaningless statement.
where,
S.I. unit of heat: J (joules)
= mean free path It is represented by Q, Q or dQ
k = Boltzmann constant
T = absolute temperature of the gas Sign conventions used:
d = molecular diameter Heat absorbed by a system is positive. Heat given out by a
P = pressure of the gas system is negative.
Equation of state of an ideal gas

The mathematical relation between the pressure, volume and
temperature of a thermodynamics system is called its equation
of state. For example, the equation of state for n moles of an
ideal gas can be written as
PV = nRT (Equation of state of an ideal gas)

where,
P = pressure
V = volume
n = number of moles
R = universal gas constant
T = temperature
Thermodynamics equilibrium: A system is said to be in the

state of thermodynamic equilibrium if the macroscopic
variables describing the thermodynamics state of the system
do not change with time.
Thermal equilibrium: Two systems are said to be in thermal
equilibrium with each other if they have the same temperature.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics. It states that if two systems
A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
system C, then A and B are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
Concept of temperature: Zeroth law of thermodynamics
implies that temperature is a physical quantity which has the
same value for all systems which are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
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Work done by a gas V2
Work done for small change in volume: dW = pdV

To prove W = pdV :
V1
Total work done Consider a gas contained in a cylinder of cross-sectional

V2 area A and provided with a frictionless movable piston.
W= pdV Let P be the pressure of the gas.
V1 Force exerted by the gas on the piston,
area of the region between PV curve and V axis F = PA
p dx
C
A
PA
Gas
B D Suppose the gas expands a little and pushes out the piston
V1 V2 V through a small distance dx. The work done by the gas is
dW = Fdx = PA dx
dW = P dV (i)
Sign Convention for work
where dV = Adx,
Compression (volume decreases): ve work is the change in volume of the gas.
Expansion (volume increases): + ve work The total work done by the gas when its volume increase
from V1 to V2 will be
V2
= PdV .
p p =
W dW
V1
Internal energy
V The internal energy of a system is the sum of molecular
V
kinetic and potential energies in the frame of reference relative
Expansion: + ve work Compression: ve work
to which the centre of mass of the system is at rest.
Important points about internal energy:
1. Internal energy of an ideal gas is purely kinetic in nature.
Work done for a cyclic process In an ideal gas, there are no molecular forces of attraction.
Any process in which the system returns to its initial state 2. Internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of
after undergoing a series of changes in known as a cyclic temperature.
process. U = f(T)
3. Change in internal energy U is zero in two cases
p p a) Isothermal process: U = 0
b) Cyclic process: U = 0
First law of thermodynamics

V V
According to the First Law of Thermodynamics, if some
+ ve work (how?) ve work (how?) heat is supplied to a system which is capable of doing
work, the heat energy (Q) supplied to the system goes in
partly to increase the internal energy of the system (U)
Work done = area of shaded region (how?) and the rest in work done on the environment (W).
Note: U = Q W (1st law of thermodynamics)

Change in internal energy in a cyclic process = zero where,
Q
(We will study about internal energy later) U = change in internal energy
Q = heat given to the system W
U
W = work done by the system
First Law of Thermodynamics is simply the general law 6. Isothermal process (temperature constant)
of conservation of energy applied to any system in which Equation of state for ideal gas:
the energy transfer from or to the surroundings is taken
p V
into account. p1V1 = P2V2 1 = 2
p2 V1
Sign convention:
Change in internal energy: U = 0
Heat given to the system = positive
Heat lost by the system = negative 1st law of thermodynamics:
U = Q W
Work done by the system = positive 0=QW
Work done on the system = negative Q=W
Work done by ideal gas in isothermal process:
Different kind of processes V p

= =
W nRT ln 2 nRT ln 1
1. Quasistatic process 1
V p2
Very slow process (Work done by ideal gas in isothermal process)
Always in thermodynamic equilibrium

Proof:
2. Reversible process
For an ideal gas undergoing isothermal process, we have
Any process which can be made to proceed in the
reserve direction by variation in its conditions such nRT
pV= nRT p=
that any change occurring in any part of the direct V
process is exactly reversed in the corresponding part Therefore, work done by gas is
of reverse process is called a reversible process.
nRT nRT
i.
Necessary conditions for a reversible process:
Quasistatic process
=
W =
pdV
V
dV =
p
V

ii. No dissipation of energy due to dissipative forces 1

W = nRT dV
(viscosity, friction, inelasticity, etc.) V
Note: Unless otherwise stated all processes at this
Taking proper limits, we have
level is assumed to be reversible process.
2 V
1
= = [ln V ]V12 nRT ( ln V2 ln V1 )
V V dV nRT=
V
3. Cyclic process W nRT
Any process in which the system returns to its initial
1
state after undergoing a series of changes in known as
V V
a cyclic process. =
W nRT=
ln 2 2.303log 2
dU = 0 for a cyclic process 1
V V1
4. Isochoric process (volume constant) Also for isotheral process

p p p1 V2
Equation of state for ideal gas: 1 = 2 =
T1 T2 p2 V1 .
Work done: W = 0 Therefore
V p
1st law of thermodynamics: = =
W nRT ln 2 nRT ln 1
U = Q W V1 p2
U = Q 7. Adiabatic process (No heat transfer)

5. Isobaric process (pressure constant) Q=0
V V
Equation of state for ideal gas: 1 = 2 1st law of thermodynamics:
T1 T2 U = Q W
Work done: U = W
V2
=
W pdV
= p (V2 V1 ) Work done by an ideal gas (proof is given later)
V1
1 1 P2V2
PV nR (T1 T2 )
=W =
1 1
W = pV
Cp
where =
Cv
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES OF GASES Relation between change in internal energy U and Cv
Let us consider a thermodynamic process at constant
Molar specific heat volume such that QV amount of heat energy transferred.
The molar specific heat of a substance is defined as the Clearly work done by gas at constant volume,
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one W = 0.
mole of the substance through one degree. It depends on From 1st Law of thermodynamics we know that,
the nature of the substance and its temperature. U = Q W
If an amount of heat Q is required to raise the U = Qv
temperature of n moles of a substance through T, then
molar specific heat is given by Therefore, from definition of Cv , we have
Q Qv U
C= (Molar Specific heat) =
Cv =
nT nT nT
S.I. Unit: J/mol-K At differential level we can write this relation as

Specific heat capacity depends on the process of the
system. There can be as many specific heat capacities dU = n Cv dT (Relation between dU and CV)
as many the number of processes. We are generally
interested in two types of specific heat of gases.
1. Specific heat capacity at constant volume (CV): The
Important points about internal energy
process is obtained at constant volume.
2. Specific heat capacity at constant pressure (CP): The The internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on its
process is obtained at constant pressure. temperature, not on its pressure or volume.
For an ideal gas the change in internal energy in any
Specific heat capacity at constant volume, CV process is given by dU = nCvdT , whether the volume is
constant or not.
Definition: Specific heat capacity at constant volume CV is
The internal energy of a non-ideal gas cannot depend only
defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the
on temperature; it must depend on pressure as well.
temperature of 1 mol of that substance by 1C when the
process is at constant volume.
Qv Specific heat capacity at constant temperature, CT

Cv = (specific heat capacity at constant volume)
nT
Clearly at change in temperature T = 0 at constant
temperature. Therefore,
where
Q 1
CV = specific heat capacity at constant volume CT = = =
QV = heat energy transferred at constant volume nT 0
n = number of moles
T = change in temperature
Specific heat capacity at for adiabatic process, Cadia
Clearly Q = 0 for adiabatic process. Therefore,
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, Cp
Q
Definition: Specific heat capacity at constant pressure C is C= = 0
nT
adia
p
defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 mol of that substance by 1C when the
process is at constant pressure. Relation between Cp and Cv of an ideal gas
QP There is an important relationship between Cp and Cv of

CP = (specific heat capacity at constant pressure)
nT an ideal gas :
Cp Cv = R
where
CP = specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Relation between Cp and Cv of an ideal gas)
QP = heat energy transferred at constant pressure where R = 8.3I4J/mol K. (universal gas constant )
n = number of moles It is obvious from this relation that C > C for an ideal
T = change in temperature p v
gas. Difference between C and C is equal to R.
p v
Proof: Adiabatic Processes for an Ideal Gas

Let us consider an ideal gas undergoing constant-pressure Proof of PV = constant (Important)
process. Clearly, the amount of heat dQ given to the gas
is Let us consider n mole of an ideal gas undergoing an
adiabatic, reversible process. When a gas expands
dQ = n Cp dT (i) adiabatically, heat transferred to gas
The work dW done by the gas in this constant-pressure dQ = 0
process is dW = pdV The change in the internal energy is given by
We can also express dW in terms of the temperature dU = n C dT
v
change dT by using the ideal gas equation, pV = nRT. Hence, from the first law of thermodynamics, we have,
Because pressure p is constant, the change in volume V is dU = dQ dW
proportional to the change in temperature T: n C dT = 0 pdV
v
n C dT = pdV (i)
dW = p dV = n R dT (ii) v
Now we substitute eqns. (i) and (ii) into the first law of Taking the total differential of the equation of state of an
ideal gas, PV = nRT, we get
thermodynamics,
P dV + V dP = nR dT
dU = dQ dW dU = n C dT nRdT (iii)
PdV + VdP
p
The internal energy depends only on temperature, dT = ...(ii)
nR
therefore, we can use dU = n Cv dT. Thus putting dU = n
Cv dT in equation (iii), we get Substituting this value of dT in (i), we get,
n Cv dT = n Cp dT nRdT PdV + VdP
Cv = Cp R
nCv = PdV
nR
(Dividing each term by the common factor n dT) Cv ( PdV + VdP ) = RPdV
Cp Cv = R ( Cv + R ) PdV =
CvVdP ( rearranging )
C p PdV =
CvVdP ( C p = Cv + R )
R Cp =
Cv
The ratio of specific heats, Cp
PdV =
VdP
The ratio of specific heats is denoted by and is equal to Cv
Cp/Cv . Hence, Cp
PdV =
VdP
=
cp Cv
= (ratio of specific heats) V2 2 P
cv dV dP

= ( rearranging )
V P
Since C > C , therefore > 1
V1 P1
[ ln V ]V2 = [ ln P ]P2 ( Integrating )

p v V P
This quantity plays an important role in adiabatic 1 1
processes for an ideal gas. ( ln V2 ln V1 ) =

( ln P2 ln P1 ) = ln P1 ln P2
V P A
Value of for different ideal gases: ln 2 ln 1
= = ln A ln B ln

V1 P2 B
(Remember these; we will explain these in a later section)
V
5
Monatomic ideal gas: = = 1.67 =
P
ln 2 ln 1 ( A ln B ln B A )
=
3 V1 P2

Very close examples : He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe V P1
2 =
7
Diatomic ideal gas with no vibration: = = 1.4 V1 P2
5
PV
1 1 = P2V2
Very close examples : H , O , N , CO, HCl
2 2 2 PV = constant
9
Diatomic ideal gas with vibration: = = 1.29 Thus for an ideal gas undergoing adiabatic reversible
7 process, we have
PV = constant
This equation can also be written in terms of temperature
-1
T V = constant
T
= constant
P 1
Relation between V and T for an ideal gas undergoing Example

adiabatic process: Q. Consider the process A and B in figure. It is possible that
Since we have to find out relation between V & T, (a) Both the process are isothermal

therefore we have to eliminate P from PV= nRT and PV (b) Both the processes are adiabatic
= constant. (c) A is isothermal and B is adiabatic
Since PV = nRT P = nRT/V . Therefore, putting this (d) A is adiabatic and B is isothermal

value of P in PV = constant, we have

(nRT/V ) V = constant
-1
nRT V = constant
-1
TV = constant/nR = another constant
(because n & R are constant)
-1
Hence, T V = constant Answer:
Similarly, it can be proved that 1st figure: A is isothermal and B is adiabatic
nd
2 figure: A is adiabatic and B is isothermal
T
= constant
P 1
Work done by an Ideal Gas undergoing adiabatic
process
P-V diagram of an ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic
process and isothermal process 1 1 P2V2
PV nR (T1 T2 )
=
Proof of W =
1 1
It has been found that adiabatic curve is steeper than
isothermal curve. Let us consider an ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic
process. Suppose the gas has initial pressure P and initial
1
For an adiabatic process, volume V . Pressure and volume finally changes to P and
1 2
pV = constant V adiabatically.
ln P + ln V = ln k (taking logarithm) 2

dP dV As the process is adiabatic, we have PV = constant = K.
+ = 0 (differentiating ) We have arbitrarily assumed constant to be K. Hence,
P V

Therefore, slope of adiabatic curve, PV = K

dP p
= ... ( i ) P V =PV
1 1 2 2
=K (1)
dV adiabatic V
Hence, net work done by the gas when volume changes
For an isothermal process, from V1 to V2 is
T = constant V2 V2
K K
Therefore, PV = nRT = constant W= PdV = V 1
dV PV 1 = K P = 1
V
PV = constant V1 V1
PdV + VdP = 0 (differentiating) V +1

V2 V2
Therefore, slope of isothermal curve, W K V=

= dV K
y
(integrating)
V1 + 1 V1
dP P
= ... ( ii ) K
V2 +1 V1 +1
dV isothermal V =
W
+ 1
Comparing (i) & (ii) 1 K K
=
W V2 V1 (rearranging)
Slope of adiabatic curve = (slope of isothermal curve) + 1 V2 V1
Therefore, adiabatic curve is steeper than isothermal 1
=
W [ P2V2 PV
1 1]
curve. + 1
K K
=
( PV P2V2 =K = P1 and = P2 )
V1 V2
1 1
1 1 P2V2
PV nR (T1 T2 )
=
W =
1 1
Example HEAT ENGINE

Q. Air is kept in a container having walls which are slightly
0 Heat engine. It is a device which converts continuously heat
conducting. The initial temperature and volume are 27 C energy into mechanical energy in a cyclic process.
3
(equal to the temperature of surrounding) and 800 cm As shown in figure, a heat engine has the following essential
respectively. Find the rise in the temperature if the gas is parts:
3 (a) Source: It is a heat reservoir at higher temperature T1. It
compressed to 200 cm (a) in a short time (b) in a long is supposed to have infinite thermal capacity so that any
time. Assume air to be an ideal gas and take = 1.4. amount of heat can be drawn from it without changing its
SOLUTION: temperature.
(a) When the gas is compressed in a short time, the process is (b) Sink. It is a heat reservoir at a lower temperature T2. It
assumed as adiabatic (because there is not enough time so has also infinite thermal capacity so that any amount of
that heat transfer can take place between system and heat can be added to it without changing its temperature.
surrounding). Thus, (c) Working substance. Working substance is any material
-1 (solid, liquid or gas) which performs mechanical work
TV = constant

when heat is supplied to it.
TV
1 1 =T2V2

V
T2 =
T1 1 Hot reservoir
V or Source (T1)
1.4
800 Q1
T=
2 (300) ( T=
1 27 0 C= 300 K )
200
Heat W
T=
2 = 2490 C
522 K
engine
0
Therefore, rise in temperature = 249 27 = 222 C .
Q2
(b) When the gas is compressed in a long time the process is Cold reservoir or
very slow. Therefore, the temperature of the system is Sink (T2)
always equal to the temperature of the surrounding.
Hence the process is isothermal, i.e. T = constant = Working. In every cycle of operation, the working substance
temperature of surrounding = 270C absorbs a definite amount of heat Q1 from the source at higher
Thus, rise in temperature = 0. temperature T1, converts a part of this heat energy into
mechanical work W and rejects the remaining heat Q2 to the
sink at lower temperature environment.
DISCUSSION:
As the working substance returns to its initial state after
This example is very important from competition point of completing one cycle, there is no change in its internal energy.
view. From this problem, we have seen that a process can Hence by first law of thermodynamics, net heat absorbed in a
be assumed cycle = Work done, i.e.,
1. Adiabatic: If the gas is compressed or expanded in a Q 1 Q2 = W
short time (i.e., change in volume is very rapid)
Efficiency of a heat engine. The efficiency of a heat engine is
2. Isothermal: If the gas is compressed or expanded in a
defined as the ratio of the net work done by the engine in one
very long time (i.e., change in volume is very slow) and
cycle to the amount of heat absorbed by the working substance
gas can exchange heat with the surrounding.
from the source.
The efficiency of heat engine is given by
Work done by engine (output)
=
Heat absorbed from the source (input)
W Q1 Q2 Q
= = or = 1 2
Q1 Q1 Q1
Efficiency of a heat engine is always less than unity. The
efficiency of a steam engine varies from 12 to 16%. The
maximum efficiency of a petrol engine is 26% and that of a
diesel engine is 40%.
CARNOT ENGINE Step 3 4: Isothermal compression (at temperature T2)

of the gas taking its state from (P3, V3, T2) to (P4, V4, T2). The
Carnot engine. It is an ideal reversible heat engine which heat released by the gas (Q2) to the reservoir at temperature
operates between two temperatures T1 (source) and T2 T2.
(sink). As in step 1 2 we have,
It is a device which converts continuously heat energy
V V
into mechanical energy in a cyclic process. Q2 = W34 = nRT2 ln 4 Q2 = W34 =nRT2 ln 3 ...(iii)
Construction. As Carnot engine has the following main V3 V4
Step 4 1: Adiabatic compression of the gas taking its
parts:
state from (P4, V4, T2) to (P1, V1, T1). Work done by ideal gas
(a) Cylinder: It has conducting base and insulating in this step is given by
walls. It is fitted with an insulting and frictionless
piston. nR (T2 T1 )
W41 = ...(iv)
(b) Source: It is a heat reservoir at a higher temperature 1
T1 from which the engine draws heat. Total work done by the gas in the complete cycle is
(c) Sink: It is heat reservoir at a lower temperature T2 to
which any amount of heat can be rejected by the W = W12 + W23 + W34 + W41
engine. V nR (T1 T2 ) V nR (T2 T1 )
=
W nRT1 ln 2 + + nRT2 ln 4 +
(d) Working substance. The working substance is an V1 1 V3 1
ideal gas contained in the cylinder.
V V
=
W nRT1 ln 2 + nRT2 ln 4 ...(v)
V1 V3
The efficiency of the Carnot engine is

V
nRT2 ln 3
W Q Q2 Q2 V4 (from (i) & (iii))
= =1 =
1 =
1
Q1 Q1 Q1 V
Carnot cycle. The working substance is carried through a nRT1 ln 2
V1
reversible cycle of the following four steps:
V
ln 3
=1 2 4
T V
...(vi)
T1 V2
ln
V1
Now since step 2 3 is an adiabatic process,
TV 1=constant TV 1
1 2 = T2V3
1
1
T V3
1 = ...(vii)
T2 V2
Step 1 2: Isothermal expansion (at temperature T1) of Similarly for step 4 1, we have,
1
the gas taking its state from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T1). The T1 V4
heat absorbed by the gas (Q1) from the reservoir at = ...(viii)
temperature T1. T2 V1
Work done by ideal gas in this step is given by From (vii) and (viii), we have,
V V2 V3
W12 = nRT1 ln 2 = ...(ix)
V1 V1 V4
As the process is isothermal, U = 0, hence from first law of From (vi) and (ix), we have,
thermodynamics, we have V
ln 4
V
=1 2 3 =1 2
T V T
=Q1 W=12 nRT1 ln 2 ...(i)
V1 T1 V2 T1
ln
Step 2 3: Adiabatic expansion of the gas taking its state V1
from (P2, V2, T1) to (P3, V3, T2). Work done by ideal gas in this
Hence, for a Carnot Engine, we have,
step is given by
nR (T1 T2 ) Q2 T
W23 = ...(ii) =
1 =
1 2 (efficiency of the Carnot engine)
1 Q1 T1
Carnots Theorem: All reversible engines operating SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

between the same two temperatures have equal efficiency
Kelvin-Planck statement: It is not possible to design a
and no engine operating between the same two
heat engine which works in a cyclic process and whose
temperatures can have an efficiency greater than this.
only result is to take heat from a body at a single
It is a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics.
temperature and convert it completely into mechanical
work.
REFRIGERATOR
Claussius statement: It is not possible to design a
Refrigerator. A refrigerator is a Carnots heat engine
refrigerator which works in a cyclic process and whose
working in the reverse direction. only result is to transfer heat from a body to a hotter body.
Thus, when a Carnot engine works in opposite direction
as a refrigerator, it will absorb an amount of heat Q2 from
the sink at lower temperature T2. As heat is to be removed Degrees of freedom
from the sink at lower temperature, an amount of work The number of independent terms in the expression of
equal to W = Q1 Q2 (using 1st law of Thermodynamics) energy is called degree of freedom.
is performed by the compressor of the refrigerator to
remove heat from sink and then to reject the total heat Q1 Monatomic Gas: A monatomic gas (mono means one)
to the source (atmosphere) through the radiator fixed at its can be assumed of containing only one type of atoms.
back. Thus every molecule of a monatomic gas behaves as a
particle in space. Hence, molecules of a monatomic gas
has three degrees of freedom.
Diatomic Gas: Every molecule of a diatomic gas behaves
as a two-particle dumbbell-shaped system.
i. Molecules of a diatomic gas has five degrees of
freedom without considering vibration and potential
energy.
ii. Molecules of a diatomic gas has seven degrees of
Coefficient of performance: It may be defined as the freedom considering vibration and potential energy.
ratio of the amount of heat removed (Q2) per cycle to the
mechanical work (W) required to be done on it. It is
denoted by . Equipartition of Energy
Q2 Q2 The principle of equipartition of energy states that each
Thus, = =
W Q1 Q2 degree of freedom has, on average, an associated kinetic
The expression for coefficient of performance can be put energy per molecule of kT, where k is the Boltzmann
into another form. We have, constant and T is the absolute temperature.
Q2 1 Thus, average energy associated with each degree of
= = freedom = k T
Q1 Q2 Q1
1 Hence average energy per molecule of a monatomic gas =
Q2 3
kT
Q1 T1 2
Now, for a Carnots cycle, =
Q2 T2 Hence average energy per molecule of a diatomic gas
1 T2 5

= = (without vibration) = kT
T1 T1 T2 2
1
T2 Hence average energy per molecule of a diatomic gas
Q2 T2 7

= = (with vibration) = kT
Q1 Q2 T1 T2 2
Note: We can find out C & C and hence, using the
p v
(coefficient of performance of a refrigerator) concept of equipartition of energy.
Monatomic ideal gas:
It may be pointed out that Cp 5
5 3
higher the value , more is the efficiency of a C p = R , Cv = R & = = = 1.67
refrigerator and 2 2 Cv 3
as the refrigerator works, T2 goes on decreasing Diatomic ideal gas with no vibration:
(without causing any practical change in the value of 7 5 Cp 7
T1) and the value of coefficient of performance goes C p = R , Cv = R & = = = 1.4
on decreasing. 2 2 Cv 5
Diatomic ideal gas with vibration:
9 7 Cp 9
C p = R , Cv = R & = = = 1.29
2 2 Cv 7
Step by step procedure to find C & C HEAT TRANSFER

p v
STEP I:
Let us consider a sample of amount n moles of an ideal Heat can be transferred from one place to the other by any
gas. of three possible ways : conduction, convection and
Therefore, the total number of molecules = nN where radiation. In the first two processes, a medium is
A necessary for the heat transfer. Radiation, however, does
N is the Avogadro number. no have this restriction. This is also the fastest mode of
A
STEP II: heat transfer, in which heat is transferred from one place
Using equipartition of energy, we can find out the to the other in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
average internal energy per molecule. Conduction
STEP III:
Transfer of heat through a substance in which heat is
Total internal energy
transported without direct mass transport is called
= (total number of molecules)
conduction. This mode of heat transfer is generally seen
(average energy per molecule)
in solids.
U = nN (average energy per molecule) Consider a metal rod
A L
whose ends are in
STEP IV:
thermal contact with a
1 dU T1 T2
= nCv dT C=
Use dU v
hot reservoir at
n dT temperature T and a
1
STEP V: cold reservoir
C C = R to get C temperature T . The
p v p. 2
sides of the rod are
covered with insulating medium, so the transport of heat
Example is along the rod, not through the sides.
After sometime, a steady state is reached; the
To find out C & C of a monatomic gas. Hence, find out
p v temperature of the bar decreases uniformly with distance
. from T1 to T2; (T1 > T2). It is found experimentally that in
Solution: this steady state, the rate of flow of heat (or heat current)
STEP I: H is proportional to the temperature difference (T1 T2)
Let us consider a sample of amount n moles of an ideal and the area of cross section A and is inversely
gas. proportional to the length L :
Therefore, the total number of molecules = nN where dQ T T
A = kA 2 1
N is the Avogadro number.
A
dt L
dQ T T
STEP II: =kA 1 2 ...(i)
From equipartition of energy we know that average dt L
3
energy per molecule of a monatomic gas = kT The constant of proportionality K is called the thermal
2 conductivity of the material. The greater the value of K
STEP III: for a material, the more rapidly will it conduct heat.
U = nN (average energy per molecule)
A Thermal Resistance (R)
3
U = nN kT Eq. (i) in differential form can be written as
A 2
dQ T T
3 = H= = ...(ii)
U= nRT (using N k = R ) dt L / kA R
2 A
Here, T = temperature difference (TD) and
STEP IV:
L
1 dU 3 =R = thermal resistance of the rod.
Using dU= nCv dT C=
v = R kA
n dT 2
Just like we solve electric circuit we can solve conduction
STEP V: problem using the same concept.
3 5
C p Cv = R C p = Cv + R = R= R
2 2 General expression for conduction
Therefore, specific heat ratio
Cp dQ dT
=
=
5 = kA
Cv 3 dt dx
dT
In a similar manner we can find out for diatomic gases. is also known as temperature gradient.
dx
Radiation Kirchhoffs Law

This mode of heat transfer doesnt require any medium, Kirchhoff explained that a good absorber of thermal
and is fastest mode of heat transfer. Example the fastest radiation is also a good emitter of it.
mode of heat transfer is the radiation received by earth, He showed that for a body a = e i.e.,
coming from sun. absorptivity = emissivity.
All bodies emit radiant energy at all temperatures in all As a perfect black body is a perfect absorber, so it is a
direction, which increases with increasing temperature perfect emitter too.
and is independent of the presence of other bodies.
Cooling of a Body Through Radiation
This radiant energy emitted by bodies is termed as
thermal radiation or simply radiation. When this radiation When a body having temperature T is placed in a
falls on a material surface, a part of it can be absorbed and surrounding of temperature T0 ( < T ) , then the temperature
thermal energy of the receiving surface is increased.
of the body starts falling down.
Recent studies show that the thermal radiation is nothing
Rate at which heat is emitted,
but the energy of electromagnetic radiation. Every body at
dQ1
any temperature emits electromagnetic waves. = aAT 4
dt
The rate at which a body radiates energy is dependent on
temperature, its area and nature of surface. Rate at which heat is absorbed,
dQ2
A body is not only radiating the energy but is also = aAT0 4
absorbing from the surroundings. dt
If radiation emitted > radiation absorbed, then body gets Net rate of heat loss
cooled down, while if reverse is the case, the temperature H= eA T 4 T04 [ e =
a]
of the body increases.
Rate of cooling
When the body is in thermal equilibrium with the
dT eA 4
surroundings, then also it radiates energy, but the same = T T04
dt ms
rate as it absorbs.
Rough and dark surface are good absorbers while smooth, Wiens Displacement Law
shiny and bright surface are good reflectors.
The figure above shows the experimental curves for
Black body radiations radiation emitted by a black body versus wavelength for
A body which absorbs all the radiations incident upon it is different temperatures.
termed as a perfect black body. Such a body will emit According to Wiens law,
radiation at the fastest rate. the radiations emitted by a mT = constant
black body are termed as black body radiations. where m is the wavelength corresponding to maximum
A perfect black body maintained at a suitable temperature intensity (energy content) of radiation emitted by body at
absorbs all radiations incident on it. A perfect black body temperature T.
cant be realized in practice. The most significant feature of the curves obtained is that
they are universal i.e., black-body radiation curves
Stefan-Boltzmanns Law
obtained depend only on the temperature, and not on the
For a perfect black body, the thermal energy radiated per shape.
unit time is given by,
dQ
= H= AT 4 E
dt T1 > T2 >T3
where A = surface area of body, T1
T = its absolute temperature
= an universal constant. T2
dQ
For a non-black body, = H= eAT 4 where e is the
dt T3
emissivity of surface its value depends on the nature of
the material of the black body ( Stefan-Boltzmanns
Law)
m1 m1 m 3
For a non-black body, the value of e is less than 1. For a
perfect black body, e = 1.
Newtons Law of Cooling Approximate solution for Newtons law of cooling is,
T1 T2 T + T
Newtons law of cooling states that the rate of cooling (or = K 1 2 T0 where t is the time in which
rate of loss of heat) of a body is directly proportional to t 2
the temperature difference between the body and its temperature of body changes from T1 to T2.
surroundings, provided the temperature difference is
small.
Consider a hot body at temperature T. Let T0 be the
temperature of its surroundings. According to Newtons
law of cooling,
Rate of loss of heat Temperature difference
between the body and its surroundings
dQ
or (T T0 )
dt
dQ
or = k (T T0 ) ...(1)
dt
where k is proportionality constant depending upon the
area and nature of the surface of the body.
Let m be the mass and c the specific heat of the body at
temperature T. If the temperature of the body falls by
small amount dT in time dt, then the amount of heat lost
is
dQ = mc dT
Rate of loss of heat is given by
dQ dT
= mc
dT dt
Combining the above equations, we get

dT
mc =k (T T0 )
dt
dT k
or =
(T T0 ) =
K (T T0 ) ...(2)
dt mc
where K = k/mc is another constant. The negative sign

indicates that as the time passes, the temperature of the body
decreases. The above equation can be written as
dT
= K dt
T T0
On integrating both sides, we get

1
T T0 dT = K dt
or log e (T T0 ) = Kt + c ...(3)
or e kt + c
T T0 =
or T T0 + ec e kt
or T T0 + Ce kt ....(4)
where c is a constant of integration and C = ec . Equation (1),

(2), (3) and (4) are the different mathematical representations
for Newtons law of cooling. Using equation (4), one can
calculate the time of cooling of a body through a particular
range of temperature.
Physics Classes by Pranjal Sir About P. K. Bharti Sir (Pranjal Sir)

(Admission Notice for XI & XII - 2014-15) B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur (2009 Batch)
H.O.D. Physics, Concept Bokaro Centre
Visiting faculty at D. P. S. Bokaro
Batches for Std XIIth
Produced AIR 113, AIR 475, AIR 1013 in JEE -
Batch 1 (Board + JEE Main + Advanced): (Rs. 16000) Advanced
Batch 2 (Board + JEE Main): (Rs. 13000) Produced AIR 07 in AIEEE (JEE Main)
Batch 3 (Board): (Rs. 10000) Address: Concept, JB 20, Near Jitendra Cinema, Sec
Batch 4 (Doubt Clearing batch): Rs. 8000
4, Bokaro Steel City
Ph: 9798007577, 7488044834
Email: pkbharti.iit@gmail.com
Website: www.vidyadrishti.org
Physics Class Schedule for Std XIIth (Session 2014-15) by Pranjal Sir
Sl. Main Chapter Topics Board level JEE Main Level JEE Adv Level
No.
Basics from XIth Vectors, FBD, Work, Energy, 3rd Mar to 4th Apr 14
Rotation, SHM
1. Electric Charges and Coulombs Law 5th & 6th Apr 5th & 6th Apr 5th & 6th Apr
Fields Electric Field 10th & 12th Apr 10th & 12th Apr 10th & 12th Apr
Gausss Law 13th & 15th Apr 13th & 15th Apr 13th & 15th Apr
Competition Level NA 17th & 19th Apr 17th & 19th Apr
2. Electrostatic Potential Electric Potential 20th & 22nd Apr 20th & 22nd Apr 20th & 22nd Apr
and Capacitance Capacitors 24th & 26th Apr 24th & 26th Apr 24th & 26th Apr
Competition Level NA 27th & 29th Apr 27th & 29th Apr, 1st, 3rd &
4th May
PART TEST 1 Unit 1 & 2 4th May NA NA
NA 11th May 11th May
3. Current Electricity Basic Concepts, Drift speed, 6th, 8th, 10th, 13th 6th, 8th, 10th, 13th 6th, 8th, 10th, 13th May
Ohms Law, Cells, Kirchhoffs May May
Laws, Wheatstone bridge,
Ammeter, Voltmeter, Meter
Bridge, Potentiometer etc.
Competition Level NA 15th & 16th May 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th &
19th May
PART TEST 2 Unit 3 18th May NA NA
NA 20th May 20th May
SUMMER BREAK 21st May 2013 to 30th May 2013
4. Moving charges and Force on a charged particle 31st May, 1st & 3rd 31st May, 1st & 3rd 31st May, 1st & 3rd Jun
Magnetism (Lorentz force), Force on a Jun Jun
current carrying wire, Cyclotron,
Torque on a current carrying loop
in magnetic field, magnetic
moment
Biot Savart Law, Magnetic field 5th, 7th & 8th Jun 5th, 7th & 8th Jun 5th, 7th & 8th Jun
due to a circular wire, Ampere
circuital law, Solenoid, Toroid
Competition Level NA 10th & 12th Jun 10th, 12th, 14th & 15th Jun
PART TEST 3 Unit 4 15th Jun NA NA
NA 22nd Jun 22nd Jun
5. Magnetism and Matter 17th, 19th & 21st 17th, 19th & 21st Not in JEE Advanced
Jun Jun Syllabus
th th th
6. Electromagnetic Faradays Laws, Lenzs Laws, 24 , 26 & 28 24 , 26th & 28th
th
24th, 26th & 28th Jun
Induction A.C. Generator, Motional Emf, Jun Jun
Induced Emf, Eddy Currents, Self
Induction, Mutual Induction
Competition Level NA 29th Jun & 1st Jul 29th Jun, 1st, 3rd & 5th Jul
PART TEST 4 Unit 5 & 6 6th Jul NA NA
NA 13th Jul 13th Jul
7. Alternating current AC, AC circuit, Phasor, 8th, 10th & 12th Jul 8th, 10th & 12th Jul 8th, 10th & 12th Jul
transformer, resonance,
Competition Level NA 15th July 15th & 17th July
8. Electromagnetic Waves 19th & 20th July 19th & 20th July Not in JEE Advanced
Syllabus
PART TEST 5 Unit 7 & 8 27th Jul 27th Jul 27th Jul
Revision Week Upto unit 8 31st Jul & 2nd Aug 31st Jul & 2nd Aug 31st Jul & 2nd Aug
Grand Test 1 Upto Unit 8 3rd Aug 3rd Aug 3rd Aug
9. Reflection 5th & 7th Aug 5th & 7th Aug 5th & 7th Aug
Refraction 9th & 12th Aug 9th & 12th Aug 9th & 12th Aug
Prism 14th Aug 14th Aug 14th Aug
Optical Instruments 16th Aug 16th Aug Not in JEE Adv
Ray Optics Syllabus
Competition Level NA 19th & 21st Aug 19th, 21st, 23rd, 24th Aug
10. Huygens Principle 26th Aug 26th Aug 26th Aug
Interference 28th & 30th Aug 28th & 30th Aug 28th & 30th Aug
Diffraction 31st Aug 31st Aug 31st Aug
Polarization 2nd Sep 2nd Sep 2nd Sep
Wave Optics Competition Level NA 4th & 6th Sep 4th, 6th, 7th, 9th, 11th Sep
PART TEST 6 Unit 9 & 10 14th Sep 14th Sep 14th Sep
REVISION ROUND 1 (For JEE Main & JEE Advanced Level): 13th Sep to 27th Sep
Grand Test 2 Upto Unit 10 28th Sep 28th Sep 28th Sep
DUSSEHRA & d-ul-Zuha Holidays: 29th Sep to 8th Oct
11. Dual Nature of Radiation Photoelectric effect etc 9th & 11th Oct 9th & 11th Oct 9th & 11th Oct
and Matter
Grand Test 3 Upto Unit 10 12th Oct 12th Oct 12th Oct
12. Atoms 14th & 16th Oct 14th & 16th Oct 14th & 16th Oct
13. Nuclei 18th & 19th Oct 18th & 19th Oct 18th & 19th Oct
X-Rays NA 21st Oct 21st & 25th Oct
PART TEST 7 Unit 11, 12 & 13 26th Oct NA NA
14. Semiconductors Basic Concepts and Diodes, 26th, 28th, 30th Oct 26th, 28th, 30th Oct Not in JEE Adv
transistors, logic gates & 1st Nov & 1st Nov Syllabus
15. Communication System 2nd & 4th Nov 2nd & 4th Nov Not in JEE Adv
Syllabus
PART TEST 8 Unit 14 & 15 9th Nov 9th Nov NA

Unit 11, 12 & 13 Competition Level NA 8th, 9th & 11th Nov 8th, 9th, 11th, 13th & 15th
Nov
PART TEST 9 Unit 11, 12, 13, X-Rays NA 16th Nov 16th Nov
Revision Round 2 Mind Maps & Back up classes 18th Nov to 18th Nov to Board 18th Nov to Board
for late registered students Board Exams Exams Exams
(Board Level)
Revision Round 3 18th Nov to JEE 18th Nov to JEE 18th Nov to JEE
(XIth portion for JEE)

30 Full Test Series Complete Syllabus Date will be published after Oct 2014

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THERMODYNAMICS Author: Pranjal K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur) www.vidyadrishti.

Notes for School Exams

H. O. D. Physics, Concept Bokaro Centre

Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics is the science Zeroth law of Thermodynamics

THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM: Two bodies are said to be in Fahrenheit Scale

Kelvin Scale Answer the following questions:

Q2. What is the S.I. unit of temperature?

Relation between Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit scales: Answers:

6. (c) The phrase twice as hot refers to a ratio of

We can write Most materials expand when their temperatures increase.

Q7. Do holes become larger or smaller when heated? Hence,

Linear expansion Area expansion

Volume expansion Relation between and

If the volume of an object is V and the temperature

where is a constant known as the coefficient of volume L+L

Using (v) and (vi), we get

= 2 (Relation between and )

Relation between and Relation between , and

Let us consider a cubical body of edge L at temperature T.

Thermal stress and strain

V + V= L3 + 3L L (iii) Suppose the rod length is increased by L when

Note: Here stress & strain are longitudinal stress &

Specific heat capacity Water equivalent

Equation of state of an ideal gas Pressure exerted by a gas

Mean free path

Equation of state of an ideal gas

PV = nRT (Equation of state of an ideal gas)

Thermodynamics equilibrium: A system is said to be in the

Work done by a gas V2

Work done for small change in volume: dW = pdV

Total work done Consider a gas contained in a cylinder of cross-sectional

First law of thermodynamics

Note: U = Q W (1st law of thermodynamics)

Different kind of processes V p

Always in thermodynamic equilibrium

ii. No dissipation of energy due to dissipative forces 1

4. Isochoric process (volume constant) Also for isotheral process

U = Q 7. Adiabatic process (No heat transfer)

S.I. Unit: J/mol-K At differential level we can write this relation as

Qv Specific heat capacity at constant temperature, CT

QP There is an important relationship between Cp and Cv of

Proof: Adiabatic Processes for an Ideal Gas

[ ln V ]V2 = [ ln P ]P2 ( Integrating )

This quantity plays an important role in adiabatic 1 1

processes for an ideal gas. ( ln V2 ln V1 ) =

Relation between V and T for an ideal gas undergoing Example

PdV + VdP = 0 (differentiating) V +1

Therefore, slope of isothermal curve, W K V=

Example HEAT ENGINE

CARNOT ENGINE Step 3 4: Isothermal compression (at temperature T2)

The efficiency of the Carnot engine is

Carnots Theorem: All reversible engines operating SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Step by step procedure to find C & C HEAT TRANSFER

Radiation Kirchhoffs Law

Combining the above equations, we get

where K = k/mc is another constant. The negative sign

On integrating both sides, we get

where c is a constant of integration and C = ec . Equation (1),

Physics Classes by Pranjal Sir About P. K. Bharti Sir (Pranjal Sir)

PART TEST 8 Unit 14 & 15 9th Nov 9th Nov NA

(XIth portion for JEE)

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