()

http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/index.htm
4.

suriya.joti@hinet.net

.

(Sandhi,Junction)







***************************************************************
(Sandhi,Junction)
(External Sandhi)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
(Internal Sandhi)
1.
2.

/ (Possessive Nouns/Adjectives)
(Action Nouns)
(Agent Nouns)
(Family-relationship Nouns)

1
 (Abstract Nouns)
(Diminutive Nouns)
(Intensive Nouns)
(Desiderative Abstract Nouns)

1.
2.

1. (Constructional Adjectives)
2. (Directional Adjectives)
3. (Temporal Adjectives)
4. (Possessive Adjectives)
5. (Intensive Adjectives)
6. (Desiderative Adjectives)

Attan
saka
sa
samam sayam

(Comparison)
1.
2.


(Repetitious Emphasis)

(Cardinal Numbers)
(Ordinal Numbers)

2




(Times)
(folds)
(multiples)
(distributive numbers)


(Bahubbihi Compound)




3.
4. sa-a-/an-
5.
6.
()

(Avyayibhava Compound)

3


(Digu Compound)


()

(Second Conjugation)
(Fourth Conjugation)
(Denominative)
(Intensive)

(Desiderative Conjugation)

(Perfect Tense)
(Conditional Tense)
(Middle Conjugation)

(1) (Present Tense)

(2) (Aorist Tense)
(3) (Future Tense)
(4) (Imperative Tense)
(5) / (Optative Tense)
(6) (Conditional Tense)
(Infinitive)







(1)
(2)

4
 (3)
(Auxiliary Verbs)



(1) As (atthi)
(2) hu,bhu (hoti,bhavati)
(3) (t)tha (titthati)
(4) vatt (vattati)
(5) ni-sid (nisidati)
(6) ni-pad (nipajjati)
(7) vi-har (viharati)

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
yo sahassam sahassena savgame manuse jine
ekab ca jeyya-m-attanam sa ve savgamajuttamo
{Dhammapada 103}

5
 (Sandhi,Junction)

(External Sandhi)

(prefix)(word)

-x + y- , y (), x

(1) ()

(2)

na + atthi > natthi ( n' atthi)

aggi + agaro > aggyagaro

cha + ime > cha-y-ime

(3)

/

/

guna : - + - > e, - +- > o
/

y, v, r, m, g, t, d,

= a a, = i i, = u u

(1)

a + a = a , na + atthi > natthi (n' atthi)

i yani + asmakam > yanasmakam ...

6
e dhanam me + atthi > dhanam m'atthi
o tayo + assa > tay'assa ...

a + a = a , sena + asanani > senasanani

u sametu + ayasma > sametayasa
i tatra pi + asim > tatra pasim (aor.)

a + i = i , kim eva + idam > kim evidam

a pabba + indriyam > pabbindriyam
i tini + imani > tin'imani

a + u = u , vatta + upacchedo > vattupacchedo

a sabba + uppada > sabbuppada (Abl.)
u matu + upatthanam > matupatthanam

a + e = e , ha + eva > heva ()

i atthikani + eva > atthikaneva ()
u titthatu + eva > titthateva
e sabbe + eva > sabb'eva
o asanto + ettha > asant' ettha ()
(Dhammapada 304)

i + o = o , vi + o-lok-e-ti > voloketi

i bhikkhuni + ovado > bhikkhunovado

(2)
(2 )

a + a = a , handa + aham > handaham ...

a tada + aham > tadaham ...
i idani + aham > idanaham ...
e sace + ayam > sacayam ...
o appassuto + ayam > appassutayam ()

i + i = i , yani + idha > yanidha ()

i kiki + iva > kiki va

a + u = u , idha + upapanno > idhupapanno

a tatha + upamam > tathupamam
i pahuta-vitti + upakarano > pahutavittupakarano

7
u
bahu + upakaro > bahupakaro

()

a + a = a , na + assa kibci > nassa kibci () ...

u su + akkhato > svakkhato

(3) -e,-o + a-

o + a = o , kilanto + asmi > kilantosmi

e e te + aham vadami > teham vadami
i i pi + assa > pissa ... ...

(4)

i + a = i , vi + ati + sareti > vitisareti ()

u i u vijju + iva > vijju va

(5) -,-,- ,guna

-+- > e, -+- > o ( a a; )

a + i = e , mama + idam > mamedam

a i jina + iritam > jineritam ( Acc.)()()
a + u = o , kattha + udakam > katthodakam
a u yatha + udake > yathodake
na + upeti > nopeti (...)
udadhi + umi > udadhomi

(6) -i,-i,-e -u,-o a-,a- -ya,-ya -va,-va

( e-)

i + a = ya , aggi + agaro > aggyagaro

i dasi + ahosim > dasyahosim
e putto te + aham > putto tyaham

i + a = ya vi + a + karoti > vyakaroti

u + a = va , na tu + eva > na tveva ...

o a va yavatako + assa > yavatakvassa ()
e ve ()
su + agatam > svagatam (Wel-come !)

8
so + eva > sveva
, anu + a- > anva- > anna-
(sam-x-a-gata > samannagata )

(7) -i,-i,-e -u,-o a- a-

-ya -va

e + a = ya , te + aham > tyaham (or teham) ()

u va su + akkhato > svakkhato
o va so + aham > svaham (or so 'ham)

(8) (Junction Consonants)

(a) (Restore)

g puthu + eva > puthag eva (Skt. prthag)

t tasma + iha > tasmatiha (Skt. tasmat)
d saki + eva > sakid eva (Skt. sakrt/sakrd)
m tunhi + asine > tunhim asine (Loc.) (Skt. tusnim)
r puna + idh' agato > punar idhagato
(Skt. punar or punah)
l cha + ayatana > chalayatana (Skt. sat or sad)

(b) (Prothesis) i-,e- y

u-,o- v

y na + idam > na-y-idam ...

cha + ime > cha-y-ime ...

v ubhaya + okinno > ubhaya-v-okinno ...

pabca + uttari > pabca vuttari ...

(c) (Junction Consonants)

y ya + abbam > ya-y-abbam
m abba + abbam > abbamabbam
r thambo + iva > thambo-r-iva
d atta + attho > atta-d-attho
t ajja + agge > ajja-t-agge (Loc.)
n ito + ayati > ito-n-ayati ()
h ma + evam avoca > ma-h-evam avoca

9
na + eva > na-h-eva ...

(9)

: anu + esi > anuesi ()

sa + upapilo > saupapilo (Bahubbihi)
: ti + eva > tveva ( tu + eva > tveva)

dassana + kamo > dassanakamo

ti ti
deva + ti > devati

pi pi
tatra + pi > tatrapi (also) ...

(
)

na + (p)pajanati > nappajanati (pa < Skt. pra)

vi + (b)bana > vibbana (ba < Skt. jba)
rupa + (k)khanda > rupakkhanda (khandha < Skt. skandha)

tanha + (k)khayo > tanhakkhayo (khaya < Skt. ksaya)

a + (k)kha-ti > akkhati (kha < Skt. khya)
maha + (p)phala > mahapphala

()
vedana + (k)khanda > vedanakkhanda (Skt. skandha)
pabba + (k)khanda > pabbakkhanda
yatha + (k)kamam > yathakkamam (kama < Skt. krama)

khanti + paramam > khanti paramam

jayati + soko > jayati soko
() tatiyam > tatiyam tini > tini

10
 yittham va + hutam va + mayham > yittham va hutam va mayham

buddhe yadi va + savake > buddhe yadi va savake ()

() dukkham > dukham , jivanto > jivato

,()

u(d) + pajjati > uppajjati

du(r) + caritam > duccaritam
ni(r) + mala > nimmala

r + k > kkh, r + t > tth,

d + h > ddh
ni(r) + (k)kam-a-ti > nikkhamati
ni(r) + tar-a-ti > nittharati
u(d) + har-a-ti > uddharati

--

u(d) + han-ati > uhanati (cut through)

ni(r) + har-ati > niharati ()

-vv- -vv- > -bb-

ni(r) + veth-eti > nibbetheti

(p)pa + (v)vaj-ati > pabbajati

()

sat + attho > sadattho (or sva-d-attha )

sat + dhamma > saddhamma

11


(1) -ti -ti > -ty > -cc

iti + adi > iccadi

jati + andha > jaccandha
(p)pati + assosi > paccassosi (aor.)

(2) -di > -dy > -jj

yadi + evam > yajjevam

nadi + a > najja = nadiya (...) (Loc.)

(3) -dhi > -dhy > -jjh

bodhi + avga > bojjhavga

adhi + asaya > ajjhasaya

(4) -bhi > -bhy > -bbh

abhi + u(d) + kir-a-ti > abbhukkirati
abhi + u(d) + gacch-a-ti > abbhuggacchati

-m (anusvara )

(1) -m + m

-m + k,kh,g,gh,v > -v , sam + kilesa > savkilesa

-m + c,ch,j,jh,b > -b , dhammam + ca > dhammabca ...
-m + t,th,d,dh,n > -n , sam + (t)thita > santhita
-m + t,th,d,dh,n > -n , alam + dani > alan dani
-m + p,ph,b,bh,m > -m , evam + me sutam > evam me sutam
(2) -m + m m

bhavam atthu > bhavamatthu ...

(3) -m + -m (1)

idam + api > idam pi

abhinandum iti > abhinandun ti (aor.)
hi alam + idani > halan dani ()
tvam + asi > tvam si

12
cakkam iva > cakkam va

(4) -m + m

ekam idam + aham samayam > ekam idaham samayam ...

evam + aham > evaham ...

(5) -m + eva y -m + y- , -mb- -bb-

santam + eva > santam yeva (ppr.)

tesam + eva > tesam yeva tesambeva ...
paccattam + eva > paccattab beva ( -my-) (by himself,ad.)
tam khanam + eva > tam khanab beva ( -m y-)
sam + yoga > sabboga = samyoga
yam + yad eva > yabbad eva ... (whatever)

(6) -m + h- -m -b

tam + hi tassa > tab hi tassa (Gen.) ...

evam + hi so > evab hi so () ...

(7) m

anu + thulani > anumthulani (, Dhammapada 265)

manopubba + gama > manopubbavgama ( Dhammapada 1,2)
ava + siro > avamsiro

(Internal Sandhi)

(derivation)

Root Suffix1 Suffix2 Ending

(Secondary Derivation)

(Primary Derivation)

13


(word) r ()
(p)pati (p)pati (t)tha
(p)pati + (t)thahati > patitthahati ()

n (n)

r n
n n

kar + aniya > karaniya ()

ram + aniya > ramaniya ()
rabj + aniya > rajaniya ()
,

dis + ta > dittha (pp.a.,), dittha + in > ditthin (a.)

wram + ana > samana (), samana + ya > samabba ()
vi-vic + ya > vivicca (ger. )
chid + na > chinna (pp. )
u(d) + pad + ya + ti > uppajjati ( 3 , )
ram + aniya > ramaniya (grd., )
labh + ya > labbha (grd.)
sat + ya > sacca (, )

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER)

(1) LESSON 23, 'Junction', pp.213-218
(2) LESSON 25 ,'Junction Consonants', p.255
2. A PALI GRAMMAR (W.GEIGER), 'SANDHI' ,pp.57-66
3. ( , ), , pp.81-90

14


/ (Possessive Nouns / Adjectives)

-in , -avin

( ) -vant , -mant

(Possessive)...
......

(1) -in

vera > verin

sasa > sasin
hattha > hatthin
tapas > tapassin
yasas > yasassin

(2) -avin

dassa > dassavin

medha > medhavin

(3) -vant

guna > gunavant

bala > balavant
bhaga > bhagavant
sila > silavant

(4) -mant
ayus > ayasmant
cakkhu > cakkhumant
sati > satimant

15
 papa > papimant

-in -ant

-i -ini -anti -i

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER), LESSON 18, p.122

2. (, ), ,p.229,

(Action Nouns)

() -a , -a , -ana , -ana

-i , -i , -ti

()

-a -i,-ti -ana
-a,-ana,-i

(1) -a

kar > kara m. (karoti)

sam-sar > samsara m. (samsarati)
nand > nanda m. (nandati)
yac > yaca n. (yacati)
vi-pac > vipaka m. (vipaccati,pass.)
caj > caga m. (cajati)
yuj > yoga m. (yubjati)

(2) -a

puj > puja f. (pujeti)

16
nid > ninda f. (nindati)
vid > vijja f. (vijjati)
ni(r)-vid > nibbida f. (nibbindati)
pati-pucch > patipuccha f. (patipucchati)
rakkh > rakkha f. (rakkhati)

(3) -ana

kar > karana n. (karoti)

(b)ba > bana n. (janati)
yac > yacana n. (yacati)
dis/das > dassana n. (dassati)
bandh > bandhana n. (bandhati)
su > savana n. (sunati)
nand > nandana n. (nandati)

(4) -ana

pa-(b)ba > pajanana f. (pajanati) / pajanana n.

nand > nandana f. (nandati) / nandana n.
phus > phusana f. (phusati) / phusana n.
bhu > bhavana f. (bhaveti)
vi-pass > vipassana f. (vipassati)

(5) -i -i

nand > nandi /nandi f. (nandati)

budh > bodhi f. (bujjhati)
ruc > ruci f. (rocati)

(6) -ti

su > suti f. (sunati)

vi-pad > vipatti f. (vipajjati)
vi-muc > vimutti f. (vimuccati)
gup > gutti f. (gopeti)
yuj > yutti f. (yubjati)
sar > sati () f. (sarati)
man > mati f. (mabbati)
ram > rati f. (ramati)
gam > gati f. (gacchati)
kham > khanti () f. (khamati)

17
 sudh > suddhi f. (sujjhati)

Nom. Gen./Acc. Dat. Acc./Dat. Main Verb

(1) ()

(2) Acc. Dat. ( Dat.

(infinitive))

(3) (Patient) Acc. Gen. (Object Genitive)

(4) (Agent) Nom. Ins. Gen. (Subject Gentive)

mayam bhavantam Gotamam dassanaya idh' upasamkanta =

(we have come here to see (for seeing) the

honourable Gotama) (D.I.p.89.L22-23,)

devata Ananda ujjhayantidura vat' amha agata tathagatam dassanaya

... = ...
(Ananda,the divine beings are grumbling we have indeed come from
far to see the thus-gone ... ") (D.II.p.139.L19-21,)

idh' avuso bhikkhu anuppannanam papakanam akusalanam dhammanam

anuppadaya chandam janeti =

... (here,friends,a bhikkhu awakens
zeal for the non-arising of unarisen evil unwholesome states)
(M.III.p.251. 6-4 ,)

18
1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER), LESSON 19, p.138
2. (, ),,p.224 - p.225

(Agent Nouns)

()
-tar -itar

(Agent)

(1) ()

das > dassetar (dasseti)

bhas > bhasitar (bhasati)
pucch > pucchitar (pucchati)
sas > satthar (sasati)
(s)su > sotar (sunati)
da > datar (dadati)
ni > netar (neti)
bhuj > bhuttar (bhubjati)
sam-dha > sandhatar (sandahati)

(2)

(s)su > savetar () (saveti)

vac > vacetar () (vaceti)
mar > maretar () (mareti)
mar > marapetar () (marapeti)
vi-(b)ba > vibbapetar () (vibbapeti)

19
 () -in , -avin ka-ika , -ika ,

/ -aka

-ika

(1) -in

jhe > jhaya-ti > jhayin

da > daya > dayin
car > cara > -carin / caritar
grah > gaha > gahin
vad > vada > vadin / vaditar

(2) -avin

vi-ji > vijita > vijitavin

das > dassa-ti > dassavin

(3) -ka

yac > yacana > yacanaka

yac > yaca > yacaka
yudh > yuddha > yuddhaka
bhan > bhana > bhanaka ()
lal > lala > lalaka

(4) -ika (-ika)

dhar > dhamma > dhammika

vi-ni > vinaya > venayika
pac > paka > pacika f.
cur > cora > corika f.

(5) -aka
ni > nayaka
(s)su > savaka
pal > palaka
kar > karaka
upa-as > upasaka

20


()

( hoti )
Nom. Gen./Acc. Nom. be

(1)

(2) (attribute)
( Nom.)

(3) Acc. Gen.

tathagato ... vacam bhasita ahosi = ... (the

thus-gone ... was the speaker of the speech (Acc.) ) (D.III.p.154.

L9-12,)

aham assa mante vaceta = (I am his teacher ('causer

to speak') of sacred texts (Acc.) ) (D.I.p.123.L17,)

(vacetar manta
)

iti bhinnanam va sandhata ... =

( ...) (thus he is a peace-maker to those who are divided

(Gen.) ) (D.I.p.4.L20,) (va-va ... ...)

ahan tena samayena purohito brahmano ahosim tassa yabbassa yajeta

= (
) (at that time I was the high priest who performed

21
that sacrifice (Gen.) ) (D.I.p.143.L26-27,)
(purohito
)

tatr' assa dovariko pandito viyatto medhavi abbatanam nivareta

batanam paveseta = ()
() (there there might be an astute,
intelligent,wise porter (who) kept away strangers (and) show in
friends ('known') (Gen.) ) (D.II.p.83.L10-11,)

abhijanam' aham bhante imam pabham abbe samana-brahmane pucchita

ti = ()(
) (I am aware of having asked this question of other priests
and philosophers (Double Acc.) ) (D.I.p.51. 6-5 ,)

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER), LESSON 23, pp.209-212

2. (, ),,p.225,p.226,

(Family-relationship Nouns)

-tar

(Family-relationship)

pitar () matar ()

pitar m. (father)
matar f. (mather)
bhatar m. (brother)
jamatar m. (son-in-law)

22
dhitar f. (daughter)
nattar m. (grandson) (cf. nephew )
matucchar f. (mother's sister) (Skt. matr-svasr)
bhagini f. (sister) ( Skt. svasr)
sunisa f. (daughter-in-law)
putta m. (son) ( tanaya m.)

-ar -ar guna

(-ar) -ar (Loc.-ari)
vuddhi (-ar) -ar

Puna ca param bhikkhave kamahetu kamanidanam kamadhikaranam

kamanam eva hetu rajano pi rajuhi vivadanti, khattiya pi

khattiyehi v.,brahmana pi brahmanehi v.,gahapati pi gahapatihi

v., mata pi puttena v., putto pi matara v.,pita pi puttena v.,

putto pi pitara v., bhata pi bhatara v., bhata pi bhaginiya v.,

bhagini pi bhatara v., sahayo pi sahayena vivadati.

(13 )
(M.I.13.Mahadukkhakkhandhasuttam,p.86,L16-23)

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER), LESSON 23, pp.209-210

2. ( ) p.341-342

(Abstract Nouns)

23
 () -ta , -tta , -ya

-ava

...

-ta -tta-ya ( -ya

) -ava

-ta

arahant > arahata ()

anicca > aniccata
kusita > kusitata
sakhi > sakhita
nissaya > nissayata
subba > subbata
dukkha > dukkhata
atthi > atthita ()
n' atthi > natthita ()

-tta
arahant > arahattam ()
dukkha > dukkhattam
eka > ekattam
nana > nanattam
upasaka > upasakattam ()
phuttha > phutthattam
manussa > manussattam
mara > marattam

-ya (-ya )

sakhi > sakhyam

sat > saccam
pandita () > pandiccam
rajan > rajjam

24
samana > samabbam
kusala > kosallam
arupa > aruppam
kusita > kosajjam

-ava ( -u Stem )

garu > garava

patu > patava

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER), LESSON 25, pp.252-253

2. (, ), , p.230 (9)~(12)

(Diminutive Nouns)

() -ka -ika

-ka -ika

thala > thalaka / thalika f.

sattha > satthaka
ratha > rathaka
putta > puttaka ()
purisa > purisaka (little man)
samana > samanaka
jatila > jatilaka ()
nadi > nadika

-ka

dayada > dayadaka ()

chava > chavaka ()

25
kumara > kumaraka ()
pavala > pavalaka ()
puta > putaka ()
pana > panaka ()
pitha > pithaka () / pithika f.

1. (, ), , p.228

(Intensive Nouns)
8-5 (63 )

(Desiderative Abstract Nouns)

8-6 (64 )

-in, -avin, -vant,

-mant (/)-tar,-itar (/)-in,-avin,
-ka,-ika,-ika,-aka ()-ta,-tta,-ya,-ava () -ka,
-ika () -a,-a,-ana,ana,-i,-i,ti

pa + ana > pana lip + i > lipi kar

+ a > kara
-atha,-ma,-u Root

-atha

dam > damatha (dhameti) / dama

sam > samatha (sammati) / sama

-ma

bhi > bhima (bhayati)

kar > kamma (karoti)
dhar > dhamma (dhareti)

26
var > vamma (vammeti )
mar > mamma () (marati)

-u

sabba-(b)ba > sabbabbu (-janati)

para-gam > paragu (-gacchati)
veda-gam > vedagu (-gacchati)
bhikkh > bhikkhu (bhikkhati)

1. (, ), , p.226 (10),(11)

(1) -a -a / -i-aka -ika
(2) -ni -i

-a -a,-i

bala > bala

pandita > pandita
pabbajita > pabbajita
khattiya > khattiya
deva > devi
siha > sihi
thera > theri
samanera > samaneri

27
nara > nari
manusa > manusi
yakkha > yakkhi
brahmana > brahmani
khattiya > khattiyi
suvannamaya > suvannamayi ()

-aka -ika

kumaraka > kumarika

upasaka > upasika
paribbajaka > paribbajika
upatthayaka > upatthayika

-(i)ni

siha > sihini

manusa > manusini
yakkha > yakkhini

-(a)ni

bhikkhu > bhikkhuni

garu > garuni
gahapati > gahapatini
matula > matulani
khattiya > khattiyani

-ant,-in -i

gunavant > gunavanti

satimant > satimanti
arahant > arahanti
gacchant > gacchanti
tapassin > tapassini
medhavin > medhavini
hatthin > hatthini
dipin > dipini

28
1. (, ),,p.232 (18) - p.233 (21)

29


kusala dhuva
anicca ananta
atita sassata
piya sukha

() -ka , -ika ; -ya, -iya

-eyya , -era ()

-ka , -ika

citta > cittika

cintana > cintanaka
cetas > cetasika
sapatta > sapattaka
vana > vanaka/vanika
vassa > vassika
pitar > pettika
ehi passa > ehipassika ()
Magadha > Magadhika
dvi,du > duka
ti > tika
attha > atthaka
dasa > dasaka
sahassa > sahassika
-ka, -ika ...

30
puva > puvika
tela > telaka/telika
abhidhamma > abhidhammika
(abhidhammika)
vana > vanaka/vanika
ratha > rathika

-ya , -iya ( ya )

kappa > kappiya

yoga > yogga
bodhipakkha > bodhipakkhiya
pabca-vagga > pabcavaggiya
-ka,-ika,-ya,-iya ...()

Sakya-putta > Sakya-puttiya

()
Aparasela > Aparaseliya = Aparaselika ()

-eyya
metta > metteyya
pitar > petteyya
matar > matteyya/metteyya

-eyya

patha > patheyya

Vinata > Venateyya

-ira,-era ()

bahi (ad.) > bahira

samana > samanera

tila > tela ()

sila > sela
manussa > manusa
purisa > porisa
kasaya > kasaya
(kasava > kasava)

31
nagara > nagara
Vasittha > Vasettha
Dasaratha > Dasarathi

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER), LESSON 22, pp.187-188

2. (, ), , p.227 (2) - p.229 (8)

(Constructional Adjectives)

-maya

.........

suvanna > suvanna-maya

sisa > sisa-maya
daru > daru-maya
tipu > tipu-maya
danta > danta-maya
kaca > kaca-maya
veluriya > veluriya-maya
jala > jala-maya
manas > mano-maya
dhamma > dhamma-maya
rasa () > rasa-maya
sabba > sabba-maya

,p.229 (8)

32
 (Directional Adjectives)

// -ima

purattha ad. > puratthima

majjha a.m. > majjhima
paccha ad. > pacchima ()
anta m. > antima
pura a. > purima

,p.229 (6)

(Temporal Adjectives)

-tana

()

ajja () ad. > ajjatana ()

hiyo,hiyyo ad. > hiyatana
sve,suve ad. > svatana
pura ad. > puratana ()
sanam ad. > sanantana (cf. Skt. sanah)
, p.234 (23)

(Possessive Adjectives)
2-1 (11 )

(Intensive Adjective)
8-5 (63 )

(Desiderative Adjective) 8-6 (64 )

33


(Reflexive Pronouns) attan, saka, sa, samam sayam

() (emphatic)

Attan

(Noun)

(soulessential self) jiva ( animating

principle)
(Reflexive Pronoun)

(1) ()
(himself,oneself,myself,yourself)
(Apposition)
(2) (possessive adjective)()...(his own,her
own,my own,etc.)
(body)
(mind)

attan

()

attanam sukheti pineti = (he enjoys and pleases

himself) (D.III.p.130. 2 ,)

sa attanab c' eva jivitam ... vinasesi = ...

(she ... destoryed her own life and ... ) (D.II.p.331. 4 , )

attana ca jivahi ... = ()()

(you must make a living youself and ...) (D.III.p.66.L3,

34
)

attana attanam vyakareyya = (he would

explain himself (Ins.) to himself (Acc.) ) (D.II.p.93.L16-17,)

ye samanabrahmana ... ekam attanam damenti =

... (priests and philosophers who ... restrain the

self (oneself) ) (D.III.p.61.L12,) (
ekam attanam )

janasi ... attano gatim = (

) (do you know ... your own destiny )

janami ... attano gatim = (I do know ... my own

destiny) (D.III.p.7.L21,23,)

attano ...
(mama tava tassa )

saka

saka

saka (own)
(the thing possessed) (possessor)

yena sako aramo tena payasi = (he set out for his own

park) (D.I.p.106.L26-27,)

vihabbati ... sakena cittena = () (he is dis-

tressed ... by his own thought/mind) (D.I.p.119.L26,)

Cundo ... sake nivesane panitam khadaniyam bhojaniyam patiyadapetva

35
= ... ... (Cunda ...
having had a fine meal of hard and soft food prepared in his own house)
(D.II.p.127.L3-5,)

sakasmim satthe = (in their own caravan)

(D.II.p.346.L15,)

sakan te maharaja = ! ! (

) (let all be) yours, great king ! ), (let it be your own)

(D.II.p.173.L6-7,)

sa

sa

sa (Skt. sva) saka (own)

(Pronominal Pronoun) ta(d)
(Compound)

samata = (his own opinion)

sahattha = (one's own hand)
sacitta = (one's own mind)

samam sayam

samam sayam (oneself,self,

myself,etc.)(Indeclinables) samam
sayam (poetic)
sayam

36


samam dittham = (seen by oneself,seen by myself) (D.II.

p.320. 2 ,)

cetovimuttim pabba-vimuttim ditthe va dhamme sayam abhibba sacchi-

katva upasampajja viharati =

(,) (he enters into and abides in that
emancipation of heart, that emancipation of intellect which he by
himself has ascertained and realized here in this present world )
(D.II.p.71.L23-24,)

te tattha honti manomaya piti-bhakkha sayampabha = ()

(there they are mind-made,feeding

on delight,self-luminous) (D.I.p.17.L21-22,)

sayam-katam sukkha-dukkham, param-katam sukha-dukkham ... idam eva

saccam, mogham abban ti = ...

(pleasure and pain are self-made,pleasure and pain are made
by another, ... this alone is true,the rest is false) (D.III.p.138.
L7-11,)

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER), LESSON 22, pp.185-186

37


(Comparison)

(1) -tara
(Comparative)
(Superlative) a -tara

(2) garu > garutara

dassaniya > dassaniyatara /
panita > panitatara /
vannavant > vannavantatara

(3)
-a -a,m./n. -a,f.
-tara

(1) -tara,-ra -tama,-ma

(2)
papa papatara papatama
digha dighatara dighatama
suci sucitara sucitama
ud uttara uttama
adhas adhara () adhama ()
papittha papitthatara papitthatama
pathama pathamatara
uttari uttaritara

38


-ya,-iyya -ittha,-ssika,-sika

papa papiya, papiyya papittha, papiyyasika

kan khudda (kabba) (kaniya,)kanittha kanittha

ja vuddha (jir) (jeyya,) jettha jettha
kalyana (siri) seyya settha
bhu bahu bhiya, bhiyya

(1) -tama -tama

ka-tama
(katamab ca bhikkhave dukkham ariyasaccam
) abba-tama(any,
one out of many)()

(2) -tara
ka-tara() abba-
tara(a certain, some)

(3) Go-tama ()
para-ma ()ori-ma < ora ()pari-ma < para ()
(4) bhiyyo < bahu
seyyo < (siri)

(1) (A is more C than B)

39
 A B C => A B C
Abl./Ins. ( A)

(2)

Imamha maharaja sanditthikehi samabba-phalehi (Abl.) abbam

sanditthikam samabba-phalam uttaritaram va panitataram va n' atthti

=
(And, Sire, there is no fruit of the homeless life, visible here and now, that is more

excellent and perfect than this.) (D.I.p.85.L3-5,)

Mayam etehi vannavantatara, amheh' ete dubbannatara ti =

(We are better-looking than they, they

are worse favoured than we.) (D.III.p.86.L19-20,)

na ... vijjati abbo samano va brahmano va bhagavata (Abl.)

bhiyyo 'bhibbataro =

(There is not any other philosopher or priest more learned

than the fortunate one.) (S.V.p.159.L8-9)

na mayam ito bhiyyo uttaritaram pajanamti =

() (We know nothing higher than that (we have known).)

(D.III.p.52. 2 ,)
Abbatha-sabbino pi h' ettha Cunda sant' eke satta. Imaya pi kho aham Cunda
pabbattiya n' eva attano sama-samam samanu-passami kuto bhiyyo. =
()
(Persons hold different opinions on such things. Nor do I consider this view on a level with
my own, let alone higher.) (D.III. p.138.L18-20,)

(Partitive Genitive)
(Gen.)...(Superl.) (best of, best among ...)
(1) (1) (A is the most C of/among B)

40
 A B C => A B C
Gen. ( A)

(2)

Atha kho te Vasettha satta yo nesam satto abhirupataro ca

dassaniyataro ca pasadikataro ca mahesakkhataro ca, tam

sattam upasamkamitva etad avocum ... =

... (Then,Vasettha,they went to the one among
them who was the handsomest,the best looking,the most pleasant
and capable,and said this to him ...) (D.III.p.93.L1-3,)
kimsu have sadutaram rasanam saccam have sadutaram rasanam.
= (What
really is of all tastes most sweet Truth really is of all tastes
most sweet !) (S.I.p.42.L5,L9)

Kin nu kho kamanam aggan ti ... rupa kamanam aggan ti ...

= ()
(Which among the pleasures of sense is the highest things seen
among the pleasures of sense is the highest ! (PTS)) (S.I.p.79. L29-30)
Iti kho Ambattha itthiya va itthim karitva purisena va purisam

karitva khattiya va settha hina brahmana =

(So,Ambattha,whether one compares women with women, or men with

men,the Khattiyas are higher and the Brahmans inferior.(PTS)) (D.I.p.98.L7-9, )

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER)

(1) LESSON 14, Ablative, p.92

(2) LESSON 18, Comparison,p.123-125

2. ,p.231(15)-p.232 (17)

(Repetitious Emphasis)

41


(word)(expression/whole phrase)
(emphasis)(= very) bhaddani bha-ddani (yanani) =
() very fine (carriage)
()(distri-
butive) yo yo = whoeveryatha yatha =
in whatever way, however

lahu-bharehi sakatehi sigham sigham gacchatha, ma yoggani kilamethti =

(With light-laden carts, you will go
quite quickly; do not tire your draught-oxen !) (D.II.p.344.L2-3,)

sandasanda saliyo = (rice plants in thick clusters) (D. III.p.90.L15,

)

abhikkantam bhante, abhikkantam bhante =

(very fine indeed,sir ! ) () (D.I.p.85.L7-8,)
aho rasam, aho rasam = (ah ! what piquancy!) (
()) (D.III. p.86.L23,
)

dittha bho satta jivasi, dittha bho satta jivasi =

(it's wonderful to see

you alive !) () (D.III.p.73.L18,
)

ayami avuso, ayami avuso =

(I'm comming, sir !) () (D.III.p.18. 1,)

abhikkamatha Vasettha, abhikkamatha Vasettha =

(hurry forward, O Vasetthas !) (

) (D.II.p.147.L15-16,)

ma bhavam Sonadando evam avoca, ma bhavam Sonadando evam avoca =

(let not the honourable

Sonadanda speak thus ! ) () (D.I.p.122.L3-4, )

42
 nassa asuci, nassa asuci =

(perish, vile one ! ) () (D.III.p.89.L1-2,)

tuvam tuvam = (you, you ! ) (

) tuvam tvam

Yatha yatha va pan' assa kayo panihito hoti, tatha tatha nam pajanati

= () ( Or
else, in whatever way his body is disposed, he knows that that is how
it is.(M.Walshe); Or he understands accordingly however his
body is disposed.(Bhikkhu Bodhi) (D.II.p.292.L14-15 ;M.I.p.57.
L1-2,())

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER), LESSON 21, p.171

43


(Cardinal Numbers)

()
1 eka / / A.K.Warder
/ 17(116)
3 ti (te) 26(268)
4 catu(r) 20(153)
2 dvi,di,dve,du,dva
5 pabca
6 cha(l),sa(l)
7 satta
8 attha
9 nava
10 dasa p.347 17(116)
11 ekadasa,ekarasa p.348 26(269)
12 dvadasa, barasa
13 telasa, terasa
14 cuddasa, catuddasa
15 pannarasa, pabcadasa
16 solasa, sorasa
17 sattarasa, sattadasa
18 atthadasa, attharasa
20 visa / -am / -a / -a -ti -a
30 (t)timsa / -amn. sg. or pl.
40 cattarisa / -af. sg. 1.
50 pabbasa / -tif. sg. (Apposition)
60 satthi () 26(269)
70 sattati
2. Gen.
80 asiti sg.pl.
90 navuti -i(f.) ( G.)
koti ()

44
100 satam /
1000 sahassam -a(n.) () 17(117)

10 lakkham () m.f.
( Compounds )
19 ekunavisati (last member)
21 ekavisati 26(270)
22 dvavisati,bavisati

()
23 tevisati
24 catuvisati
25 pabcavisati
26 chavisati (last member) 26(270)
27 sattavisati
28 atthavisati
29 ekunatimsam

1. ekuna < eka-una 19 (-120)

29 (-130)39 (-140)...... 9

2. 102 200
dvi-watam dvi-watam = 102dvi-watam
= 200(cf. A. Macdonell, A Sanskrit Grammar for Students, 1993, p.69)
dvi-satam = 200di-y-adhika-satam = 102atthadhika-satam = 108 =
atthuttara-satam(adhika = uttara = )

3. 1~18 ()
19
(1) satam puriso, satam purisa, satani puriso, satani purisa ()
(2) Gen.satam purisanam, satam purisassa, satani purisanam,
(3) (a) sata-purisam (-ani) = (1) satam puriso,
(b) purisa-satam (-ani) = (2) satam purisanam

(Ordinal Numbers)

45


(1) (2) (7 )

1st pathama 7th satta-ma

2nd dutiya 8th attha-ma
3rd tatiya 9th nava-ma
4th catuttha 10th dasa-ma
5th pabcama :
6th chattha :
(3) -ti mavisati-ma (20th)timsati-ma (30th)
satthi-tama (60th)asiti-tama (80th)
sata-tama (100th)sahassa-tama (1000th)

(4)
11~18ekadasa = ekadasa-mapannarasa = pannarasa-ma
-a visatimsacattalisapabbasa

(1)

(2) -a(m.), -a(n.), -i(f.)

-i dasama > dasami
1st, 2nd, 3rd -apathamadutiyatatiya

(1) 100 ,,

sattavisati gatha
tettimse ito kappe ()()

(2) 101 199

satthivassasata-

chasatthisata pacittiya dhamma 166

ca

46
(3) 200,300,......

dve satani pabca satani

tini satani cattari satani

(4) 201,202,...,301,302,... 101 199

visatitivassasata-
cattarisachabbassasata-

(5) 250,350,2500,... addha-X1/...

addhateyyavassasatani (0.5-3--100)
addhateyyavassasahassani (0.5-3--1000)
addhatelasani bhikkhusatani
(0.5-13 -100)

(6) 1000
X-matta (matta measure)

saddhim timsamattehi paribbajakasatehi

asiti vassasahassani
caturasitinagasahassani

(Fraction Numbers/)

(1) addha,addha ,m./a. (half)

addhayojanam (half a league, 1/2 * 14km)

(2) upaddha ,n./a. (half)

upaddham divasam (half a day) (ad.)

upaddhapatham (halfway) (ad.)

(3) X (X and a half) X.5addha X1

(diyaddha one and a half, Digha)

addhateyya (two and a half) --
(addhuddha three and a half,)
Pkt. addhuttha < addha*turtha, Skt. ardhacaturtha

47
[Geiger,S119.2]

,:

addhatelasa (twelve and a half)

(4) () -bhaga
(,part)

catuttha / catutthabhago (a quarter,one fourth)

() -ka,-ika,-ya

dvi,du > duka (dvaya)

ti > tika (taya)
attha > atthaka
dasa > dasaka
sahassa > sahassika

- i

pathama > pathami

dutiya > dutiyi
catuttha > catutthi
pabcama > pabcami
ekadasama > ekadasi
catuddasama > catuddasi
(cuddasama)
pabcadasama > pabcadasi
(pannarasama) (pannarasi)

(dasa)- i -dasi
-dasami

(1) ...(more then) paro-X

48
paropabbasa(m) (more then fifty)
parosatam
parosahassam

(2) ......(many)aneka-X

anekasatani / anekani satani (many handreds)

katama,()(which which one)

ta(d)()
kati (how many ) -i
Nom.Acc. kati

(Times) X-(k)khattum (ind.)

sakim / sakid eva (once/only once) ( sakad eva)

dvikkhattum (twice)
tikkhattum (three times)
chakkhattum (six times)
katikkhattum (how many times )

--(folds) X-vidha
X-dha

tividha (adj.) (triple,threefold)

dvidha (ind.) (in two ways)
sattadha (ind.) (in seven)

--(multiples) X-guna

digunam (dviguna) (double)

catugguna (fourfold,quadruple)

-- ...(distributive numbers -- x each)

()

dve pi jana pabcapabca manavakasataparivara honti, the two boys

each had retinues of 500 youths, ()

(pabcapabca -//) [Geiger,Section 119.1]

49


x-ka duka (,)
-ika tika (,)
catukka (,)
sataka (,)

aneka-x .../... anekasatani
x-vidha // tividha ()
x-guna satta-vidha (,)
catugguna ()
atthaguna ()

paro-x ... parosatam
x-dha / ekadha ()
dvidha ()
anekadha (/)
bahudha (/)
x-(k)khattum / sakid/sakim ()
ekakkhattum ()
dvikkhattum ()
tikkhattum ()
x-so,x-to ekaso/ekato
(,,)
diso ()
x-avata kati/kiva ()
how many,how far kittavata ()
so many,so far ettavata ()

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER) .......... LESSON (Page)

(1) 1,2,5,100,1000 ................... 17 (116)

50
 (2) 4 ......................................... 20 (153)
(3) 3 .......................... 26 (268)
(4) ........................................... 18 (125),26 (273)
(5) ............................. 26 (268)

2. (, )

(1)
(2) ,p.227, 2 ;p.231, 14

3 ( ) p.346-348

1. Ito so, bhikkhave, eka-navuto kappo (eka-navuti-kappe) yam Vipassi bhagava
araham sammasambuddho loke udapadi.

Ito so, bhikkhave, eka-timso kappo (eka-timsa-kappe, eka-timse kappe) yam

Sikhi bhagava araham sammasambuddho loke udapadi.

Tasmim yeva kho, bhikkhave, eka-timse kappe Vessabhu bhagava araham

sammasambuddho loke udapadi.

Imasmim yeva kho, bhikkhave, bhadda-kappe Kakusandho bhagava araham

sammasambuddho loke udapadi.

Imasmim yeva kho, bhikkhave, bhaddakappe Konagamano bhagava araham

sammasambuddho loke udapadi.

Imasmim yeva kho, bhikkhave, bhaddakappe Kassapo bhagava araham

sammasambuddho loke udapadi.

Imasmim yeva kho, bhikkhave, bhaddakappe aham etarahi araham

sammasambuddho loke uppanno.

51
2. Vipassissa, bhikkhave, bhagavato arahato sammasambuddhassa
asiti-vassa-sahassani (asiti / asitim vassa-sahassani) ayu-ppamanam ahosi.

Sikhissa, bhikkhave, bhagavato arahato sammasambuddhassa

sattati-vassa-sahassani (sattati vassa-sahassani) ayuppamanam ahosi.

Vessabhussa, bhikkhave, bhagavato arahato sammasambuddhassa

satthi-vassa-sahassani (satthi / satthim vassa-sahassani) ayuppamanam ahosi.

Kakusandhassa, bhikkhave, bhagavato arahato sammasambuddhassa

cattalisa-vassa-sahassani (cattalisa / cattalisam vassa-sahassani)
ayuppamanam ahosi.

Konagamanassa, bhikkhave, bhagavato arahato sammasambuddhassa

timsa-vassa-sahassani (timsa vassa-sahassani) ayuppamanam ahosi.

Kassapassa, bhikkhave, bhagavato arahato sammasambuddhassa

visati-vassa-sahassani (visati / visatim vassa-sahassani) ayuppamanam ahosi.

Mayham, bhikkhave, etarahi appakam ayuppamanam parittam lahukam

yo ciram jivati so vassa-satam appam va bhiyyo.

3. Vipassissa, bhikkhave, bhagavato arahato sammasambuddhassa tayo

savakanam sannipata ahesum. Eko savakanam sannipato ahosi
attha-satthi-bhikkhu-sata-sahassam. Eko savakanam sannipato ahosi
bhikkhu-sata-sahassam. Eko savakanam sannipato ahosi
asiti-bhikkhu-sahassani.
()
()()
()
Vipassissa, bhikkhave, bhagavato arahato sammasambuddhassa

52
ime tayo savakanam sannipata ahesum sabbesam yeva khinasavanam.

()

Mayham, bhikkhave, etarahi eko savakanam sannipato ahosi addha-telasani

bhikkhu-satani.
()()
Mayham, bhikkhave, ayam eko savakanam sannipato ahosi sabbesam yeva
khinasavanam.
()

4. apare pi tassa sahayake catup-pannasa ( catuppabbasa) jane

ehibhikkhupabbajjaya pabbajetva, arahattam papesi.

5. Evam hi loke eka-satthiya arahantesu jatesu Sattha vutthavasso pavaretva,

caratha bhikkhave carikanti satthi-bhikkhu disasu pesetva,

sayam Uruvelam gacchanto,

6. addhuddhani patihariya-sahassani dassetva,

()
Uruvelakassapadayo sahassa-jatila-parivare te-bhatika-jatile vinetva,
()

7. Raja uyyanapalassa santika Sattha agatoti sutva,

dva-dasa-nahutehi brahmanagahapatikehi parivuto Sattharam upasavkamitva,

()

53


(Bahubbihi Compound)

Bahubbihibahu-(v)vihi,[ -vv- > -bb- ]--

Bahubbihi (deso) --()(a co-
untry) having much rice [cf.Warder,p137,note.1]

()
(members) (Dominating Noun)

< > <>

()

(Dominating Noun)
()

(1) ,

(2) ......
...(who has/was... , which has/was...)

54
pahutajivhe eke kumare passami ()

(I see some boys who has long tongue.)

lohitakkhi puriso mam passati

(A man having red eyes sees me.)

idam cakkam kaddamamakkhitam

(This is a wheel smeared with mud.)

sa- ()a-/an- ()

yena sadhabbo deso tena upasamkamimha

(We approached a place bearing with grain.)

asamam bhagavantam upasamkami ()

(he approached the fortunate one who is unequalled.)

(Tappurisa)(Kammadharaya)
(Dvanda)(Case relation)
()(2 members),
()

satinakatthodakam desam gacchi

(He went to a place possessing grass firewood,and
water.)

katapubba (purisa) () , (a man) who has done good.

chinnapapabca (Buddha) () , (a Buddha) who has

cut through obstacles.

vajirapani (yakkha) () (), (a god) who

has a thunderbolt in his hand.

()

(A) (last member)

()

55
(B)

()

bhagava onitapattapani () ()

(the fortunate one who had removed (his) hand from the bowl)

mahapuriso sihapubbaddhakayo () (a

great man whose body (is like) the front half of a lion)

(1) -a,-i,-u

-ka,-ika, -a (-a)
(-i,-u -a -ka,-ika)
(2) -a -a

(3) -an,-ar

-a
-ika (-ar -uka )

(4) -as -a
------------------------------------

-a -ika

antanantika (samanabrahmana) ()() (),"finite or infinite-

er"

ehipassika (dhamma) ()(

) "(the doctrine) which is verifiable"
-i -ika
evamgatika (ditthitthana) () (/)

(a case/class of opinion) which has such and such a destiny

56
 -ar -uka

atitasatthuka (pavacana) () / (
)(the doctrine) having lost its teacher.

(1) -a -a
(2) -an,-ar -a
(3) -as -o
(4) -in -i -i
(5) -ant -at

(1) (adjective) -ka,-ika ()

(2) (prosessive adjective) -in

khattiyo pi kho Vasettha idh' ekacco panatipati hoti, adinna-

dayi hoti, kamesu micchacari hoti, musavadi hoti =

(... ) [D.III.p.82.L7-9] ( -i
-i )
(3) (comparative) -rupa (......
suchlike that)

Tassa mayham papima evarupo kayo hoti seyyatha pi manussassa,

evarupam sisam hoti seyyatha pi macchassa =

()() (my body had the same
form as a human body,Evil One,but my head had the form of a fishs
head.) [M.I.p.337.L15-17]

(1) su-,du(r)-
( Kammadharaya )

duddasa (dhamma) ()(a doctrine) hard to see

duranubodha (dhamma) ()(a doctrine) hard to
understand
sukata (kamma) ()(an action) well done

57
susannaddha (bhara) () ()(a load) well
tied up

(2) (Indeclinable) ittha, evam, tatha, sayam

(first member)

itthannama (samana) ()(an ascetic) thus named

evamvimutta (bhagavant) ()(a fortunate one)
freed in such and such a way
evamgotta (samana) ()(an ascetic) of such and such a clan
tatharupa (cetosamadhi) ()(a concentration of the mind) of such a
kind
(tatharupi)
sayampabha (satta) ()(a being) self luminous
(3) a-, ni(r)-, vi-, apagata-, vigata-, vita-
(without) (Negtive Compound)

nippitika (sukha) ()(happiness) free from joy

viraja (dhammacakkhu) ()(the eye of docrine) free from dust
apagatakalaka (vattha) (/)(a garment/cloth)
free from stains
vigatakathamkatha (putta) ()(a son) free from doubt
vitamala (dhammacakkhu) ()(the eye of doctrine) without dust

(Dvanda)

dvihatihapayata (sattha) () (when it was)

two or three days (since it,ie,the caravan) had set out.

(,-)

pubbadakkhina (vidisa) - ()the south-east direction

pacchimuttara (vidisa) - ()the north-west direction

(1) -in
samghasamgha > samghasamghin

(2) (distribute)(intensifying)

58
(3) (Acc.sg.neuter,cf.Warder p.212,note.1)

samghasamghiganibhuta (brahmanagahapatika) --

()crowds of household and prests jostling one another.

(1) (Infinitive) -m -kamo, taritukamo (puriso)

< taritumkamo () (a man) wishing to cross
over

(2) (Action Noun) -kamo, dassanakamo (so)

() (he) wishing to see

upasamkamitukamo (aham) () -(I) desiring to approach

gantukamo (manussa) () -(a person) wishing to go

(Nominal Sentences)( Acc. Gen.)

cirapatika 'ham bhante bhagavantam dassanaya upasamkamitukamo

(Sir,I have long wished to go and see the fortunate one.)

so tumhakam dassanakamo

(He is desirous of seeing you, he wishes to see you.)

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER) .......... LESSON (Page)

(1) ....................... 19 (137)
(2) () .......... 20 (155)
(3) ........ 22 (187)
(4) () .... 23 (212)
(5) .................... 24 (231)

59
 (Avyayibhava Compound)

Avyayibhavaa-vyayi-bhava vyayi < vyaya < vi-i

bhava < bhu Avyayibhava Compound
--- (Indeclinable)

() ()

ati - balham yatha - bhutam

(-,too much) (-,according to nature)

(Indeclinable)

(first member)
(Tappurisa)
(Kammadharaya)(Digu)(last member)

(last member)

(prefix)

ajjhattam () (internally) < adhiattan ( -a )

atibalham - (too much) < atibalha
anulomam (in normal order/ ) < anuloma ()
paccattam - (individually,personally) < patiattan
patipatham - (in the opposite direction) < patipatha ()
patilomam (in reverse order) < patiloma ()

(indeclinable)

60
tiropabbatam - (through a mountain) ()
pacchabhattam - (after the meal,after eating)
yathabalam - (according to one's ability)
yathabhutam - (according to nature)
yathamittam - (with one's friends)
yavajivam -() (as long as one lives,all one's life)
yavadattham -() (as much as one wants)
-d-

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER) LESSON 25 ,Page 255

(Digu Compound)

Digudvigo -(dve gavo,a two-cow,a pair of cows)

()

catu(r) disa > catuddisam (,the four directions)

()

(last member)

salayatanam (the six senses) < cha(l)/sa(l)ayatanam

sattaham (seven days,a week) < sattaaha
catuddisa (the four directions) < catu(r)disa (pl.)

61
1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER) LESSON 26 ,Page 274

62


1 (Second Conjugation)

(1)

+ + a + ()

( m )

chid > chind + a + ti > chindati (,he cuts)

muc > mubc + a + ti > mubcati (,he frees)
sic > sibc + a + ti > sibcati (,he sprinkles)
his > hims + a + ti > himsati (,he injures)

m
m (Root)
k,c,t,t,p m
v,b,n,n,m
s,h m

(2) (Ending)
<bhuj> sg. pl.
bhubj-a-ti bhubj-a-nti
3rd.
() ()
bhubj-a-si bhubj-a-tha
2nd.
() ()
bhubj-a-mi bhubj-a-ma
1st.
() ()

63
1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER),LESSON 18, P.122

(Fourth Conjugation)
(1)

+ no + ()

()

(s)su + no + ti > (s)sunoti (,he hears)

Wru , no

(s)su (s)sunati

sakkoti < sak(k) + o + ti ()
< sak + no + ti ()
appoti < ap(p) + o + ti ()
< ap + no + ti ()

(2) (Ending)

<(s)su> sg. pl.

su-no-ti su-no-nti
3rd.
() ()
su-no-si su-no-tha
2nd.
() ()
su-no-mi su-no-ma
1st.
() ()

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER),LESSON 28, P.317

(Denominative, denom.)
(1)

-e,-aya () ti

64
 -ya ()
()
-aya,-iya,-iya,-a

(2)

-e,-aya

sukha > sukheti () (sukhayati)

tira > tireti ()
udana > udaneti
gopa > gopeti (Skt. gopayati)
pinda > pindeti
vamma > vammeti

-ya

tapas > tapassati

namas > namassati
karuna > karunayati

-aya

dhana > dhanayati ()

dhupa > dhupayati
piya > piyayati
mama > mamayati
gala-gala > galagalayati ()
ghuru-ghuru > ghurughuruyati

-iya,-iya

atta > attiyati (attiyati)

tanha > tanhiyati
pitar > pittiyati
putta > puttiyati
samadhi > samadhiyati (samadhiyati)

-a

usuya > usuyati (usuyya/usuyyati)

ussukka > ussukkati

65
dukkha > dukkhati

(3)

(4)

udaneti > udanesi (aor.2sg.3sg.)

dukkhati > dukkhapeti (cau.3sg.) dukkhita (pp.)
usuyati > usuyyam (ppr.m.Nom.sg.)

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER),LESSON 28, P.316

2. ( ) p.367-368

(Intensive, intens.)

(1)

(2) + -a -ya + ti

kath > kakacchati

(k)kam > cavkamati
gam > javgamati
cal > cabcalati
jar > jajjarati
dham > dhamadhamayati
muh > momuhati

1.
(guna)
2.
k > c , g > j

(3) + a ya

(k)kam > cavkama m. ()

66
cal > cabcala a.
jar > jajjara a.

(4)

cavkamati > cavkamim (aor.1sg.)

> cavkamapeti (cau.)
jajjarati > jajjarita (pp.)

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER),LESSON 29, P.331

2. ( ) p.367

(Desiderative, desid.)

(1)

(2) + -sa + ti

gup > jigucchati

ghas > jighacchati
vi-ji > vijigisati
vi-kit > vicikicchati (or < cit )
pa > pipasati
man > vimamsati (Skt.mimamsate)
vac > vavakkhati
(s)su > sussusati
sak > sikkhati
1. a > i
2.
k > c , g/gh > j

(3)

+ sa
+ sa

67
gup > jiguccha f. (f. jegucchita)
jeguccha a. ( = jegucchiya)
jegucchin a. ()

vi-kit > vicikiccha f.

pa > pipasa f.
pipasin a.

man > vimamsa f. (vimamsana/-ana)

vimamsaka a.
(s)su > sussusa f.
sussusa a. ()
sussusin a.

sak > sikkha f.

sikkhana n. ()

(4)

jigucchati > jigucchamana (ppr.) , jigucchita (pp.),

jigucchitabba (FPP.)
vicikicchati > vicikicchita (pp.)
pipasati > pipasita (a.pp.)
vimamsati > vimamsamana (ppr.) , vimamsapeti (cau.)
sussusati > sussussi (aor.),sussusimsu (aor.3pl.)
sussusissati (fut.),sussusam (ppr.)

(5)

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER),LESSON 30, P.352

2. ( ) p.366

68
 (Perfect Tense, pf.)

(1)
(indefinite time)(present)

(2) +
Aor.Ending

( -a )

ah > a-ah + a > aha (3sg.)

+ amsu > ahamsu (3pl.)
+ u > ahu (3pl.)

vid > vid + u(m) > vidu(m) (3pl.)

as > a-as + um > asum (3pl.)

aha

ye dhamma hetuppabhava
tesam hetum tathagato aha
tesab ca yo nirodho
evamvadi mahasamano

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER),LESSON 21, P.170

2. ( ) p.360

(Conditional Tense, cond.)

(1)

a + + issa/essa +
(2)
Aor.Ending

<bhu> sg. pl.

69
 3rd. a-bhaviss-a a-bhaviss-amsu
2nd. a-bhaviss-a a-bhaviss-atha
1st. a-bhaviss-am a-bhaviss-ama

(Middle)
(Active)

bhu > a-bhaviss-atha (Middle,3sg.)

bhu (Active)
(Middle)(Middle,3sg.)
abhi-ni(r)-vatt > abhinibbattissatha (if it were produced
)
labh > alabhissatha (if it were obtained)
vi-o-chid > vocchijjissatha (if it were cut off)
a-pad > apajjissatha (if it were produced / become)
'Vibbanam va hi Ananda daharass' eva sato vocchijjissatha

kumarassa va kumarikaya va, api nu kho nama-rupam vuddhim

virulhim vepullam apajjissathati ' 'No h' etam bhante'

(Or if the consciousness of such a tender

young being,boy or girl, were thus cut off,would mind-
and-body grow,develop and mature ) (D.II.p.63.L11-15,
) (daharassa sato
)

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER),LESSON 29, P.331

2. ( ) p.362

(Middle Conjugation)

70
(1) ()
()
(Active Conjugation)
/(Middle/Reflexive Conjugation)

(2)
gam > gacchaticar > carati
()
labh > labhateman > manyatejan > jayate

yuj
> yubjati (Act.) yubjate (Mid.)man > mabbati (Act.)
mabbate (Mid.)labh > labhati (Act.) labhate (Mid.)
( yaj > yajati
(Act.) yajate (Mid.)tyaj > tyajati (Act.) tyajate
(Mid.))

(3)

(Mid.,Med.)

(1) (Present Tense)

<gam> sg. pl.

3rd. gacch-a-te gacch-a-nte/-re
2nd. gacch-a-se gacch-a-vhe
1st. gacch-e gacch-a-mhe/-mhase/-amase

labh > labhate

man > mabbe
(devo mabbe ti)

(2) (Aorist Tense)

71
 sg. pl.
3rd. X-a(t)tha/-ittha X-are,-arum,-attham/-imsu,-(is)um
2nd. X-ase/-ise,-ittho X-avham/-ivham
1st. X-a X-amhase,-amase, -amahe,-amhasa
/-imhase,-imhe

sand > sandittha (it flowed)

bhas > abhasittha (he spoke)
man > mabbarum (they thought)
pucch > pucchittho (you asked)
kar > karomase (we did akaramhase)
bhu > bhavamahe (we had)
gam > agamimhase (we went)
(3) (Future Tense)

<kar> sg. pl.

3rd. kar-issa-te kar-issa-nte/-re
2nd. kar-issa-se kar-issa-vhe
1st. kar-issa-m kar-issa-mhe/-mhase/-amase

(-m)

da > dassate
kar > karissare
gam > gamissase
labh > lacchamase
sak > sikkhissamase (desid.)
(4) (Imperative Tense)

<labh> sg. pl.

3rd. labh-a-tam labh-a-ntam
2nd. labh-a-ssu labh-a-vho
1st. labh-e labh-a-mase

labh > labhatam (let him obtain !)

da > dadantam (let them give !)
bhas > bhasassu (speak ! 2sg.)
dha > samvidahassu () (2sg.)

72
(you should provide (guard) !)
mant > mantavho () (2pl.)
(take counsel (with me) !)
da > dade ()
car > caramase (let us behave !)

brahmacariyam Sugate caramase

(Suttanipata 32 )

(5) / (Optative Tense)

<kar> sg. pl.

3rd. kubb-etha/kayir-atha kubb-eram
2nd. Kubb-etho kubb-eyyavho
1st. kubb-e/kar-e,-eyyam kubb-eyyamhe (-amase)

jan > jayetha (he would be born)

gam > agametha (he might come)
chid > chijjeram (they would be cut)
vad > vademase (we would speak)

(6) (Conditional Tense)

sg. pl.
3rd. X-issa-tha X-issa-amsu
2nd. X-issa-se X-issa-vhe
1st. X-issa-m X-issa-mhase

labh > alabhissatha (if it were obtained)

vi-o-chid > vocchijjissatha (if it were cut off)
a-pad > apajjissatha (if it were produced/become)

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER),LESSON 28, P.314

2. ( )

73
 (p.352) (p.353-355)
(p.360) (p.361)
/ (p.361-362) (p.362)

(Infinitive, inf.)

() (i) -tum , -tave ,

(e) -tuye, -taye, -tase

-i- -e-
kar > katum () to do
tar > taritum () to cross
radh (7th) > aradhetum () to please

(1) (
Dative for purpose)
(2) -kama

(3)

-tum -tave -tuye -taye (tase)

i etum * etase
kar katum katave katuye
kattum
khad khaditum khaditaye
gan ganetum ganetuye
(b)ba batum
janitum janitaye

74
pucch pucchitum pucchitaye
putthum
bhu bhavitum
hu hotum * hetuye
bhuj bhubjitum
muc mubcitum
labh *laddhum
(s)su sotum sotave
sunitum

(1) (Agent)(Ins.)

kulaputtena upasamkamitum (to be approached

by a respectable person)
(2) (Agent)(Nom.)

na sakkoti asana pi vutthatum (he can't

even get up from his seat)

a- an- adatum (not to give)

(1)

A O2 V2 O1 V1
2 1
Main Verb

A V2 V1 (A V1 V2)

(1)V1/V2 (ger.)

75
 (2)V2 (Dative)
kar > katum = karaya < kara
atha (kho) agarani upakkamimsu katum tass' eva asaddhammassa

paticchadanattham =

(then they went into houses in order to do the purpose of concealment of just that evil)
(D.III.p.89.L14-15,)
(2) -kama A V-kama(V ) A

V (7-6 )
(54 )

(3) (idiomatic constructions)

//

arahati ()
icchati ()
labhati (,)
sakkoti (,)
pahoti (,)
sakka (,) ind.
labbha (,) ind.
bhabba (,) adj.
alam (,) ind.
kallam (,) ind.
kappati (,)
kappa (,) adj.
sukara (,) adj.
dukkara (,) adj.
okasam karoti ()
:

76
 (ought to) A V

evam arahati bhavitum = (it should be so)

arahati ... samanam dassanaya upasamkamitum =

(he ought ... to go and see the philosopher)

(wish to) A V

iccheyyama mayam ... sotum = ... (we would like to hear ...)

(capable of,possible to) A V /

V

naham sakkomi ... pabca vassani agametum =

(I can not ... wait for five years, agameti cau.)

evam pasanno 'ham bhante Bhagavati : pahoti me Bhagava

tatha dhammam desetum yathaham imam kavkha-dhammam pajaheyyan-ti

= (But
I have such faith in the Exalted One,lord. The Exalted One can teach me a teaching herein
so that I may abandon my doubt) (S.IV.p.350.L17-19)

sakka nu kho bhante evam evam ditth' eva dhamme sanditthi-kam samabba-
phalam pabbapetun ti = ()
(Is it possibleto define such a reward visible here and now as a fruit of the homeless
life ) (D.I.p.51.L18-20, )

(sakka
() is it possible )

deva yesam na sakka ... ayum samkhatum =

(gods whose age cannot be ... reckoned) ( sam-

khatum to be reckoned)

abhabbo khinsavo bhikkhu sampajana-musa bhasitum =

(/) (a monk whose corruptions

77
are destroyed is unable to tell a deliberate lie)
(D.III.p.133.L17-18,)

(to be permitted to) A V

na labhanti gamam ... pavisitum =

(they were not allowed to enter a village)

, , (be fit or proper to/must) A V

alam hi te gamani kavkhitum , alam vicikicchitum =

(//)
(It is proper for you to doubt and waver !) (S.IV.p.350.L15)
tassa evam hoti : Uppanno kho me appamattako abadho, atthi kappo nipajjitum,
handaham nipajjamti = (He
has developed someslight indisposition and he thinks : " I'd better have a

rest ...) (D.III.p.256.L13-15,)

,(be easy to) A V

tassa evam hoti : kammam kho me kattabbam bhavissati,

kammam kho pana me karontena na sukaram Buddhanam sasanam

manasikatum, handaham viriyam arabhami appattassa pattiya

anadhigatassa adhigamaya asacchikatassa sacchikiriyayti

=

(He thinks : I've got this job to do, but in

doing it, I won't find it easy to pay attention to the
teaching of the Buddhas. So I will stir up sufficient
energy to complete the uncompleted, to accomplish the
unaccomplished, to realise the unrealised.) (D.III.P.256.
L25-29,) (kammam me karontena
)

78


1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER)

(1) LESSON 19,P.134 'Infinitive'
(2) LESSON 24,P.231 'Bahubbihi' ()

2. ( ) p.375-376

(Auxiliary Verbs)

(to be, as,hu,bhu) (duration,

(t)tha vi-har ni-sid ...)
( pp.ppr.fpp.ger.)
(a single verbal ideal,
)
(aspect)(
...)

AV,V'

() ()

(pp.) as / hu / bhu
(ppr.)
(fpp.) (t)tha ()
(ger.) vatt ()
ni-sid ()
karin () ni-pad ()
anupassin () vi-har ()

79


(1) As (atthi,,to be)

As (pp.+ as)
be as ( asmi,amhi;amha,
amha;asi,attha
As

katapubbo 'si tvam Ananda = (Ananda,

you have done well) (D.II.p.144.L19,)

kilanto 'smi Ananda,nisidissamiti =

(Ananda, I am tired and want to sit down)
(D.II.p.128.L18-19,)

so 'mhi etarahi tamha dasavya mutto =

(now I am freed from that slavery) (D.I.p.72.
L28,)

micca patipanno tvam asi, aham asmi samma patipanno =

(you have proceeded wrongly,I have
proceeded rightly) (D.I.p.8.L12,)

jit' amha vata bho ambakaya,vabcit' amha vata bho ambakaya

=
(we've been beaten by the mango-woman,we've been cheated
by the mango-woman !) (D.II.p.96.L22-23,)

dura vat' amha agata Tathagatam dassanaya =

... (we have come from afar to see the
thus-gone ...) (D.II.p.139.L20-21,)

be

80
tam hi mayam bhavantam Gotamam dassanaya idh' upasam-

kanta ti = (we have come here

to see the Reverend Gotama) (D.I.p.89.L22-23,

)

evam pasanno aham samane Gotame =

... (I have such confidence in the ascetic
Gotama) (D.II.p.149.L6-7,)

satto ... itthattam agato samano agarasma anagariyam

pabbajati = () ...
(a being ... having come to this world,
he goes forth from the househood life into homelessness)
() (D.I.p.18.L25-26,)

agarasma anagariyam pabbajito samano atappam anvaya

padhanam anvaya ... samma-manasikaram anvaya tatha-rupam

ceto-samadhim phusati =
... ...
(having gone forth, he by means of effort, exertion, ...
and right attention attains to such a mental concentra-
tion that ...) (D.I.p.18.L26-29,)

santi,bhikkhave,eke samanabrahmana amara-vikkhepika,tattha

tattha pabham puttha samana =

... (there are,monks,
some recluses and Bramans who wriggle like eels, when hav-
ing been asked a question on this or that ...) (amara
vikkhepa
amara-vikkhepika
) (D.I.p.24.L26-27,)

()

seyyatha pi bhikkhave dakkho goghatako va goghatakantevasi

81
va gavim vadhitva catummahapathe bilaso pativibhajitva

nisinno assa =
(just
as though a skilled butcher or his apprentice had killed
a cow and would be seated at the crossroads with it cut up
into pieces) (M.I.p.58,L1-3,) (seyyatha pi
(Optative)assa)

seyyatha pi bhikkhave puriso odatena vatthena sasisam

parupitva nisinno assa, nassa kibci sabbavato kayassa

odatena vatthena apphutam assa =

...
(monks,just as a man might be sitted with his head
covered with a clean cloth, no part of his entire body
would be unpervaded with that clean cloth) (A.III.p.27.
L5-7)

n' amhi kena ci upasamkamitabbo = (I

am not to be approached (visited) by anyone)

(2) hu,bhu (hoti,bhavati ,to be)

As hu (bhu)
As hu
As hu hu
tena kho pana samayena ... pp.+ hoti
(historical present)
...(continuous tense)

()

tena kho pana samayena Kutadanto brahmano uparipasade

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divaseyyam upagato hoti =
(at that time Brahmin Kutadanta was having
his siesta at the upper garret of his house) (diva
-seyya -day-bed, divaseyyam upagata -
) (D.I.p.128.L10-11,)

tena kho pana samayena Jivako rabbo ... avidure tunhibhuto

nisinno hoti = (at that

time Jivika ... was sitting silently near the king)

(D.I.p.49.L8-9,)

tena kho pana samayena ... ayasma Upavano bhagavato purato

thito hoti = (at that

time ... Venerable Upavana was standing in front of the
fortunate one) (D.II.p.138.L25-26,)

tena kho pana samayena Payasi-rajabbassa evarupam papakam

ditthigatam uppannam hoti =

(at that time the royal caste Payasi had been
of (or,had had) the evil opinion) (rajabba
) (D.II.p.316.L13-14,)
A (Gen.) + B (Nom.) + u(d)-pad ()
A B A B

tena kho pana samayena Nigantho Nataputto Pavayam adhuna

kalakato hoti = (at that

time Nigantha Nataputta had just died at Pava) (

Nigantho Nataputto = Nata
(Maha-vira)) (D.III.p.117.L4-6,)

()

sovannamayassa kutgarassa dvare rupimayo talo thito ahosi

= (near the gate

of the gold chamber,there stood a silver palm tree)
(D.II.p.182.L11-12,)

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ye kho pan' Ananda puratthimaya disaya patirajano te rabbo

Maha-sudassanassa anuyutta ahesum =

(then, Ananda,all the
rival kings in the estern region had become subject onto
the Great King of Glory) (D.II.p.173.L12-13,)

ta kho pan' Ananda pokkharaniyo catunnam vannanam itthakahi

cita ahesum =
(and,Ananda,the lotus-ponds were built of four kinds of
bricks) (itthaka = itthaka ) (D.II.p.178.L25-27,
)

()

na dani tena ciram jivitabbam bhavissati =

(he hasn't long time to live now) (
)

maggo kho me gantabbo bhavissati = (the

road will have to be travelled by me // I shall have had

to travel along the road) ()

kammam kho me katabbam bhavissati = ( I

shall have had to do some work) ()

()

raja Magadho Ajatasattu Vedehi-putto tunhi-bhutam tunhi-

bhutam bhikkhu-samgham anuviloketva rahadam iva vippa-

sannam udanam udanesi : imina me upasamena Udayi-bhaddo

kumaro samannagato hotu, yen' etarahi upasamena bhikkhu-

samgho samannagato ti =

(the king Ajatasattu Vedehi-putta of Magadha, observed

how the order of monks continued in silence like a clear

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lake,and he exclaime : 'Would that my prince Udayibhadda
might be endowed with such calm as this order of monks
now is endowed with') (D.I.p.50.L22-27, )

puna ca param bhikkhave bhikkhu abhikkante patikkante sam-

pajanakari hoti =
(again,monks,a monk,when going
forward or back,is clearly aware of what he is doing)
(M.I.p.57.L5-6,)

(3) (t)tha (titthati,,to stand)

Atha kho Ananda Subhadda devi ... upasamkamitva Maha-vyuhassa

kutgarassa dvara-baham alambitva atthasi =

... (then,Ananda,
Queen Subhadda ... having approached, stood leaning against
the door-post of the great gabled chamber) (D.II.p.190.L1-6
,)

Atha kho ayasma Anando viharam pavisitva kapisisam alambitva

rodamano atthasi =

... (then the venerable Ananda went into his lodging and
stood lamenting, leaning on the door-post) (kapisisa
M.Walshe
) (D.II.p.143.L20-21,)

(4) vatt (vattati, , to move,go on)

ko ime dhamme anavasesam samadaya vattati, samano va Gotamo,

pare va pana bhonto gancariya ti =

(who completely con-

85
ducts himself conforming to these customs,the ascetic Gota-
ma, or the other venerable ones,the teachers of schools )
(D.I.p.163.L30-32,)

(5) ni-sid (nisidati, , to sit, to be seated)

tena kho pana samayena Jivako rabbo ... avidure tunhixhuto

nisinno hoti = (at that

time Jivika ... was sitting silently near the king) (D.I.p.49.L8-9,)
seyyatha pi bhikkhave puriso odatena vatthena sasisam

parupitva nisinno assa, nassa kibci sabbavato kayassa

odatena vatthena apphutam assa =

...
(monks,just as a man might be sitted with his head
covered with a clean cloth, no part of his entire body
would be unpervaded with that clean cloth) (A.III.p.
27.L5-7) (

(6) ni-pad (nipajjati,,to lie down)

seyyatha pi Vasettha ... puriso ... pariman taritu-kamo, so

orime tire sasisam parupitva nipajjeyya = ...

... (Vasettha,it is
just as ... a man should want to cross over (the river and
get) to the other bank, but he might lie down covering his
head on this bank) (D.I.p.246.L7-10,)

(7) vi-har (viharati,,to live,stay,abide)

(t)tha ()vatt ()ni-sid ()ni-pad ()

86
vi-har
(pure auxiliary)
vi-har
viharissativihareyyamviharitum

(ger.+ viharati)

so ... pathamajjhanam upasampajja viharati =

(he dwells having

entered into the first meditation // he remains in the
first meditation)

(pp.+ viharati)

iti evarupam addha-masikam pi pariyaya-bhatta-bhojannuyogam

anuyutto viharati =
(thus he lives practising the practice of
taking food according to rule, at regular intervals,up to even half a month) (D.I. p.166.L15-
16,)
(ppr.+ viharati)

api pana tumhe ayasmanto ekanta-sukham lokam janam passam

viharathti =
(but,my friends,do you live knowing,seeing
the world as extremely happy ) (D.I.p.192.L19-20,
)

... upasampajja viharissati = ... (he will live in ...)

evam pasanno aham bhante Bhagavati : pahoti me Bhagava

tatha dhammam desetum yatha aham subham vimokham upasam-

pajja vihareyyan ti =

(I have such faith in the Exalted One,lord. The

87
Exalted One can teach me a teaching herein so that I may
live entered into/in glorious freedom) (D.III.p.34. )

bhikkhu kaye kayanupassi viharati, atapi sampajano satima,

vineyya loke abhijhadomanassam =

(a bhikkhu
abides contemplating the body as body,ardent,fully aware
,and mindful, thus he would put away covetousness and
grief in the world) (M.I.p.56.L4-5,)
(kaye kayanupassi viharati

1. INTRODUCTION TO PALI (A.K.WARDER) LESSON 24, P.233-240

88