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B068 PDF
Atomic Structure
Models of Atoms
Thomsons Model (Plum Pudding Model)
He suggested that atom is a positively charged sphere having electrons embedded uniformly giving an
overall view of plum pudding.
Rutherfords Model
He allowed a narrow beam of light to fall on a thin gold foil and determined the path of particles with the
help of ZnS fluorescent screen.
The ZnS gives off a visible flash of light when struck by an -particles.
Observation of Rutherford
1. Most of the -particles pass straight through the gold strips with little or no deflection.
2. Some -particles are deflected from their path and diverge.
3. Few -particles are deflected backwards through angles greater than 90.
2 Indian National Chemistry Olympiad
Characteristics of Waves
A wave is a sort of disturbance which originates from some vibrating sources and travels outwards as a
continuous sequence of alternating crests and trough.
Every wave has five important characteristics, i.e.,wavelength ( ), frequency (), velocity (c ), wave number
( ) and amplitude (a).
1. Wavelength ( ) The distance between two neighbouring troughs and crests is known as
wavelength. It is expressed in cm, m , nm and .
2. Frequency () The frequency of a wave is the number of times a wave passes through a given
point in one second. It is denoted by . It is expressed in cycles per second (cps) or hertz. (Hz)
1Hz = 1 cps.
The frequency of a wave is inversely proportional to its wavelength ().
1
c
or =
3. Velocity The distance travelled by the wave in one second. It is denoted by c and is expressed
in cm/s.
c =
4. Wave number () It is defined as the number of wavelengths per cm. It is denoted by and is
expressed in cm 1 .
1
= , =
c
5. Amplitude (a) It is the height of the crest or depth of trough of a wave. It is denoted by a. It
determines the intensity or brightness of the beam of light.
Radiant Energy
It is the energy transmitted from one body to another in the form of radiation. Maxwell found that an
alternating current of high frequency radiates energy in the form of waves which travel in space with the
same speed as light. These waves were called as electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiations.
Radiant energy has wave nature and is associated with electric as well as magnetic field. These
radiations are called electromagnetic radiation.
Various forms of electromagnetic radiations are cosmic rays, -rays, X-rays, UV rays, visible rays,
infrared rays, microwaves, radar waves and radio waves such as TV, FM, AM rays.
Electromagnetic radiations arranged in the increasing order of wavelength or frequency, called
electromagnetic spectrum.
Thus, the spectrum of radiations means different radiations arranged according to their wavelength.
When a band of visible light is passed through a prism of glass, all the colours of white light get
separated into violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. It is known as spectrum and there is no
overlapping of colours.
hc
E = hv =
where, = Frequency, c = Velocity of radiations, = Wavelength, E = Energy of radiations
4 Indian National Chemistry Olympiad
Atomic Spectrum
Spectrum is the impression produced on a photographic film when the radiation(s) or particular
wavelength(s) is (are) analysed through a prism or diffraction grating.
Types of Spectrum
(i) Emission spectrum
Spectrum produced by radiation emitted is known as emission spectrum. This spectrum corresponds to
the radiation emitted when an excited electron returns back to the ground state.
= Wave number
= Wavelength
R = Rydberg constant (10967 z cm 1 )
n1 ; n2 have integral values
Series n1 n2 Main spectral lines
Lyman 1 2,3,4 UV
Balmer 2 3,4,5 Visible
Paschen 3 4,5,6 IR
Brackett 4 5,6,7 IR
Pfund 5 6,7,8 IR
Hydrogen Spectrum
According to Bohr, the spectrum arises when, the electron and nucleus from any excited stationary orbit
of principal quantum number n2 jumps to the ground state or any lower stationary orbit of principal
quantum number n1 , so that the difference of the energy associated with these orbits is emitted as a
photon of frequency ().
2 2mZ 2e 4 K 2 2 2mZ 2e 2K 2
Accordingly, h = E 2 E1 =
n22h 2 n12h 2
2 2mZ 2e 4 K 2 1 1
Hence, = 3 2 2 (Z = 1 for H atom)
h n1 n2
6 Indian National Chemistry Olympiad
1 2 2me 4 K 2 1 1 1 1 1
= 2 2 or = = RH 2 2
3
hc n1 n2 n1 n2
where, R H is called the Rydberg constant of the hydrogen atom.
2 p2mK 2e4
RH = = 1.097 107 m 1
h3C
Above equations is called Rydberg equation.
Different types of series lie in hydrogen spectrum and their wave numbers of photons are as follows :
de-Broglie Equation
The wavelength of the wave of a particle is calculated by analogy with photon.
Case I Photon having wave character energy,
E = h (according to Plancks quantum theory) (i)
Case II Photon having particle character energy,
E = mc 2 (ii)
By Einstein equation, here m is the mass of photon and c is the velocity of light.
By Eqs. (i) and (ii)
h = cm 2
If the m and c of photon are replaced by the m and n of particle then
h h
= =
m P
As m = P the momentum of the particle
4r 22
For 1s-orbital
Node
4r22 4r22
r r
For 2s-orbital For 2 p-orbital
Shape of Orbitals
s-orbital
2px 2py 2pz
z z z
x x x
y y y
p-orbital
dxy dxz
z z
x x
y
y
(a) (b)
dyz dx2 y2
z z
x y x
y
(c) (d)
d z2
z
y
x
(e)
d-orbital
Photoelectric Effect
Sir JJ Thomson, observed the photoelectric effect. When a light of certain frequency strikes the surface
of a metal, electrons are ejected from the metal, and the ejected electrons are called photoelectrons.
Only cesium shows this effect in visible light as it has low ionization energy but others show it under
more high UV rays.
(iii) Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of light of same frequency is more will
be the current if the intensity is greater.
Let, the threshold frequency = 0
If a photon of frequency 0 strikes the metal it give its energy to the electron = (h 0 )
By getting h0 energy electron can break away from the atom by overcoming the attraction force of
nucleus. But if the frequency < 0 then no effect will take place
The more of frequency than 0 gives more energy to the electron
Given a certain velocity (i.e., kinetic energy ) to the electron
h = h 0 + KE
1 1
h h 0 = m 2 m 2 = h ( 0 )
2 2
Now, h0 is the work function denoted by and it is constant for a particular metal.
The KE of photoelectron and frequency of induct light is linear i.e., a straight line whose slope is equal to
Planck's constant h and intercept is h 0 . Quantum n0 and atomic orbitals. There are 4 quantum
numbers which describe the location energy, orbital, its shape and orientation etc. of the electron.
Aufbau Principle
This principle states that the electrons are added in orbitals one by one in the various orbitals in order of
their increasing energy starting with the orbital of lowest energy.
(n + l ) Rule The energy of an orbital depends upon the sum of the values of the principal quantum
number (n) and the azimuthal quantum number (l ), this is called (n + l ) rule. According to this rule, In
neutral isolated atom the lower the value of (n + l ) for an orbital, lower is its energy.
(ii) Exchange energy The electrons with the parallel spins present in the degenerate orbitals tend
to exchange their position. The energy released during this exchange is called exchange energy. The
number of exchanges that can take place in maximum when the degenerate orbitals (orbitals of
same sub-shell having equal energy) are exactly half-filled or completely filled. As a result, the
exchange energy is maximum and so is the stability.
12 Indian National Chemistry Olympiad
1
17. K= = 9 109 Nm2 C2
4 0
18. Number of fine lines of a line in atomic spectrum of H = n1 n2
19. The possible number of given out = n = (n2 n1)
h h
20. = = , de-Broglie equation
mV p
h h
21. Heisenbergs uncertainty principle x p or
4 2
n (n 1)
22. Maximum number of lines =
2
1
23. Einstein photoelectric equation mv 2 = h h0
2
circumferences
24. 2 r = n number of waves in any orbit = = n
wavelength
Ze 2
25. PE =
rn
1 Ze 2 2 Ze 2
26. KE = mv =
2 rn r
27. = a (Z b) ; (Moseley) a,b are constants Z = atomic number
28. Para-magnetic momentum = n (n + 2)
29. Isorlirs Molecules having same number of atoms and same number of e for example N2O and CO2
(3 atoms and 22 e ).
30. Isodiaphers Same difference of neutrons and protons .
31. Isoelectronic Same number of e .
32. Diamagnetic Doubly occupied (no unpaired e ).
33. Paramagnetic Atoms which consist of at least one of the orbitals singly occupied.
34. Kernel Part remained after H e moving the outermost shell.
Core charge Number of e in outer most orbit.
35. Number of orbitals in any sub-shell = (2l + 1)
36. Maximum number of e in main energy shell = 2n 2
37. Number of sub-shells in main energy shell = n
38. Number of orbitals in a main energy shell = n 2
10.84 1023 27
(a) Number of atoms in third shell = atoms = 292.68 1021
100
10.84 1023 15
Number of atoms in second shell = = 162.6 1021 atoms
100
10.84 1023 58
Number of atoms in first shell = = 628.72 1021 atoms
100
(b) When all the atoms return to first shell, then
= 5.668 105 J
= 2.657 105 J
E = E + E = 5.668 105 + 2.657 105J = 832.50 kJ
Example 2. A hydrogen like atom (at. no. Z) is in a higher excited state of quantum number n. This excited
atom can make a transition to the first excited state by successively emitting 2 photons of energies
10.200 eV and 17.00 eV respectively. Alternatively, the atom from the same excited state can make a
transition to the second excited state by successively emitting 2 photons of energy 4.25 eV and 5.95 eV
respectively. Determine the value of n and Z.
Solution Total energy liberated during transition of electron from nth shell to first excited state
= 10.20 + 17 = 27.20 eV
= 27.20 1.602 1012 erg
= RH Z 2 h c 2 2
hc 1 1
(i)
2 n
Similarly, total energy liberated during transition of electron fromnth shell to second excited state
= 4.25 + 5.95 = 10.20 eV.
Dividing Eqs. (i) by (ii)
n=6
On substituting value of n in Eqs. (i) and (ii)
Z =3
Example 3. A gas identical H like atoms in the lowest (ground) energy level A and some atoms in a
particular upper (excited) energy level B and there are no atoms in any other energy level. The atoms of
the gas make to a higher energy level by absorbing monochromatic light of photon energy 2.7 eV.
Subsequently the atoms emit radiations of only six different photons energies. Some of the emitted
photons have energy 2.7 eV. Some have more and some have less than 2.7 eV.
(a) Find principal quantum number of initially excited level B.
(b) Find the ionization energy for the gas atoms.
(c) Find the maximum and minimum energies of the emitted photons.
Solution The electrons being present in first shell and another shell n1, There are excited to higher level
n2 by absorbing 2.7 eV and on deexcitation emits six lines and thus excited state n2 comes to be 4.
[b = n = (n2 1) n2 = 4]
Atomic Structure 15
Rn ch Rn ch
Now, E1 = ; En = ; En = Rn ch
12 1
n12
Since deexcitation leads to different having photon energy 2.7 eV and this absorption of 2.7 eV
energy causing excitation to fourth shell and then reemitting photons of 2.7 eV is possible only when
n1 = 2.
The deexcitation from 4th shell occurs in first, second and third shell.
E 4 E 2 = 2.7 eV
E 4 E3 > 2.7 eV
E 4 E1 > 2.7 eV
R ch E
En = En = n 2 = 12
1 2
2 2
Since n1 = 2
E1 E1
Also E 4 E 2 = 2.7 eV + = 27
. eV
42 22
E1 = 14.4 eV IP = 14.4 eV
E E 14.4
E max = E 4 E3 = 21 + 12 = + 14.4 = 13.5 eV
4 1 16
E E
E min = E 4 E3 = 12 + 31 = 0.7 eV
4 3
= RH 2 2 ; n = 2, 3, 4, ...
1 1 1
(b)
1 n
E = hcRH = 13.6 eV
(c) Lowest energy = 207 13.6 = 282 keV
0.53
Radius of the first Bohr orbit = = 2.6 10 3
207
(d) Probability = [ (a 0 )]2 4 a 02 0.001a 0 = 0.004e 2 = 5.41 104
(f) Channel (i) = 4.7 eV; channel (ii) = 17.6 eV
(g) Electron affinity = 13.6 ( 14.3) = 0.7 eV
2
13.6 + 27.2Zeff = 0.7; Zeff = 0.7
Example 6. The second ionization potential of Be is 17.98 eV. If the electron is Be+ is assumed to move in a
spherical orbit with a central field effective nuclear charge (Zeff ) consisting of the nucleus units of charge
is the nucleus sheilded by other electrons? The energy of electron in first Bohr orbit of H is 13.6 eV. If the
extent of shielding the K electrons of Li atom is the same as you have calculated above, find the ionization
potential of Li.
Atomic Structure 17
2
Solution IE = 13.62Z = 17.98 Zeff = 2.3
n
Shielding extent = Z Zeff = 4 2.3 = 1.7
Zeff for lithium = 3 1.7 = 1.3
13.6 (1.3)2
IE of lithium = = 5.746 eV
(2)2
Example 7. A mixture of atoms of ordinary hydrogen 11 H and tritium, 31 H excited and its spectrum is
observed. How far apart in wavelength will be the H2 lines of the 2 kinds of hydrogen ? Rydberg constant
for ordinary H2 atom is 1.096 >> .58 107 m 1, proton mass = 1.002276 u, mass of atomic 31 H = 3.016049 u,
electron mass = 0.000549 u.
R
Solution For hydrogen, 1 = R R1 12 12 = 36 1 1
2 3 5R R1 2
R
But 1 = 1 , the ratio of the reduced masses
R2 2
M1m M 2m
1 = and 2 =
M1 + m M2 + m
where, m = Electron mass
1 M1 M 2 + m
=
2 M 2 M1 + m
We know that M1 = 100 > 2 > 6 u, M 2 = 3.016049 u and n = 0.000549 u
1 36
= 0.999637 = 3.63 104
2 5R
107
where, R = 1.0967758
m
= 2.385