Chapter 2. Precipitation: BFC 32002 Hydrology

BFC 32002 Hydrology
Chapter 2. Precipitation
Zarina Md Ali
Based on BFC 32002 Hydrology Module
Email: zarinaali75@gmail.com
Phone Nu: 074564359 / 0197722315
Learning Objectives
At the end of the course, students should be able to:
Define precipitation, its forms and types.
Estimate point and areal precipitation amounts from gauge
data.
BFC32002_Ch2/ZARINA'S
2
Precipitation
a major component of the hydrologic cycle.
defined as any product of the condensation of atmospheric
water vapor (solid or liquid) that is deposited on the earths
surface, its form and quantity thus being influenced by the
action of other climatic factors such as wind, temperature
and atmospheric pressure 3
occur in many different forms when reaches the surface of
the earth including rain, storm, snow, hail, drizzle and sleet.
Formation of precipitation
4
Classification of precipitation
Type Description
Snow Complex ice crystals. A snowflake consists of
agglomerated ice crystals. The average water content of
snow is assumed to be about 10% of an equal volume of
water.
Hail Balls of ice that are about 5 to over 125 mm in diameter.
Their specific gravity is about 0.7 to 0.9. Thus, hailstones
have the potential for agricultural and other property
damage.
Sleet Results from the freezing of raindrops and is usually a

combination of snow and rain.
5
Classification of precipitation
Type Description
Rain Consists of liquid water drops of a size 0.5 mm - 7 mm in
diameter.
Drizzle Very small, numerous and uniformly dispersed water
drops that appear to float while following air currents.
Drizzle drops are considered to be less than 0.5
millimeter diameter. The settling velocity is slow, with
the intensity rarely exceeding 1 mm / hr. It is also known
as warm precipitation.
6
Cont. Precipitation
Precipitation is important because it helps maintain the
atmospheric balance.
Precipitation helps farmers grow crops and provides a

fresh water supply for us to drink. Without precipitation,
all of the land on the planet would be desert.
Precipitation can also be damaging. Too much rain and
snow can cause severe flooding and lots of traffic
accidents. Hail can damage crops and cars. Freezing rain
and sleet can destroy trees and power lines.
7
Precipitation types
Three major categories of precipitation are:
1. Convective
2. Orographic
8
3. Cyclonic/Frontal
Convective precipitation
typical of the tropics such as in South East Asia.
its maybe in the form of light showers or storms of 9
extremely high intensity (thunderstorms).
Orographic precipitation
10
very common on the West Coast of the United States
Cylonic precipitation
This precipitation
may be classified
as frontal or non-
frontal.
associated with the movement of air masses from high

pressure regions to low pressure regions.
These pressure differences are created by the unequal 11
heating of the earths surface.

Measurement of precipitation
Precipitation is measured as the vertical depth that would
accumulate on a flat level surface if all the precipitation
remained where it had fallen.
These data can be defined in terms of:
Depth (d), is the sum of rainfall
Intensity (i), or depth of rainfall per unit time,
Duration (t) is the duration of a storm is the time from
the beginning of rainfall to the point where the mass
curve becomes horizontal
Frequency, it is usually called as return period (T)
Area (A), is the area of rainfall geographic.
Point rainfall can be plotted as accumulated total rainfall or 12
as rainfall intensity at a particular gauge.
Example 2.1
From the precipitation data given, estimate cumulative rainfall
and rainfall intensity.
Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(min)
Rainfall 0 0.18 0.21 0.26 0.32 0.37 0.43 0.64 1.14 3.18
(cm)
Time 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
(min)
Rainfall 1.65 0.81 0.52 0.42 0.36 0.28 0.24 0.19 0.17
(cm)
13
Time (min) Rainfall Cumulatif rainfall Rainfall intensity Time interval, t =
(cm) (cm) (cm/hour)
10 min = 0.167 hr
0 0 0
Rainfall intensity =
10 0.18 0.18 1.08
0.18 cm / 0.167
20 0.21 0.39 1.26 hour = 1.08 cm/hr
30 0.26 0.65 1.56
40 0.32 0.97 1.92 Cumulative rainfall
50 0.37 1.34 2.22 is a plot of
60 0.43 1.77 2.58 cumulative rainfall
70 0.64 2.41 3.84 versus time (min)
while
80 1.14 3.55 6.84
90 3.18 6.73 19.08 Rainfall intensity
100 1.65 8.38 9.90
(cm/hr) data are
110 0.81 9.19 4.86
typically reported
in either tabular
120 0.52 9.71 3.12
form or graphical
130 0.42 10.13 2.52 form (hyetograph).
140 0.36 10.49 2.16
150 0.28 10.77 1.68
160 0.24 11.01 1.44 14
170 0.19 11.2 1.14
180 0.17 11.37 1.02
Rain gauge
Rain gauge is an instrument used to measure how much
rain has fall.
There are several different types of rain gauges that are
grouped by how they operate:
non recording rain gauge
recording rain gauge,

15
Non recording rain gauge
the standard rain gauge is a standard
8-inch-dia rain gauge (203 mm)
8
2.53
A smaller metal tube may be located

in this larger overflow can. 24
20
An 8-inch-diameter receiver cap may 8
be on top of the overflow can and is

used to funnel the rain into the
Support (wood) Overflow can Measuring Receiver
tube
smaller tube until it overflows.
Measuring stick
050 (to road directly in .01 of an inch of precipitation)
The receiver cap has a knife edge to

040
030
Non-recording
catch rain falling precisely in the 020
gauge, 8-inch-
surface area of an 8-inch-diameter
010 One - tenth inch
One - hundredth inch division

dia opening
opening.
Measurements are made using a special measuring stick with
graduations devised to account for the 8-inch receiver cap opening,
funneling water into the smaller tube. 16
When the volume of the smaller tube is exceeded, the volume from
the smaller tube is dumped into the larger overflow can.
Recording rain gauge
Non recording gauge which requires an observer to
manually measure the rain at regular intervals (i.e. every
24 hours).
While, recording gauges does not require constant
observation.
There are at least three types of gauges commonly in use
to record depth:
Weighing gauge
Tipping bucket
Float type
17
Weighing gauge
Consists of a storage bin, which is
weighed to record the mass.
Certain models measure the mass
using a pen on a rotating drum, or by
using a vibrating wire attached to a
data logger.
The advantages: it does not underestimate intense rain, & it
can measure other forms of precipitation.
These gauges are more expensive and require more
maintenance than tipping bucket gauges.
This gauge also contains a device to measure the quantity of
chemicals contained in the locations atmosphere.
This is extremely helpful for scientists studying the effects of
greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere and their 18
effects on the levels of the acid rain.
Tipping Bucket
Consists of a large copper cylinder set into the
ground & a funnel (at cylinder top) that collects
and channels the precipitation.
The precipitation falls onto one of two small
buckets or levers which are balanced in same
manner as a scale.
After an amount of precipitation equal to 0.2 mm
(0.007 in) falls the lever tips and an electrical
signal is sent to the recorder.
The recorder consists of a pen mounted on an arm
attached to a geared wheel that moves once with
each signal sent from the collector.
When the wheel turns the pen arm moves either
up or down leaving a trace on the graph and at 19
the same time making a loud click.
Tipping Bucket
The chart is measured in 10 minute
periods (vertical lines) and 0.4 mm
(0.015 in) (horizontal lines) and rotates
once every 24 hours and is powered by a
clockwork motor that must be manually
wound.
This gauge is not as accurate as the
standard rain gauge because the rainfall
may stop before the lever has tipped.
When the next period of rain begins it may take no more
than one or two drops to tip the lever.
This would then indicate that 0.2 mm (0.007 in) has fallen
when in fact only a minute amount has.
20
The advantage: the character of the rain (light, medium or
heavy) may be easily obtained.
Float type
In this type of instrument, the rain
passes into a float chamber containing
a light float.
As the level of the water within the
chamber rises, the vertical movement
of the float is transmitted, by a
suitable mechanism, to the movement
of a pen on a chart or a digital
transducer.
By suitably adjusting the dimensions
of the collector orifice, the float, and
the float chamber, any desired chart
scale can be used.
21
Location for rain gauge
Buildings, landscaping and trees, and even the wind can
affect the amount of precipitation arriving at the rain
gauge.
Proper placement is critical to ensure that rain sensor
readings are an accurate representation of the actual
rainfall.
The ideal site for a rain gage is in an open area that is
protected from the wind in all directions.
A good guideline is to allocate the rain gauge at a minimum
distance of twice the height of building/tree away.
22
Missing data
Precipitation measuring stations sometimes fail in providing
a continuous record of precipitation.
Instruments do malfunction and back-up systems may not
always provide accurate data.
A tipping bucket may not function for a short period of
time and the back-up volume gage may not provide time
related data.
For a non automatic recording gage, an individual may fail
to record the data and miss a visit to the site.
Thus, there are generally missing data, the values of which
must be estimated.
The procedure for estimating daily totals relies on the data
from adjacent stations. The locations of the adjacent
23
stations are such that they are close to and approximately
evenly spaced around the site with the missing data.
Missing Data: Point precipitation
Precipitation events are recorded by gauges at specific
locations.
Precipitation measured at a rain gauge is called point
rainfall.
Methods:
Arithmatic Mean Method
Normal Ratio Method
Quadrant Method
24
Arithmetic Mean Method
25
Example 2.2
Rain gauge X was out of operation for a month during which there
was a storm. The rainfall amounts at 3 adjacent stations A, B, and C
were 37, 42, and 49 mm, respectively. The average annual
precipitation amounts for the gauges are X = 694, A = 726, B = 752
and C = 760 mm. Using the arithmatic method, estimate the amount
of rainfall for gauge X.
Stations Amounts of Normal annual
precipitation (mm) precipitation (mm)
A 37 726
B 42 752
Solution: C 49 760
X ? 694
26
Normal Ratio Method
27
Example 2.3
The average annual precipitation amounts for the gauges A, B, C and D
are 1120, 935, 1200 and 978 mm. In year 1975, station D was out of
operation, while stations A, B and C recorded rainfall amounts of 107,
89 and 122 mm, respectively. Estimate the amount of precipitation for
station D in year 1975.
Station Normal annual Amounts of
precipitation precipitation year
1975
A 1120 107
B 935 89
Solution: C 1200 122
D 978 X
28
PX = 95.3 mm
Quadrant Method
This is station weighting technique.
A grid of point estimates is made based on a distance
weighting scheme.
Each observed point value is given a unique weight for
each grid point based on the distance from the grid
point in question.
The grid point precipitation value is calculated based on
the sum of the individual station weight multiplied by
observed station value.
Once the grid points have all been estimated they are
summed and the sum is divided by the number of grid
points to obtain the areal average precipitation.
29
Quadrant Method
30
Example 2.4
Stations A, B, C, D, E, F and G are the gauge stations. Rain
gauge at station A was out of operation. Precipitation
amounts for other stations were 40, 45, 37.5, 50, 47.5 and
42.5 mm. Calculate the rainfall depth at station A with
coordinates (0,0) using the quadrant method.
31
Solution:
Quadrant Station Precipitation, Coordinate Li 2 1 Wi WiPi
p Li 2
X Y
(mm)
B 40.0 4 2 20 - - -
I
G 42.5 2 1 5 0.200 0.601 25.5
II F 47.5 -5 2 29 0.034 0.102 4.85
D 37.5 -3 -2 13 0.077 0.231 8.66
III
E 50.0 -3 -3 18 - - -
IV C 45.0 1 -6 37 0.027 0.081 3.65
Total 0.333 Total 42.66
From above table precipitation at station A is 42.66 mm
32
Gage Consistency
When the catch at rain gauges is inconsistent over a
period of time and adjustment of the measured data is
necessary to provide a consistent record.
Double Mass Curve analysis is a technique commonly
employed to detect changes in data-collection
procedures or conditions at a given location.
The changes may result from changes in instrumentation,
changes in observation procedures or changes in gauge
location or surrounding conditions.
A double mass curve is a plot of the accumulation of the
observed element over time for one location (test
station) versus the accumulation over time for a
reference location (base station). 33
Gage Consistency
The mass curve is approximately a straight line if the
variations at both test and base stations are quite
consistent.
Any break point in the curve suggests a possible change
at the test station in relation to the base station.
If a change in slope is evident, then the record needs to
be adjusted, with either the early or later period of
record adjusted.
34
Procedure of Double Mass Curve
1. Add the annual precipitation of base stations.
2. Cummulate the sums of Step 1.
3. Cummulate the annual precipitation for station X.
4. Plot graph accumulated annual precipitation Station X
versus accumulated precipitation of Base stations and
compute the slope Mo and Ma.
5. Adjust the measured precipitation of gauge X using the
general equation:
35
Mo
Pox
Accumulated total precipitation at Station X
Pax Ma
ple
Accumulated precipitation of base stations

Example 2.5
Measured annual precipitation gauge for five stations (A, B,
C, D and E) from 1926 until 1942 are given below. After 5
years, gauge A was relocated at a new location due to
changes in land use that make it impractical to maintain the
gauge at the old location. You are required to adjust the
record for the period from 1926 to 1930 using the records
at gauges B, C, D and E.
37
Solution:
Year Annual precipitation (mm) Total Cummulative
precipitation
(mm)
A B C D E B+C+D+E A B+C+D+E
1926 32.9 39.8 45.7 30.7 37.4 153.6 33 154
1927 28.1 39.6 38.5 41.0 30.9 150 61 304
1928 33.5 42.0 48.3 40.4 42.0 172.7 95 476
1929 29.6 41.4 34.6 32.5 39.9 148.4 124 625
1930 23.8 31.6 45.1 36.7 36.3 149.7 148 774
1931 58.4 56.5 53.3 62.4 36.6 208.8 206 983
1932 46.3 48.1 40.1 47.9 38.6 174.7 253 1158
1933 30.8 39.9 29.6 32.7 26.9 129.1 283 1287
1934 46.8 45.4 41.7 36.1 32.4 155.6 330 1443
1935 38.1 44.9 48.1 30.7 41.6 165.3 368 1608
1936 40.8 32.6 39.5 35.4 31.3 138.8 411 1747
1937 37.9 45.9 44.1 39.2 44.1 173.3 449 1920
1938 50.7 46.1 38.9 43.3 50.6 178.9 499 2099
1939 46.9 49.8 41.6 49.9 41.1 182.4 546 2281
1940 50.5 47.3 49.7 47.9 39.0 183.9 597 2465 38
1941 34.4 37.1 31.9 32.2 34.5 135.7 631 2601
1942 47.6 45.9 38.2 52.4 47.3 183.8 679 2785
39
Mean Areal Precipitation
The representative precipitation over a defined area
is required in engineering application, whereas the
gaged observation pertains to the point precipitation.
The areal precipitation is computed from the record
of a group of rain gages within the area by the
following methods:
Arithmatic - mean Method
Thiessen Polygon Method
Isohyetal Method
40
Arithmatic - mean Method
The arithmetic average method uses only those gaging
stations within the topographic basin and is calculated
using:
where;
P = average precipitation depth (mm)
Pi = precipitation depth at gage (i) within the topographic
basin (mm)
n = total number of gaging stations within the 41
topographic basin
Example 2.6
Calculate average precipitation
Station Depth of rainfall (mm)
A 1.46
B 1.92
C 2.69
D 4.50
E 2.98
F 5.00
Total 18.55
Average precipitation = 18.55 /6 = 3.09 mm

42
This technique is quick to apply for multiple storms
because it uses fixed sub-areas.
It is based on the hypothesis that, for every point in the
area, the best estimate of rainfall is the measurement
physically closest to that point.
This concept is implemented by drawing perpendicular
bisectors to straight lines connecting each two rain-
gages.
This procedure is not suitable for mountainous areas
because of orographic influences.
43
Thiessen Polygon Method 44
The procedure involves:
1. Connecting each precipitation station with straight lines;
2. Constructing perpendicular bisectors of the connecting
lines and forming polygons with these bisectors;
3. The area of the polygon is determined.
45
Example 2.7
Using data given below, estimate the average precipitation
using Thiessen method.
Station Area (km2) Precipitation Area x precipitation
(mm) (km2.mm)
A 72 90 6480
B 34 110 3740
C 76 105 7980
D 40 150 6000
E 76 160 12160
F 92 140 12880
G 46 130 5980
H 40 135 5400
I 86 95 8170
J 6 70 420
Total 568 1185 69210
Calculated
46
Isohyetal Method
based on interpolation between gauges and closely
resembles the calculation of contours in surveying and
mapping.
The isohyetal method is the most accurate approach for
determining average precipitation over an area.
Procedure:
1. plot the rain gauge locations on a suitable map & record
the rainfall amounts.
2. interpolation between gauges is performed and rainfall
amounts at selected increments are plotted.
3. Identical depths from each interpolation & then connected
to form isohyets (lines of equal rainall depth).
4. The areal average is the weighted average of depths
between isohyets, that is, the mean value between the
47
isohyets.
Isohyetal Method
48
Example 2.8
Use the isohyetal method to determine the average
precipitation depth within the basin for the storm.
Isohyetal Average Area Area x

interval precipitation (km 2) Average
(mm) (mm) precipitation
(km2.mm)
<10.0 10 0 0
10 - 20 15 84 1260
20 30 25 75 1875
30 - 40 35 68 2380
40 - 50 45 60 2700
50 - 60 55 55 3025
60 - 70 65 86 5590
Total 428 16830
49
Summary
Precipitation input is the main driver of the hydrologic
cycle, as it relates to river flow, water supply and urban
drainage.
Too much or too little can mean the difference between
prosperity and disaster.
In between these extremes are the normal precipitation
event that are experienced with a frequency and
intensity related mainly to geographic position and
topographic features.
At the end of this chapter you should be able to estimate
point and areal precipitation amounts from gauge data
and conceptualize simple hydrologic process models.
50
THANK YOU
51

Chapter 2. Precipitation: BFC 32002 Hydrology

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Chapter 2. Precipitation: BFC 32002 Hydrology

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BFC 32002 Hydrology

Hail Balls of ice that are about 5 to over 125 mm in diameter.

Sleet Results from the freezing of raindrops and is usually a

Drizzle Very small, numerous and uniformly dispersed water

Precipitation helps farmers grow crops and provides a

associated with the movement of air masses from high

heating of the earths surface.

A smaller metal tube may be located

An 8-inch-diameter receiver cap may 8

be on top of the overflow can and is

The receiver cap has a knife edge to

One - hundredth inch division

From above table precipitation at station A is 42.66 mm

Accumulated precipitation of base stations

Average precipitation = 18.55 /6 = 3.09 mm

Isohyetal Average Area Area x

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