Chapter7:ReflectionSeismologyHomeworkSolutions(Jan.

2010)
1. Whydomarineseismicreflectionsurveysnotrecord(a)Swaves?(b)refractedrays?

a) Foridealfluid,=0,thus, vs2 = = 0

b) Reflectionoffsetsbydefinitionareatoffsetlessthanthecriticalrefractiondistance

2. Howdoesamigratedreflectionseismicsectiondifferfromanunmigratedone?In
whatcircumstanceswouldtheybethesame?

Migrationisthespatialrepositioning(migration)ofseismicarrivalsfromtheinitial
assumptionthatthearrivalscomefromflatandcontinuouslayers.Migrationsdothree
primarythings:a)steepensdippinglayers,b)collapsesdiffractions,c)movesreflectorsto
deeperlevels.

Theywouldbethesameifthelayers(interfaces)areflatandcontinuous.

3. Howcanaprimaryreflectionbedistinguishedfromamultipleone?

Multiplereflectionshavegreatertemporalmoveoutcomparedtoprimaryreflections.Thus,
multiplesstackwithalowervelocity.

4. Willamigratedsectioncorrectforsideswipe?

Sideswipeisdueto3dimensionaleffectsthatcontaminatea2Dmigration.Theonlyway
toaccountforsideswipeistodoafully3Dmigration.

5. Isthedipofareflectorinanunmigratedseismicsectionmoreorlessthanitsactual
dip?Explainwiththeaidofasketch.

Unmigratedapparentdipsarelessthanthetruemigrateddips.Thisisbecausethedeeper
reflectionmigrationarcshavearadiusofcurvaturethatislargerthantheshallower
migrationarcsandconsequentlyhavealargerdepthcorrection.

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 6. WhatisthemainwayinwhichtheVibroseissystemdiffersfromotherdata
acquisitionsystems?Nametwoadvantagesthatithasoverothermethodsofland
surveying.

Thesourceisafrequencysweep(chirp).
Advantages:
(a) Allowsbettermatchingofrecordeddatabecausetheentirepulsecanbecorrelated.
(b) Requiredenergyislowerwhichisbeneficialfornoninvasivesurveys.
(c) Truckscanbemovedinandoutwithoutdrilling.

v 1v1
Whatarethemainpurposesofstacking?
7.areflected
R= = 2 2

aincident 2 v2 + 1v1
Stackingistheseismicequivalentofaveragingnumberstoimproveonesestimateofthe
quantity.Stackingconstructivelyaddstogetherthesignal,whiletherandomnoisetendsto
cancel,therebyincreasingthesignaltonoiseratio.

8. Howcanareflectioncoefficientbenegative?Howcanitberecognized?

Thesignofthereflectioncoefficientdependsontheseismicimpedencedifferencebetween
thelowerlayer(assumingdowngoingwave)andtheupperlayer.

areflected 2v2 1v1

R= =
aincident 2v2 + 1v1

Thus,if Z 2 = 2 v2 > Z1 = 1v1 ,thenR>0.If Z 2 = 2 v2 < Z1 = 1v1 ,thenR<0.Thewaythata

negativereflectioncoefficientismanifestedinaseismogram,isthatthewaveisinverted.

9. Howmanysynclinesandanticlinesappearinanunmigratedseismicsection?

Itdependsontheindividualseismicsection!Wouldhavetostudyasectiontoidentify
them.Anticlinesappearspatiallybroaderonanunmigratedsection.Thesignatureofa
synclinedependsonitsdepthrelativetoitscurvature.Ifitisshallowerthantheradiusof
curvature,ittendstobenarrowerontheunmigratedsection.Ifthereflectorisdeeperthan
theradiusofcurvature,itproducesthebowtieontheunmigratedsection.

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 10. Asuccessionconsistsofalternatingsandstonesandshales,withthetoplayerbeing
sandstone.Calculatehowtheamplitudediminishesforreflectionsfromeachofthe
topfourinterfaces(ignorespreadingofthewavefrontandabsorption),ifthe
densitiesandvelocitiesareasfollows:sandstone=2Mg/m3,v=2.6km/s;shale=2.3
Mg/m3,v=2.8km/s.

2 v2 1v1 2 1v1
R= T=
2 v2 + 1v1 2 v2 + 1v1

2 v2 1v1 2 1v1
R= T=
2 v2 + 1v1 2 v2 + 1v1
R and T for ss 'over' sh
sh vsh ss vss ( 2.3)( 2.8 ) ( 2.0 )( 2.6 )
Rss , sh = = = 0.106
sh vsh + ss vss ( 2.3)( 2.8 ) + ( 2.0 )( 2.6 )

Tss , sh =
2 ss vss
=
( 2 )( 2.0 )( 2.6 ) = 0.893
sh vsh + ss vss ( 2.3)( 2.8 ) + ( 2.0 )( 2.6 )
R and T for sh 'over' ss
ss vss sh vsh ( 2.0 )( 2.6 ) ( 2.3)( 2.8 )
Rsh , ss = = = 0.106
sh vsh + ss vss ( 2.3)( 2.8 ) + ( 2.0 )( 2.6 )

Tsh , ss =
2 ss vss
=
( 2 )( 2.3)( 2.8 ) = 1.106
sh vsh + ss vss ( 2.3)( 2.8 ) + ( 2.0 )( 2.6 )
Reflection coefficients (effective)
R1 = Rss = 0.106
R2 = (Tss , sh )( Rsh , ss ) (Tsh , ss ) = ( 0.893)( 0.106 )(1.106 ) = 0.105
R3 = (Tss , sh )(Tsh , ss )( Rss , sh )(Tss , sh )(Tsh , ss )
= ( 0.893 )(1.106 )( 0.106 )( 0.893)(1.106 ) = 0.103
R4 = (Tss , sh )(Tsh , ss )(Tss , sh )( Rsh , ss )(Tsh , ss )(Tss ,sh )(Tsh , ss )
= ( 0.893 )(1.106 )( 0.893 )( 0.106 )(1.106 )( 0.893)(1.106 ) = 0.102

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 11. Seismicsectionsarenotalwayswhattheyappear.Explainhowanapparentreflector
may(a)haveanincorrectslope,(b)mayhaveanincorrectcurvature,or(c)maynot
existatall,while(d)threehorizontalreflectorsspacedequallyoneabovetheother
maynotbeequqllyspaced,inreality?

(a) Unmigratedsectionshavelesserdips.
(b) Synclines(concaveup)andanticlines(concavedown)willhavetheircurvatures
modifiedinunmigratedsections.
(c) Multiplereflectionscanproduceanapparentreflector
2(thickness )
(d) ThescaleonaseismicsectionisTWT,notdistance. TWT = ,hence,
velocity
variationsinthecombinationofthicknessandvelocitycanmakeitappearthattheyare
equallyspaced,wheninreality,theyareonlyequallyspacedinTWT.


12. Whatdeterminesverticalresolution?Whydoeslessthantherequiredresolution
sometimeshavetobeaccepted?

Forallwaves(elastic,electromagnetic,etc),thespatialresolutionincreaseswithhigher
v
frequenciesthathavesmallerwavelengths( = ).Atypicalreflectionsurveyhasa
f
frequencyof40Hzandavelocityof5km/s,hencethewavelengthof125meters,anda
quarterwavelengthofapproximately31.2meters.
Becausehigherfrequencieshavemoreattenuation(dissipatedenergy),theydonttravelas
farindepth.Thus,ifwewanttolookfordeepreflectors,wemustsettleforlookingforlarge
layersaswell.

13. Explainwhyareflectoronaseismicsectionneednotcorrespondtoaparticular
interface.

Whenlayersarethinnerthanaquarterwavelength,thereflectionsandtransmittedwaves
caninterferecausingwavesthatdontnecessarilycorrespondwitharealreflector.

14. Whyisaverystronghorizontalreflectionusuallyindicativeofagaswaterinterface?
Whymayagaswaterinterfacenotalwaysappearasahorizontalreflector?

Becausetheacousticimpedanceofagasliquidisverydifferentthanthesurroundingrock,
itcanproduceabrightspotonasection.Sincegasliquidisgenerallylessdensethanthe
surroundingrock,itwilltendtomoveupwarduntilitreachesanimpermeableboundary,
whichisoftenhorizontal.

However,trapscanexistthatarenothorizontal,thereforetheinterfacemaynotalwaysbe
horizontal

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15. Astrongreflectorthatliesbelowseverallayerswithdifferentseismicvelocitieshas
thesameTWTasthebaseofasinglelayerelsewhere.Whatdothetotalthicknesses
abovethetworeflectorshaveincommon?

ThetotalthicknessesabovethereflectorwouldhavetohavethesameRMSvelocitytohave
thesameTWTtothereflector.

16. Explainwhyaseismicinterfacemaynotbealithologicalboundary,andviceversa.
Giveanexampleofeach.

Aseismicinterfacemaybeanartifactfromreflectiveinterferenceofseverallayers.An
exampleisalternatinglayersofsandstoneandshale,whichcanproducespuriousreflectors.

Alithologicboundarymaynotproduceaseismicreflectorbecausethecombinationof
densityandvelocity(impedance)maynotbesuchastoproduceasignificantreflectoreven
thoughtheyaredistinctlydifferent.Anexampleisgiveninsection7.8.1withtheexample
ofsandstoneandlimestone.

17. Inwhatwaysdoesshallowseismiclandsurveyingdifferfromdeepsurveying?

Shallowlandsurveysrequirehigherresolution,hencehighfrequencysourcesandreceivers
thatcandetectthehigherfrequencies.,typicallyuptoaround400Hz.

18. Athin,horizontallayerofshale(vp=2.8km/sec)lieswithinsandstone(vp=2.5
km/sec).WhatistheminimumthicknessofshalethatcanberesolvedinaVibroseis
survey?(Useanaveragefrequency.)

Useanaveragefrequencyof50Hz.

v 2.8 103
= = = 56 meters
f 50

56
Resolution = = = 14 meters
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19. Explainhow(a)aninterfacemayshowupbyseismicreflection,butnotbyseismic
refraction,and(b)viceversa?

a) 1:Sourcereceiverdistancelessthanthecriticaldistance..2:Athinhiddenlayerwill
possiblybevisibleonreflection,butnotonrefraction.3:Alowvelocitylayerispresent
thereforenocriticalangle,hencenorefractedwave.
b) Agradualinterfacecanbeseenwithrefraction,butnotwithreflection