ECE 421

Lab Experiment No. 1: Resistivity of Semiconductors

Group Number:​ 6

Group Member Names:​ Rebecca Chis, Josiah Corwin, Andrey Berezhinskiy,

Anmoldeep Hundal, Tom Andersen, and Mark Roper

Area ABET Outcomes Score

Appropriate Format, 3.a /50
Grammar, and Convention
Collaboration 5.b, 5.c /25
Attendance and Usage of 6.b /25
Equipments
Total /100
Abstract:

The measurement of electrical properties is a crucial industry practice, as it impacts the

performance of a silicon wafer. In this lab, the resistivity of three different silicon wafers
are measured using a four-point probe. The probe has four equally spaced tips that
function as voltage meter and ammeter, using the two inner probes and two outer probes,
respectively. Once the voltage and current are known, the bulk resistivity can be
calculated to obtain the impedance characteristic of the sampled silicon wafer.

Collaboration:

Name Contribution

Rebecca Chis Conclusion and References

Josiah Corwin Editing and Formatting

Andrey Berezhinskiy Abstract, Results and Discussion

Anmoldeep Hundal Introduction

Tom Andersen Results and Discussion

Mark Roper Procedure and Introduction

Introduction:

In the experiment “Resistivity of Semiconductors” (Sehkar), the bulk resistivity of

three different silicon wafers will be calculated by measuring the voltage at a specified
current. The current will range from 40 μA to 9000 μA. For the first and third silicon
wafer, the current will range from 100 μA to 9000 μA, and the second wafer will have
current applied from 40 μA to 60 μA. The three four-inch wafers differ by type and the
thickness of the surface oxide layer on top of the silicon. The first silicon wafer has no
oxide layer, the second also doesn’t have an oxide layer but has varied resistivity, and the
third has a 500 nm layer of surface oxide. Silicon wafers are made of semiconductor
material used to produce electronic components, including solar cells. These wafers are
produced using silicon that is doped with impurities that decrease its resistivity and
determines the direction that current can flow, causing and N-type or P-type material. If
an N-type semiconductor material is desired, arsenic or phosphorus is added. If a P-type
material is needed, it is doped with boron or gallium. The more the silicon is doped, the
more the wafer conducts. The difference between N and P type material is the way it
conducts, in either a negative or positive direction. Silicon inherently has four valence
electrons. Semiconductors of N-type are made by adding atoms of Group V elements
from periodic table. Semiconductors of P-type are made by adding atoms of Group III

1
elements from periodic table. Group V elements have five valence electrons, which
cause them to donate one of their electrons to start the process of conduction. On the
other hand, Group III elements have 3 valence electrons, so a ‘hole’ is created that
accepts electrons and initiates the electron flow. The classification of a wafer not only
depends on the type, but also on its resistivity and its behaviors at different temperatures.
A wafer can be classified as a conductor, insulator, or a semiconductor. Higher resistivity
will result in an insulator, lower resistivity will result in conductor, and in the mid-range,
the wafer will be a semiconductor. This classification can be determined using equipment
that can measure the resistivity of the material by applying current between two points
and measuring the resultant voltage. Using Ohm’s law, the resistive characteristics of the
material can then be determined.
To see the effect of impurities on resistivity of a semiconductor, two methods can
be used to measure the opposition to the current flow of the material. The most common
methods are two-point probe method and a four-point probe method. In this lab,
equipment was used that employed a four point method of resistance
measurement.Four-point probe measuring system has four probes that are spring loaded,
equally spaced, and need to be electrically insulated. In the four-point probe system, the
wafer is placed as shown in Figure 1. Then, “the current is passed through the two outer
electrodes, and the floating potential is measured across the inner pair”(NISER). Some
assumption made are that “resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of
measurement”(NISER), “surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface
leakage”(NISER), and “four probes used for resistivity measurements are equally spaced
and collinear”(NISER).

Figure 1: “Four-Point Probe” (Tupta)

2
Materials and Equipment:
JANDEL four-point probe system
3 ea. Silicon Wafers

Procedure:
This lab was performed in four sections, based on the instructions outlined in the lab
manual “Laboratory 1 – Resistivity of silicon Semiconductors” (Sehkar).
Section 1: Check Silicon Wafers
Section one involved checking the three silicon wafers for cleanliness. Each wafer was
inspected, and any dust particles were blown off. Also, the doping properties of each
wafer was noted along with the crystal orientation. The four-point probe system was then
powered on as follows.
Section 2: Power on Four-point Probe System
First the resistivity test unit (RTU) was connected to the main power supply and to the
multi-position wafer probe station. The RTU was then switched on and the
digital-voltmeter (DVM) was turned to the 200mV position. The output control switch
was then placed in the SBY (STANDBY) position and a ‘0.0’ mV indication was verified
on the unit.
Section 3: Resistivity Measurement (FWD)
The micro-amp thumb switch was then set to zero and the four probes were
lowered onto the silicon sample. 100μA was set on the micro-amp thumb switch and the
control switch was set to FWD. Readings on the DVM were recorded in Table 1. Note:
if the readings were too small (below 1mV), then the current was increased by multiples
of 10 using the X10 switch, and the readings were repeated. Also, if the compliance volt
(COMP VOLT) warning light came on, the voltage control was turned higher, in an
attempt to drive the current through the wafer. If the light stayed on after reaching the
50V position, it was considered that the measurement was out-of-range and this
indication was recorded in the table. This procedure was then repeated for each of the
remaining wafers.
Section 4: Resistivity Measurement Verification (REV)
The control switch was placed in the REV position in order to reverse the current
supplied to the sample. The same readings were observed and recorded as in the FWD
position and recorded in Table 2. This procedure was then repeated for each of the
remaining wafers.

3
Results and Discussion:

Table 1: Resistivity measurement with FWD current.

Current, Wafer 1, Current, Wafer 2, Current, Wafer 3,
I(µA) V(mV) I(µA) V(mV) I(µA) V(mV)

100 0.02 40 1.83 100 red

1000 0.16 60 2.16 1000 red

9000 0.21 80 2.45 9000 red

In the forward current set up, only two of the three wafers gave viable results. The first
wafer shows that a very low voltage was required to drive a high current through the
silicon wafer. It should be noted however, that the second wafer, required less current to
obtain a voltage reading. Lastly, the third wafer had the red light come on for every
current level, indicating that the measurement was out of range. This was an indication
that the resistivity was too high to allow current to pass thus showing no voltage
measurement.

Table 2: Resistivity measurement with REV current.

Current, Wafer 1, Current, Wafer 2, Current, Wafer 3,
I(µA) V(mV) I(µA) V(mV) I(µA) V(mV)

100 red 40 -1.51 100 red

1000 red 60 -2.44 1000 red

9000 red 80 -0.39 9000 red

In the reverse current measurements, the amount of measurable wafers was reduced to
one. Both wafers one and three, as shown in Table 2, indicated measurements that were
out of range for the RTU. The second wafer had a near linear result for the forward and
reverse currents as seen by the voltage. The final measurement may have been a result of
human error or the integrity of the silicon may have been damaged which could produce
unusual data. It should be noted that the 4 point probe was having some issues during
experimentation. This could also have resulted in some inaccurate data.

4
Table 3: Bulk Resistivity Summary
Current Wafer Current (µA) Voltage (mV) Bulk Resistivity
Bias Sample (mΩ-m)

Forward #1 100, 1000, 9000 0.02, 0.16, 0.21 1.26, 1.01, 0.147

#2 40, 60, 80 1.83, 2.16, 2.45 287.5, 226.2, 192.4

#3 100, 1000, 9000 N/A N/A

Reverse #1 100, 1000, 9000 N/A N/A

#2 40, 60, 80 -1.51, -2.44, -0.39 237.2, 255.5, 30.6

#3 100, 1000, 9000 N/A N/A

As the results of Table 3 show, the first wafer had a low calculated bulk resistivity
measurement. Experimentally this is verified, as it required higher current and to
produced a lower voltage scale. The second wafer experienced a higher bulk resistivity as
expected indicated by the experimental data as it lower current values and the higher
voltage scale. The third wafer sample was unable to be calculated to produce bulk
resistivity measurement. Wafer 3 had an additional 500 nm of surface oxide added to the
wafer. This additional resistance added to the wafer is likely the reason it had no
measurable results. The bulk conclusions were based on theoretical information found
from the PV Education organization’s website.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, our team received a better understanding on how to use the four-point
probe system to measure semiconductor disks. It was interesting to see how to measure
these different wafers with “pinpoint” accuracy. We were extra careful with the wafers as
they seemed to be very delicate and some of the results for bulk resistivity seemed to vary
quite a bit. To minimize errors, we followed the instructions that were given to us. If we
were to redo this lab, we would have read the lab manual more thoroughly to make sure
we were not missing any steps in the lab. The experiment had alright results (that is
according to the TA) and we did not encounter any typos in the Lab Manual. We did not
damage any of the components in this lab.

5
References:

Four Point Probe. (n.d). Retrieved from

https://learn.wsu.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-2775235-dt-content-rid-90712384_1/course
s/2018-FALL-VANCO-ECE-421-7696-LAB/4-point-probe.pdf

Four Point Probe Resistivity Measurements. Retrieved from

http://pvcdrom.pveducation.org/CHARACT/4pp.HTM
NISER Four Point Probe Measurements Method, Retrieved from
http://www.niser.ac.in/sps/sites/default/files/basic_page/Four%20probe.pdf

Sekhar, P. ​Lab 1 Manual ​[PDF document]. Retrieved from

https://learn.wsu.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-2744696-dt-content-rid-90477262_1/course
s/2018-FALL-VANCO-ECE-421-7696-LAB/ECE%20421%20Lab%201%20Resi
stivity%20of%20Semiconductors.pdf

Tupta, Mary Anne. “Materials Characterization: Resistivity Measurements Using a

Four-Point Collinear Probe.” ​You Are Being Redirected...,​ Evaluating
Engineering, 17 Oct. 2016, ​goo.gl/rD8Eoc

Attachments/Appendices:
No further attachments/appendices were required for this lab.