Chapter 2

Hidayat Jamal & Zulhilmi

ismail
Hydraulics & Hydrology
Department, FKA, UTM

1
 Uniform flow
■ Equations are developed for steady-state conditions
– Depth, discharge, area, velocity all constant along
channel length
■ Rarely occurs in natural channels (even for constant
geometry) since it implies a perfect balance of all
forces
■ Two general equations in use: Chezy and Manning
formulas

2
 Or in general, uniform flow
- Energy slope = Bed slope or dH/dx = dz/dx
- Water surface slope = Bed slope = dy/dz = dz/dx
- Velocity and depth remain constant with x

3
 UNIFORM FLOW

Q =C
V =C
y =C
S0 = C
A =C
B =C
n =C

 Normal depth implies that flow rate, velocity,

depth, bottom slope, area, top width, and roughness
remain constant within a prismatic channel as
shown below

4
5
 General Flow Equation

Q = Av
Avg. velocity of
flow at a cross-
section (m/s)
Area of the
Flow rate (m3/s) cross-section
(m2)

6
 Chezy’s Formula
 Antoine Chezy, in 1769

 A French civil engineer developed the

Chézy equation, which relates the uniform
flow velocity to channel roughness,
hydraulic radius, and bed slope.

Q  AC RSo R = hydraulic radius

So = slope of the channel
C = coefficient depending upon the
various characteristics of the
channel and their comparison with
those of another similar channel

7
 Other Flow Formulas
 Two other flow formula defined more accurately the value
for the coefficient C in the Chezy formula.
Values of m to be used in the Bazin formula
for determining C in the chezy formula.

(a) Bazin formula:

87
C
m
1
R

8
  Values of n to be used in the Kutter’s n
formula for determining C in the chezy formula.

(b) Kutter formula:

1 0.00155
23  
n So
C
0.00155 n
1  (23  )x )
So R

9
 Manning Formula

 Robert Manning, 1885;

 Developed Manning formula used for

open channel flow conditions.
2 1
3
AR So 2
Q
n
R = hydraulic radius
So = slope of the energy gradient
n = a roughness coefficient
(Refer to the Table)
A and R = function of y

10
 Table of Manning’s n Roughness
Coefficient
Type of Channel and Description
Streams
Minimum Normal Maximum

Streams on plain
Clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools 0.025 0.03 0.033
Clean, winding, some pools, shoals, weeds & stones 0.033 0.045 0.05
Same as above, lower stages and more stones 0.045 0.05 0.06
Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.05 0.07 0.07
Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways 0.075 0.1 0.15
with heavy stand of timber and underbrush
Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks
steep, trees & brush along banks submerged at
high stages
Bottom: gravels, cobbles, and few boulders 0.03 0.04 0.05
Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.04 0.05 0.07

11
 Values for the computation of the
roughness coefficient (Chow,
1959)
Channel Conditions Values
Material Involved Earth n0 0.025
Rock Cut 0.025
Fine Gravel 0.024
Coarse Gravel 0.027
Degree of irregularity Smooth n1 0.000
Minor 0.005
Moderate 0.010
Severe 0.020
Variations of Channel Cross
Section
Gradual n2 0.000 n = (n0 + n1 + n2 +
Alternating Occasionally
Alternating Frequently
0.005
0.010-0.015
n3 + n4 ) m5
Relative Effect of Obstructions Negligible n3 0.000
Minor 0.010-0.015
Appreciable 0.020-0.030
Severe 0.040-0.060
Vegetation Low n4 0.005-0.010
Medium 0.010-0.025
High 0.025-0.050
Very High 0.050-0.100
Degree of Meandering Minor m5 1.000
Appreciable 1.150
Severe 1.300

12
 Values of Manning’s n according
to MASMA
Open Channel (Surface Cover of Finishing) Manning’s n Manning’s n
(Minimum) (Maximum)
Grass Swales
Short grass cover 0.030 0.035
Tall grass cover 0.035 0.053
Lined Drains
Concrete
Troweled finished 0.011 0.015
Off form finished 0.013 0.018
Stone Pitching
Dressed stones in Mortar 0.015 0.017
Random stones or rubble masonry 0.020 0.035

Rock riprap 0.025 0.030

Brickwork 0.012 0.018
Precast masonry blockwork 0.012 0.015

13
 Manning’s Roughness (n)
 Roughness coefficient (n) is a function of:
– Channel material
– Surface irregularities
– Variation in shape
– Vegetation
– Flow conditions
– Channel obstructions
– Degree of meandering

14
 Conveyance Factor, K
 K, the capacity of the channel to carry flow

 Simply calculated from Chezy or Manning formulae

 Chezy Formula: Q  AC RSo

where K  AC R
1 2
 Manning formulae: Q  AR 3 S o
n 2
AR 3
where K 
n

15
 Channel Section Factor, Z
 Z, the characteristics of channel geometry
2
Z  AR 3 for Manning
1
Z  AR 2 for Chezy

2 nQ
 Or, AR  nK 
3 for Manning
So
1 K Q
AR  
2 for Chezy
C C So
16
 Flow Rate Per Unit Width, q
 For rectangular channel only
y
Q
q
B B

 unit as m3 / s or m 3 / s.m
m

 Basic, Q = Av

 q = vy

17
 Very Wide Channel
 Shallow flow depth compared to the channel width

 Very wide channel; B  y

So, remember R  y

18
 Calculation of Normal
Depth, yo

 Can be calculated using either:

(i) Trial and error method yo

(ii) Graphical method B

(iii) Charts
yo 1
Z
B

19
 Trial and error method
 Given the flow condition (channel dimension,
roughness, flow rate and bed slope)

 Normal depth is calculated using the Manning or

Chezy flow formula by trial and error method

Graphical method
2
 A plot of y vs Z (where Z  AR 3 ) is made
nQ
 Normal depth is when Z 
So

20
 Chart: Curve for Determining
Normal Depth (Chow, 1959)
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
10

NOTE :
2 nQ
Rectangular z = 1.0
AR 3

z = 0.5 S0
Circular
yo 1 1
z = 1.5
B z = 2.0
z = 2.5
or z = 3.0
z = 3.5
yo 1 y
z
Φ B

0.1 0.1


y

0.01 0.01
0.0001 0.001 0.01 AR 2 3 3 0.1 1 10
2
AR
8
or 8
B 3
Φ 3

21
 Best Hydraulic Section(BHS)
 For a given Q, there are many channel shapes. There
is the need to find the best proportions of B and y which
will make the discharge is maximum.

 Using Chezy's formula: V  C RSo

A
 Flow rate: Q  AC RSo  AC S o      (1)
P
 For a rectangular Channel: P = B +2y
y
 A = By and therefore: B = A/y
i.e. P = A/y + 2y B

22
 For a given Area (A), Q will be maximum when P is
minimum (from equation 1)

 Differentiate P with respect to y

dP A
 2 2
dy y
 For minimum P i.e. Pmin , dP   A2  2  0
dy y
 A = 2y2 ,
Since A = By ie. By = 2y2 ie. B = 2y
i.e. for maximum discharge, R = y/2

23
 For a Trapezoidal Section

L y 1
Z
B

 Area of cross section, A = By + zy2

 Width, B = A/y - zy ----------------------(1)
 Wetted Perimeter, P = B + 2y ( 1 + z2 )1/2
 P = A/y - zy + 2y(1 + z2 ) 1/2---------------------(2)
 Differentiate P with respect to y

24
 dP T  2L
 1)  0 ; you got T  2 y 1 z2 or
dy
- Top water width (T) is twice the side length (L)
y
- Hydraulic Radius; R
2

dP 1
 2) for  0 ; you got z 
dz 3
- The side slope is 60⁰ or B = L

25
Best Hydraulic Section

26
 Why BHS???

 Called “Most efficient cross-section”

 Efficient cross-section lead in

- Economical designed in reduce material to
construct the channel with minimum wetted
parameter
- Convey maximum designed discharge

 So, what channel shape is most efficient??

27
 Example

1) A smooth concrete-lined trapezoidal channel (n =

0.011) was constructed earlier in a development project.
The channel bottom width is 10 meter, total channel
depth (including freeboard of 300 mm) is 2.3 meter, side
slopes z = 2, and longitudinal slope is 0.0001. Determine
the discharge, Q.

2) If the channel has to be re-designed as the Best

Hydraulic Section (z = 0.58) to convey a similar
discharge, find the new size of the trapezoidal channel.
Maintain the type of lining material and longitudinal
slope for the channel. Sketch your result.

28
 A = (B +zy)y
Solution  10  2(2)2
 28m 2
2.3m

P  B  2 y 1 z2
10m  10  2(2) 1  (2) 2
n = 0.011  18.94m
y = 2.3 - 0.3
= 2.0m R  A/ P
z=2  28 / 18.94
So = 0.0001  1.478

29
 Cont…
2
3
AR So  From T = 2L
Q
n 2
28(1.478) 3 0.0001 B  2 zy  2 y 1  z 2
Q
0.011 B  2 y 1  (0.58) 2  2(0.58) y
 33.03m3 / s B  1.152 y
Re-designed as the Best Hydraulic
Section as  Then A = By +zy2
z = 0.58
 1.152 y 2  0.58 y 2
n = 0.011
So = 0.0001  1.732 y 2
Q = 33.03 m3/s

30
 Cont…
2
3
AR So
Q
P  B  2 y 1 z2 2
n
33.03(0.011)
 1.152 y  2 y 1  (0.58) 2 AR 
3

0.0001
 3.464 y 2
AR 3  36.33
2
2
1.732 y (0.5 y ) 3
 36.33
8
y 3
 33.299
R  A/ P
y  3.72m
1.732 y 2

3.464 y  B  1.152(3.72)
 0.5 y B  4.29m

31
 Cont…

T = B + 2zy = 4.29 + 2 x 0.58 x 3.72 = 8.61 m

T = 8.61m

z = 0.58 Total depth

y = 3.72m = 4.02m

B = 4.29m

Final Design Diagram

32
 The Design of Circular Culverts-
Optimum Water Depth
 y optimum for max discharge

33
 y optimum for max velocity

34
Design of Erodible Channels
(Earthen Channels)

35