CHAPTER 1: SUBSTRUCTURE

1.2 Building foundation: types and

functions
1.2.1 Shallow Foundation
- strip footings , pad footing, raft
foundation.
1.2.2 Deep Pile/Foundation
- spun pile, micro pile, bakau pile, bore pile
and pile cap
1.3 Column stump, ground beam and ground
slab
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 Wind load

Wind load

Dead load

2
3
 What is Substructure?
 FOUNDATION is a part of SUBSTRUCTURE
components
 foundation is the lowest portion of the building
structure. Extends from the bearing surface to the
main structure.)
 Usually located below the ground level.
 A foundation is a part of the structure which is in
direct contact with the ground to which the loads are
transmitted.
 Foundations can be located at; below ground, at
ground level, or above ground level.

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 Deep Foundation
Shallow Foundation
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6
 Typical types of foundation

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 Main functions of the foundations
 To supports the weight of structure and
distribute the load of the structure over
a greater area.
 To transmit the load uniformly under
the structure.
 Anchors the structure to the earth,
providing a firm, level and strong base
over which the superstructure may be
constructed.

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 Main functions of the foundations
 To avoid any settlement or other
movement that can cause damage to any
part of the building (a stable foundation
should bear the loads without sinking or
settling more than an inch at the most).
 To increase the stability of the structure
by preventing its tilting or overturning
against winds, earthquakes and uneven
distribution of live load (Lateral Stability).

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 Selection Criteria
 Loading of the building, big load
need big foundation such as raft
foundation or piling.
 Types of soil such as peat soil
prefer piling or deep foundation
 Most economical but capable to
support numbers of building or
storey (pad footing or pilling?)

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 Selection Criteria
 The loads that must be transferred from the structure to the soil
strata supporting it. This also should evaluate the ability of the soil
to support the ultimate loads.
 The capability of the structure that will safely transfer the loads
from the superstructure to the foundation bed.
 The possibility and extent of settlement of the soil due to the
presence of mines and quarries in the vicinity.
 The possibility of the underground water has sulfates or other salts
that can degrade the foundation materials.

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 Factors That Need To Be Considered in the
Foundation Design
 Soil Investigation (S.I) is needed to determine the subsoil includes the
soil type, strength, soil structure, moisture conditions and the presence
of roots.
 Purpose of S.I-determine the bearing capacity, seasonal volume changes
and other possible ground movements.
 Common methods obtaining soil samples;
 trial pits,
 boreholes,
 window sampling and
 dynamic probe test.

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 Factors That Need To Be Considered in the
Foundation Design
 For more safety precaution use factor of safety FOS = 3
 Increase number of bore hole or sufficient number of
borehole so that the result of the report is more
accurate.
 Choose the critical point load for borehole
 Every end of the building
 Supervise the S.I properly make sure no mistake

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 Factors That Need To Be Considered in the
Foundation Design
 For the safety of the foundation design use the lowest of
bearing capacity value.
 The engineer must have good enough data for the S.I such as
previous soil report, cutting or filling area.
 Engineer also must make sure the original ground level and
purposed level or formation level while designing the
foundation.

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 Factors That Need To Be Considered in the
Foundation Design
 The correct parameter is important to
prevent from foundation failure that may
occur causing building collapse. It will cause
a big loss of material and even peoples life.

Highland Towers-
Malaysia

Overturning
Shanghai-China residential building
15
Soil

Quality Is The Key
Building rely on soil beneath to stay put. If the soil under the house moves up, down, or sideway, the
house is in trouble.
 The soil profile may be varies as we move across from side to side, and when we dig deeper downward.
 Strong soil- weak soil type range from;

STRONG Bedrock-gravel-course sand-fine sand-clay-silt-organic material. WEAK

The following are the different types of soils on which foundations are constructed:
 Soft soils - This soil is compressible and yields when loaded. Examples are clayey soil and loam. Small
buildings or ordinary structures can be built on these types of soils.
 Spreading soils - These are non-cohesive soils. Examples of this type of soil are sand and gravel.
 Hard or rocky soils - These are incompressible and strong soils. They can withstand heavy loads
without yielding. Multistoried buildings and water reservoirs are designed on such soils.

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 Types of Foundation
• Strip/Spread Footings
• Pad Footing/Foundation
Shallow • Raft/Mat Foundation

• End Bearing Pile

• Friction pile (spun pile,
Deep bored pile, bakau pile and
micro pile)

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 SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS
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 Strip Foundation
 Most suitable, economical type of foundation for
small building on compact soil.
 Strip foundation should be build/construct on soil
with high bearing capacity.
 This type of foundation is also known as wall
foundation or continues spread footing
foundation.
 Consist of continuous strip of steel-reinforced
concrete, from centrally under load bearing walls.
 The continuous strip serves as a level base on
which the wall is build and the width is design to
capable to support the load without undue
compaction.

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 Strip Foundation
 The greater the bearing capacity of the subsoil, the less the
width of the foundation.
 Width of strip foundations depends on the bearing
capacity of the subsoil and the load on the foundations.
 Refer table 3.2 for minimum width of strip foundations.
 Types of strip foundations;
 stepping strip,
 wide strip and
 narrow strip (trench fill or deep strip).

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 Characteristic of Spread/Strip Footings
 Low Cost
 Ease of construction
 For small-medium size structures with moderate-good soil.
 For large structures with exceptionally good soil or shallow
bedrock.
 Spread/strip footing may be built in different shapes and sizes to
accommodate individual needs.

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 Types of spread footings based on size and
shape

No Types of Spread Footings Applicable

1 Square for a single centrally-located column

2 Rectangular when large moment load are present

3 Circular for light standards, flagpoles etc

4 Continuous for bearing walls

(wall/strip footings)

5 Combined when columns are close together

6 Ring for walls of above-ground circular storage tanks

7 Strap (cantilever footing) when very close to a property line/other structure

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23
 In both
situations shown
the thickness (T)
of the foundation
should be equal
to P or 150mm,
whichever is
greater T T
T=P or 150mm
(whichever
greater) Foundation width Foundation width should be
should not be less than not less than the
the appropriate appropriate dimensions in
dimension in Table 3.2 Table 3.2 plus offset
dimensions A1 and A2
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 If P is greater than T, then the
foundation may shear at 45°
reducing the width of the
foundation and bearing area.
The foundation fails
where tension is P
exerted on the concrete

Shear failure angle

45°
Following the shear failure, the
load is concentrated on a smaller
area, the ground may consolidate
under the increased load

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  When strip foundation used in
sloping sites-stepped the
foundation.
 The full thickness of the upper
foundation should overlap twice
twice the height of the step
(O=2xT), or 300 mm whichever is
greater.
 The brickwork and blockwork on
the top of the foundation should tie
in at the step to avoid the needs of
cutting bricks/blocks and to avoid
the possibility of reducing the
stability of the wall.
STEPPING STRIP
FOUNDATIONS
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 WIDE STRIP FOUNDATIONS

Figure 8: Wide Strip

Foundation

 Wide strip foundations distribute loads over a larger area and reducing the
load per unit area on the ground.
 Wider strip foundation is most suitable for subsoil with poor bearing
capacity such as soft sandy clays.
 Widening and deepening the concrete foundation (to ensure the foundation
does not shear) – uneconomical. Alternatively-form a strip of steel-reinforce
concrete for safe-economical wide strip foundation (figure 8).
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 NARROW STRIP FOUNDATIONS
 Also known as trench fill/deep strip foundation.
 Suitable for good bearing soil with seasonal volume
change soil/clay; e.g: stiff clay.
 The base of narrow/deep strip will extend up to a depth
where the clay soil is unaffected by seasonal changes in
moisture content.
 50-mm thick compressible sheet material may needed to
prevent lateral pressure to the sides of the foundation
(saturated and dries out condition cause expansion and
contraction of soil at the external face of the foundation)

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 Rectangular Spread Footings
 It have plan dimension of B x L, where L is the longest dimension.
 These are useful when obstructions prevent construction of a square footing with a
sufficiently large base area and when large moment loads are present.

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Circular Spread Footings
 This foundation are round in plan
view.
 These are more frequently used
as foundation for light standard,
flagpoles, and power transmission
line.
 If these foundation extend to a
large depth, they may be have
more like a deep foundation.

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Continuous Spread Footings
 This type of foundation is also known as wall foundation or strip
foundation.
 It uses is to support bearing wall.

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Ring Spread Footings

 This footing are continuous footing

that been wrapped into a circle.
 This type of footing is commonly
used to support the walls of above-
ground circular storage tanks.

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 Forces pushing down
must equal the forces
pushing up -
EQUILIBRIUM

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 Heave

If the forces pushing up is greater

than the forces pushing down the
building will be pushed upwards –
HEAVE

If forces pushing down is greater

than the forces pushing up the
building will sink – SUBSIDENCE
Subside

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 Problems if the rules are not The load spreads at about
followed 400 through the foundation

(P>T)

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 Loads Acting on the Foundation
 The foundation has to bear more than just the load of
the superstructure.

 A load can be defined as anything, which exerts

pressure or thrust on a structure.

 The following are the different types of loads that act

on the building foundation:

 Live Load (Qk) - A live load or imposed load is a

movable, temporary or transferable load. This can
include moving vehicles, people walking or children
jumping.
 Dead Load (Gk)- This load is permanent and
immovable. It is the non- transferable load of the
structure itself.
 Wind Load (Wk) -This load is applicable when
the structure is tall.
 Snow Load - This load is considered when the
structure is situated in snowy, hilly areas.
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 Rock or soil Typical bearing value
(kN/m2)
Massive igneous 10,000
bedrock 2,000 to 4,000
Sandstone 600 to 2,000
Shales and mudstone 600
Gravel, sand and gravel,
compact
Medium dense sand 100 to 300
Loose fine sand Less than 100
Hard clay 300 to 600
Medium clay 100 to 300
Soft Clay Less than 75
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Typical allowable bearing values
38
 PAD FOUNDATION/FOOTING
 Similar to continuous footings
accept for they are usually lain under
a single pier/column.
 Pad foundation spread the load out
(in a square) with the column/pier
sitting in the middle of the square.
 Can also be designed for loads of the
walls and the buildings are
transferred through ground beams
that rest on the pad foundations.
 The pad foundations the will
transfer the loads to a lower level
where soil of sufficient load bearing
strata exist.

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 Construction sequence of pad foundation

Marked out and excavate
ground to correct level.
Excavation level should up
to good load bearing
strata.
The clean and leveled Formwork for the footing
ground then poured with installed at the correct
50mm thickness lean position
concrete.

After pad footing detailing

inspected and approved than
concrete can be poured and
leave the foundation to dry
(curing process)
Install reinforcement according
40 to construction detailing
 PAD FOUNDATION/FOOTING
 The advantage of this system of
foundation is that pockets of
tipped stone or brick and concrete
rubble that would obstruct bored
pile may be removed as the pits are
excavated.
 The nature of subsoil also may be
examined as the pits are dug to
select a level of sound subsoil.

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 Square Footings

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 Combined Footing Foundation
 In this type, the two walls or
columns of a superstructure are
provided with a single combined
footing.
 This is designed so that the center
of gravity of the supporting area is
in proportion to the center of
gravity of the tow column loads.
 These can be rectangular or
These are usefull when trapezoidal in shape.
columns are located too close
together for each to have its
own footing.
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 RAFT FOUNDATION
 Depending on its position raft
foundation also known as Mat
foundation in floating position.
 Sometimes also called as Floating
Foundation.
 Used where heavily constructed
loads are to be distributed over a
large surface area.
 It is used where the soil is marshy,
clayey or soft, with weak bearing
capacity.

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 RAFT FOUNDATION

 This consists of reinforced

concrete slabs covering the
entire area of construction,
like a floor.
 Always made of reinforced
concrete.

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SIMPLE RAFT FOUNDATION
 RAFT FOUNDATION

 If ground pressures are

likely to be excessive
at different seasons,
reinforcement may be
required; this is
known as fabric
when in sheet mesh
form.

REINFORCED RAFT FOUNDATION

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 Conditions for Raft/Mat Foundations
-Structural loads require large area to spread the load
-Soil is erratic and prone to differential settlements
-Structural loads are erratic
-Unevenly distributed lateral loads
-Uplift loads are larger than spread footings can
accommodate;
-Mat foundations are easier to waterproof

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 DEEP FOUNDATION

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 DEEP FOUNDATION
Reasons why Deep Foundation??
Conventional strip foundations is uneconomical to excavate.

The bearing ground located at some distance below the

surface level of the made up ground. A solution is to use
deep/pile foundation to support reinforced concrete ground
beams on which walls are raise.

The pile/deep foundation takes the load of the building

through made-up ground or week soil to load-bearing strata.
The ground beams transfer the building loads to the piles.

Piles are a convenient method of foundation for works over

water, such as jetties or bridge piers.
49
 Main Components of Deep Foundation

Pile

Deep
Foundation

Pile
Cap

50
 DEEP FOUNDATION
 Piles are long and slender members which transfer
the load to deeper soil or rock of high bearing
capacity avoiding shallow soil of low bearing
capacity.
 The main types of materials used for deep piles
are wood, steel and concrete.
 Piles made from these materials are driven, drilled
or jacked into the ground and connected to pile
caps.
 Main functions of a pile;
i. to transmit a foundation load to a solid ground
ii. to resist vertical, lateral and uplift load

51
52
 Factors Influencing
The Choice of Pile

Location and
Ground Conditions Durability Cost
Type of Structures

Ground containing
Over water Boulders- Concrete Installation cost

clay with
On Land Steel materials
ground heave

Not causing vibration

Loose water
to existing/nearby Timber time
bearing sand
Structures-

Heavy Structure Under-reamed bases Test load

Existing Structure Supervision

Organization,
53overhead and etc.
 Factors Influencing the Choice of Pile
Location and type of structures

 For structures over water, such as wharves and jetties,

driven piles or driven cast-in-place piles (in which the
shell remains in place) are the most suitable.
 On land, driven cast-in-place types are usually the
cheapest for moderate loadings.
 It is necessary for piles to be installed without causing
any significant ground heave or vibrations because of
their proximity to existing structures, the bored cast-
in-place pile is the most suitable.
 For heavy structures exerting large foundation loads,
large-diameter bored piles are usually the most
economical.
 Jacked piles are suitable for underpinning existing
54
structures.
 Factors Influencing the Choice of Pile
Ground conditions

 Driven piles cannot be used economically in ground

containing boulders (large rocks), or in clays when
ground heave would be detrimental.

 Bored piles would not be suitable in loose water-

bearing sand, and under-reamed bases cannot be
used in cohesion less soils since they are susceptible
to collapse before the concrete can be placed.

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 Factors Influencing the Choice of Pile
Durability

 Most important criteria especially in the choice of

material. For example, concrete piles are usually
used in marine conditions since steel piles are
susceptible to corrosion in marine conditions .

 timber piles is not the most suitable type under

marine conditions because it can be attacked by
boring molluscs .

 On land, concrete piles are not the best choice,

especially where the soil contains sulphates or other
harmful substances.
56
 Factors Influencing the Choice of Pile
Cost

 Considerable important decision over the choice of pile.

 The overall cost of installing piles includes:

 the actual cost of the material,
 the times required for piling in the construction plan,
 test loading,
 cost of the engineer to oversee installation and
loading
 cost of organisation and overheads incurred between
the time of initial site clearance and the time when
construction of the superstructure can proceed.
57
 Classification of Pile With Respect to Load
Transmission and Functional Behavior

 End bearing piles

(point bearing piles)
 Friction piles
(cohesion piles )
 Combination of
friction and
cohesion piles

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 END BEARING PILE

59
 End bearing piles
 Typical end-bearing piles are driven
through very soft soil, such as a loose silt-
bearing stratum underlying by
compressible strata.

 This pile acts on the basic concept of

digging through the top soil (relatively
weak) to an underlying firmer rock to
anchor the foundation.

 The piles transfer their load on to a firm

stratum located at a considerable depth
below the base of the structure.

60
 This pile behaves as an ordinary column. In weak soil, this pile will
not fail by buckling

End bearing piles

61
 End bearing piles-cast in place

62
 End bearing piles - driven or jacking
(R.C or Steel Pile)

63
 Piling Rig

64
 Pile Driving
65
 FRICTION PILE

66
 Friction piles
 Friction piles, also known
as floating pile
foundations,
 Commonly used in
construction to provide
underground support for
buildings, bridges, docks
and other structures.
 They are often used when
end-bearing piles are not
suitable.
 Friction piles rely
specifically on the friction
created between the soil
and the surface of the pile
material in order to
provide stability.
 The combination of
friction and adhesion with
the soil causes them to
stay in place.
67
 Friction piles
 The load is transferred to
the adjoining soil by friction
between the pile and the
surrounding soil.
 The load is transferred
downward and laterally to
the soil.
 In order for friction piles
to be effective, the soil
surrounding the area must
be fairly uniform in type
and density.
 For more complex
situations, construction
companies sometimes rely
on a combination of friction
and end-bearing piles.

68
 Friction Pile Types

Placement Installation Repetition

of pile of Pile process

Driven

Cast-in-situ

69
 SPUN PILE

70
 Spun Pile
Standard Characteristics
 Pre-stressed concrete spun pile (cast in the factory) and deliver
to site for installation.
 Size : 250mm to 1000mm diameter
 Lengths : 6m, 9m and 12m (Typical)
 Structural Capacity : 45Ton to 520Ton
 Material : Grade 60MPa & 80MPa Concrete
 Joints: Welded
 Installation Method :
–Drop Hammer
–Jack-In

71
 Spun Pile

72
 Spun Piles Vs. RC Square Piles

Spun Piles have …

 Better Bending Resistance
 Higher Axial Capacity
 Better Manufacturing Quality
 Able to Sustain Higher Driving
Stresses
 Higher Tensile Capacity
 Easier to Check Integrity of Pile
 Similar cost as RC Square Piles with
higher pile integrity

73
Advantages & Disadvantages of Spun Pile

No Advantages Disadvantages

1 Best suited for use as friction piles that Expensive to splice and cut

don't meet refusal during driving

(refusal: pile can't be driven any further, so

it becomes necessary to cut off the portion)

2 Best suited for toe-bearing piles where the Difficult to cut

required length is uniform and predictable

3 Less expensive than steel piles Susceptible to damage during handling

or driving

4 Have a large load capacity Not suited for hard driving conditions

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 BORE PILE

75
 Bored piles
• Foundation structure made of
reinforced concrete on site.
• Used to carry heavy loads by
transmitting the load to a stable soil
strata.
• Varies in diameter and depth.
• Dimension varies from 450mm to
2000mm.
• Designers will decide the size
according to the load requirement
and as well as the soil condition of
the site.
• widely used and can be
constructed in most soil condition
and over water.

76
 Bored Pile Construction
• Bored piles is constructed
by first drilling a hole in
the ground until a
competent load bearing
layer is reached.
• Once achieved, a
reinforcement steel cage
is lowered into the drilled
hole and the hole is filled
with concrete.
• It is also known as cast in
place piles.

77
 Bored piles
 High flexibility and are widely used in
deep foundation for :-
 high rise buildings,
 jetties,
 bridge foundation and
 as vertical retaining structures like a
retaining wall or sheet piles wall. (In this
case the bored piles is known as
contiguous bored pile wall).
 Designed either as a point bearing piles
or friction piles.
 If competent load bearing layer like
bed rock is present, then the bored
piles will be designed as an end-bearing
pile. This means that the load carrying
capacity of the piles is mainly derived
from the bearing capacity of the rock
layer at the toe of the pile.

78
Bored Piles

 Bored pile-single pile

- pile groups.

79
 can be inclined to a certain angle.
Angle bored piles also known as
raked piles (found in structures that
requires resistance to horizontal
load like in a retaining wall or bridge
and piers foundation).
80
When bored piles are
constructed close to one
another or overlapping slightly,
this is known as contiguous
bored piles wall or secant piles
wall.
Standard Bored Piles Characteristics Considerations…
 Size : 450mm to 2000mm  Borepile Base Difficult to Clean
 Lengths : Varies  Bulging / Necking
 Structural Capacity : 80Ton to 2,300Tons  Collapse of Sidewall
 Concrete Grade : 20MPa to 30MPa  Dispute on Level of Weathered
 Joints : None Rock
 Installation Method : Drill then Cast-In-Situ

81
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83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
Advantages & Disadvantages
Bore Pile
No Advantages Disadvantages

1 Less costs of mobilizing and demobilizing a drill rig Dependent on contractor's skills

2 Less noise and vibration Lower unit end bearing capacity

3 Soils excavated can be observed and classified Expensive for full-scale load test

during drilling

4 Size of shafts can easily be changed during const.

5 Can penetrate soils with cobbles, boulders and

many types of bedrock

6 Possible to support each column with one large

shaft (no pile cap)

92
 MICROPILE

93
Micropiles
 Size : 100mm to 350mm Diameter
 Lengths : Varies
 Structural Capacity : 20Ton to 250Ton
 Material : Grade 25MPa to 35MPa Grout
 N80 API Pipe as Reinforcement
 Joints: None
 Installation Method :
–Drill then Cast-In-Situ
–Percussion then Cast-In-Situ

94
 Micropiles
 Micropiles also known mini piles.
 Application also for foundations of a wide variety of
construction projects such as highways, bridges and
even transmission towers.
 Can be installed at varying angles i.e. from vertical to
obtuse (angle between 90-180 degree incline).
 Highly capable of resisting both lateral and axial
loads due to the fact that they are made of steel
with varying diameters of between 70 to 200 mm.
 Sheer ability to provide a combination of both tensile
and compressive resistance, micropiles tend to be
quite useful where there is a need for resistance to
uplift.
 Very little or no vibration at all.
95
 Technological process of carrying
out micropiles
2a) realization of a
borehole with the
rotary technology
2b) pulling out
drilling tools and
filling the hole
with grout
2c) setting a
reinforcement
thick-walled steel
pipe
2d) grouting of the
micropile root
part
2e) finished micropile

Pressure-grouted micropiles construction

96
 Securing overburdens of underground works
(tunnels, galleries) with the use of a
micropile umbrella

Examples of underpinnings of existing

structures with the use of micropile space
piers or individual micropiles

Carrying out pipe micropiles to protect the driven

97 tunnel calotte, the New Connection in Prague
98
 Cast in-situ micropile construction

99
 Timber/Bakau Pile
 Timber is a hugely capable civil
engineering material, with the
additional advantage of being
sustainable.
 Trees, in particular conifers, make
natural piles.
 Timber foundations may be particularly
suitable for countryside structures
such as bridges, forest chalets and
activity centres, as well as post-and-
beam timber buildings in waterfront or
flood prone locations.
 Preservative treated softwood or
durable hardwood timber can be used
for the construction of retaining walls,
bank seats, and for foundation pads
100 and footings.
 Timber/Bakau Pile
 For many structures, timber piles are a highly suitable choice of
foundation, given appropriate ground conditions.
 They are economical, easy to transport, handle, cut to length and
work with on site; and particularly suited for locations with access
difficulties, or where excavations and the delivery of concrete
would pose problems.
 Short, driven timber piles can be the solution for foundations in
ground with a high water table, and where firm strata exists below
surface material of loose sand, soft clays, or organic soils.

101
 Timber/Bakau Pile
 In deep silt deposits, where the capacity of the pile is determined
by shaft friction, timber piles are especially suitable being tapered
and easy to splice.
 Timber piles are suitable to be used below the water table, where
they have proved practically invulnerable to decay, and extended to
the surface using concrete sections.
 They are resistant to acidic and alkaline soils, and soils with high
sulphate or free carbon dioxide content.
 Timber piles can also be driven for ground improvement, to density
loose granular soils.
 For the decay reason-treated with preservatives such as creosote
oil which impregnated into the wood (preventing dry-rotting and
against damage from most animal and plant attack)

102
 Timber/Bakau Pile
 The installation of timber piles is a process that involves dropping a
weight on top of the pile in order to drive the pile into the ground.
 Timber piles have been used for centuries to support man-made
structures.
 The equipment that is used to install timber piles includes a crane,
a boom, a set of leads, a hammer, a helmet, a pile gate, pile monkey,
and pile (see Figure).

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 Advantages & Disadvantages
Bakau pile

No Advantages Disadvantages

1 Low construction cost Medium axial loads (100 - 400 kN)

2 Used as waterfront structures Susceptible to decay

Susceptible to damage when

3 For light driving conditions driving

(in loose sands and soft to medium clays)

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 Piling Techniques
 Damage during driving can be controlled by
using proper technique.
 Among the soultions are:-
√ Using lightweight hammers
√ Using steel bands near butt
√ Using a steel shoe on the toe
√ Pre-drilling

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 Drilled Equipments

 Drilling Rigs
 Truck-mounted
drilling rig
 For usual
shaft,
d=500 –
1200mm and
H=6.24m
 Specialized
rigs
 A-Shaped
Frame Rigs

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  Drilling Tools
 The helix-shaped flight auger
(most common used)
– Effective in most sols and
soft rocks
 Augers with hardened teeth
and pilot stingers
– Effective in hardpan or
moderately hard rock
 Spiral-shaped rooting tools
– Help loosen cobbles and
boulders

107
  Bucket augers
– To collect cuttings in a cylindrical
bucket
– Used in running sands
 Belling buckets Bucket augers
– To enlarge the bottom of the shaft
(bells or under reams)
 Core barrels
– To cut a circular slot creating a
removable core
– Used in hard rock
 Multi-roller percussion bits
– To cut through hard rock
 Cleanout buckets
– To remove final cuttings from hole

Belling bucket

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 Drilled Techniques
 Drilling in Firm Soils
 Using dry method (open-hole method)
 Most common used: simple, economy and good reability
 Steps:
 Holes usually advance using conventional flight auger
 Holes remain open without any special support
 Check the open hole for cleanliness and alignment
 Insert steel reinforcing cage
 Pour the concrete

109
110
  Drilling in Caving (Cave-in) or Squeezing Soils
 Caving:
 The side of a hole which is collapse before or during concrete
placement.
 Usually in clean sands below the groundwater table.
 Squeezing:
 The sides of hole bulging inward during or after drilling
 Usually in soft clays and silts or highly organic soils.
 Most common techniques:
 Using casing
 Drilling fluid (slurry method) using bentonite clay or
attapulgite clay.

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 PILE CAP

112
 PILE CAP
Pile Cap (BS 8004), “a pile cap is
defined as a concrete block cast on
the head of a pile, or a group of piles,
to transmit the load from the
structure to the pile or group of
piles”.
• Pile cap transfers the load form the
structures to a pile / pile group, then
the load further transfers to from
soil.
•Pile caps are thus incorporated in
order to tie the pile heads together so
that individual pile movement and
settlement is greatly reduced. The
stability of the pile group is greatly
113
increased.
114
 Foundations relying on driven
piles often have groups of piles
connected by a pile cap (a
large concrete block into which
the heads of the piles are
embedded) to distribute loads
which are larger than one pile
can bear.
Pile caps and isolated piles are
typically connected with grade
beams to tie the foundation
elements together; lighter
structural elements bear on
the grade beams while heavier
elements bear directly on the
pile cap.

115
 Pile Arrangement below pile cap

116
 Pile cap

 Function:
 To distribute the structural loads to the piles.
 To tie the piles together so they can act as a unit.
 To laterally stabilise individual piles thus increasing overall
stability of the group
 To provide the necessary combined resistance to stresses set
up by the superstructure and/or ground movement

117
 COLUMN STUMP

118
 Column Stump
 The stump is the simplest and most familiar
footing used for the vertical support and the
transfer of building loads to the foundation.
 Stumps are used to support timber-framed
houses for which they are currently the most
cost effective.
 Three types of materials are commonly used
for stumps:
 timber
 concrete
 steel.
 Stumps must have a concrete or timber footing
placed underneath the base of the stump. This
is to spread the load transferred to the stump
from the building. This support beneath the
stump is called a 'pad' or 'soleplate'.
 Usually concrete stumps are provided with
concrete pads poured in situ on the site.
Timber stumps are provided with timber
soleplates.
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 GROUND BEAM

120
 2.1 GROUND BEAM AND SLAB
 Beams and slab are normally named
by its location.
 Ground beam refers to the structure
of beam located on the ground.
 Ground Beams are designed to
support brick/blockwork or to form
a permanent shutter to the edge of
in-situ concrete floor slab.
 The amount of reinforcement
introduced into the design will be
used to suit specific loading
requirements and the beams can be
designed to withstand any heave
forces with the use of void forming
or compressible materials.
121
 Ordinary Ground Beam
 This type of ground beam is the most
used in building construction.
 It is the beam which both its ends are
tied up at the column and lying between
the two column.
 The beam fixes and holds fitly the
columns in order to stabilize it.
 In addition, it also acts to bear all the
loads come from the wall which
constructed parallel with the beam.

122
 ORDINARY GROUND BEAM
 A ground beam normally
should consist of following
items;
 Reinforcements,
 Concrete,
 Linkers
 The reinforcements can be
placed at center of that
beam.
 The sizes of main
reinforcement play
important role in determine
the strength of a beam.
 Ground beam usually does
not have secondary beam,
only has primary beam.

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 ORDINARY GROUND BEAM

124
 GROUND CANTILEVER BEAM
•The cantilever beam is same as the beam explained before but only
one end of cantilever beam is tied up at the column stump. The
other end is free without joint with any column.
•The cantilever beam usually used for external structure such as
beam for corridor and also partition wall outside the building.
 The functions of ground
cantilever beam are almost same
but it cannot bear the loading
such the ordinary beam. This is
because, one end of that beam
is not holding by any structure.
As a result, it does not achieves
the strength like the ordinary
beam

125
 Beam Construction Method
 The ground beam construction will be started after a
column stump has finish. (After the column stump has
ingrained in foundation and has corpulent on level as
wanted).
 Beam formwork will put and pointed stake set in the
ground with tidy so that look tough and strength.
Strength of formwork is important to ensure that
formwork not expand when a concrete will instill. If
formwork not good, its will give a problem and the
construction work have much time.
 After that, link concrete is lain out on ground surface
into the formwork. The reinforcements will be putted
with spacer block on below and beside reinforcement.
Purpose that putted the spacer block is to protect the
reinforcement for avoid from rust

126
 R.C. BEAM CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

127
 Ground Beam
The ground beam construction procedure (10 steps);
1. clearing the ground.
2. The span between the columns or piers is rammed and compacted.
3. A blinding layer is done with quarry dust.
4. The column or pier reinforcements should be left a foot high to join
with the beam.
5. The reinforcements are then tied and bent separately.
6. Once ready, they are carried and laid over the columns and blinding.
7. The reinforcement is laid straight with spacer blocks put at the
bottom.
8. Once the beam steel is in place, form work is erected to the sides.
These must be firmed into the ground and made very tight. This will
prevent the escape of the cement slurry when vibrating.
9. After the form work is complete, concrete is prepared and poured
into the forms. The process continues while vibrating to ensure the
concrete is well bonded with the steel.
10.The top is tamped to be smooth. The forms are removed after seven
days while curing.

128
 GROUND SLAB

129
 Ground Slab
 In construction, slab can be design in two conditions.

• is built when the ground is good enough

to carry the load from the building.
Non-suspended
1 • In this condition, the slab is designed to slab
carry the load of the building with the
help from the ground support.

• is building when the ground is not

good enough to carry the load from
the building.
• In this condition, the slab is design
2
just like the floor of upper floor that Suspended slab
can carry the load without the help
from the ground support.
• In this case, more cost is needed.
130
 Ground Slab

131
 Ground Slab
 Function of ground slab:
 To support column and stump
 To received the load from the building
 To reduce the pressure on the column and stump
 The main base of construction to ensure that the
construction will done well
 Create the easier job on floor finishes
 The construction of a solid ground slab floor
should includes:
 Hardcore
 Binding
 Concrete bed or slab

132
 Ground Slab
Hardcore
 The purpose of hardcore is to fill in any small pockets that have
form during over site excavation, to provide firm base on which to
place a concrete bad and to help spread any point loads over the
greater area. It also acts against capillary action of moisture within
the soil. Hardcore is usually laid in 100-150 mm layers to the
required depth, and its is important that each layer is well
compacted, using a roller if necessary, to prevent any unacceptable
settlement beneath the solid floor.

133
 Ground Slab
Binding
 This is used to even off the surface of hardcore if a damp-
proof membrane (DPM) is to be place under the concrete bed
or if a reinforced concrete bed is specified.
 First, it will prevent the damp-proof membrane from being
punctured by the hardcore and, second, it will provide a true
surface from which the reinforcement can be positioned.
 Blinding generally consists of a layer of sand 25-50 mm thick
or a 50-75 mm layer of week concrete (1:12 mix usually
suitable) if a true surface of a reinforced concrete is
required.

134
 Ground Slab
Concrete bed
 Unreinforced or plain in-situ concrete, 100-150 mm thick;
 Reinforce concrete, 150 mm minimum
 Suitable concrete mixes are produced to BS EN 206-1:
 The reinforcement used in concrete beds for domestic work is
usually in the form of welded steel fabric to BS4483.
 Sometimes a light square mesh fabric is placed 25mm form the
upper surface of the concrete bed to prevent surface crazing and
limit the size of any cracking.
 In domestic work the areas of concrete are defined by the room
sizes, and it is not usually necessary to include expansion or
construction joints the construction of the bed

135
 Concrete Reinforcement Mesh

136
 Ground Slab
Other materials needed for ground slab:

(1) Damp Proof Membrane (DPM)

 Water penetration is a prime cause of deterioration in
building structures and materials and the presence of
excess moisture encourages the growth of moulds and wood
rotting fungi. Because of this, building regulations require
that buildings are so designed that water neither damages
the fabric nor penetrates to the interior where it may
constitute a health hazard as well as spoiling decorations.

137
 Ground Slab
 Other materials needed for ground slab:

(2) Damp Proof Course (DPC)

 DPC is a physical barrier inserted into the fabric of a building
to stop water passing from one place to another. This can be on
a horizontal plane, stopping water rising up from the ground by
being sucked up by the dry masonry above, or vertically to stop
water passing from the outside of a building, though the
masonry, to the inside. DPC's have taken many forms through
the ages and one of the earliest forms was to use a layer of
slate in the construction. Slate is still used but the less
expensive plastic version ( below right ) is now more widely
used.

138
 END OF CHAPTER 1

Thank you

139