Political-Science PDF

School of Distance Education
POLITICAL SCIENCE
(PART-I)
COMPLEMENTARY COURSE
For
BA HISTORY, B.A. ECONOMICS, B.A.SOCIOLOGY,
B.A PHILOSOPHY & B.A. ENGLISH
I Semester
(20 A!MISSION ON"AR!S#
UNI$ERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF !ISTANCE E!UCATION
C%')t U*'+ers't, P.O. M%%--)r%m, er%%, I*/'%13 134
37
Political Science(Part-I) Page 1

[School of Distance Education]
POLITICAL SCIENCE (PART5I#
I SEMESTER
COMPLIMENTARY COURSE
For
BAHISTORY, B.A.ECONOMICS, B.A.SOCIOLOGY,
B.A.SOCIOLOGY,
Prepared by: Sri. Pradeep Kumar. K.

Head of the Department,
Department of Political Science,
Govt. Arts & Science College, Kozhiode !"#
Scrutinised by Dr. G.Sadanandan, $ Co!ordinator%

Associate Professor and Head,
P.G. Department of Political Science,
Sree Kerala arma College, 'hrissur.
Layout & Settings: Computer Section SDE
( )eserved
Political Science (Part-I) Page 2

POLITICAL SCIENCE (PART5I#
I SEMESTER
COMPLIMENTARY COURSE
For
BAHISTORY, B.A.ECONOMICS, B.A.SOCIOLOGY,
B.A.SOCIOLOGY,
Prepared by: Sri. Pradeep Kumar. K.

Head of the Department,
Department of Political Science,
Govt. Arts & Science College, Kozhiode !"#
Scrutinised by Dr. G.Sadanandan, $ Co!ordinator%

Associate Professor and Head,
P.G. Department of Political Science,
Sree Kerala arma College, 'hrissur.
Layout & Settings: Computer Section SDE
( )eserved

CONTENT PAGE
CHAP'*) + ! POLITICAL SCIENCE 041
CHAP'*) ++  THE STATE 23
CHAP'*) +++ ! SOVEREIGNTY 26 27
CHAP'*) +  LAW, LIBERTY, EQUALITY,

EQUALITY,
JUSTICE, RIGHTS & DUTIES 28  62
CHAP'*)   POLITICAL SYSTEM 63  6
CHAP'*) +  MAJOR CONCEPTS IN

67  41
POLITICAL ANALYSIS

Complementar- Course
POLITICAL SCIENCE  (PART #
MO!ULE. I.
$a% Concept of Political Science /eaning, nature, Scope and
$0% Approaches 'raditional  /odern  1ehavioural, Post!1ehavioural and /ar2ian
MO!ULE. II.
State /eaning, *lements of the State ! 'heories of the origin of the state !3ith special
reference to *volutionar- theor- and /ar2ian 'heor-.
MO!ULE. III.
Sovereignt- /eaning and Characteristics, '-pes of Sovereignt- 

/onistic and Pluralistic interpretations.
MO!ULE. I$.
$a% 4a3  4i0ert-  *5ualit-, 6ustice, )ights and Duties. /eaning and Dimensions.
$0% Concepts of Human )ights  /eaning and importance.
MO!ULE. $.
$a% S-stems Anal-sis ! Political S-stem /eaning and Characteristics.

+nput 7utput anal-sis and Structural 8unctional anal-sis.
MO!ULE. $I.
$a% /a9or Concepts in Political Anal-sis Po3er  +nfluence ! 4egitimac- and Authorit-.
$0% Political Culture  Political Socialisation  Political Development and Political /odernisation

CHAPTER 
POLITICAL SCIENCE
So'et
So'et 9! +t ma- 0e defined
defined as : the
the comple2
comple2 of organised
organised assoc
association
iation and
and institution
institution 3ithin
3ithin a
communit-:.
communit-:. +t is an unorganised
unorganised or organised
organised , it is 3ider or narro3
narro3 groups
groups of human
human 0eings
living together in a particular aera. 'he social instinct of man compels him to live in societ-.
Accord
According
ing to 4asi
4asi,, 0- societ-
societ-,, : + means
means a group
group of human
human 0eings
0eings living
living togeth
together
er for the
satisfaction of their mutual 3ants:.
St%te ! societies
societies are politicall- organised under a common la3 3ithin a prescri0e
prescri0e 0oundaries.
0oundaries. +t
stands for the protection to life, li0ert-
li0ert- and propert- to individuals and
and it tries to promote human
3elfare and good life.
Go+er*me*t9 ! +t is the institutionalised
institutionalised po3er of state or authorit-. +t is the agent
agent through 3hich
3hich
the 3ill of the state is formulated,
formulated, e2pressed
e2pressed and realised.
realised. +t consists of institutions responsi0le for
for
maing collective decisions for societ-.
Po't's is the
the stud-
stud- of state
state and activit-
activit- of person
person involved
involved 3ith the
the state
state i.e gover
government
nment.. +t
refers to the current
current pro0lems
pro0lems of state
state and government
government , the actual process
process of co!operatio
co!operation
n ,
conflict and competition for po3er in societ-.
S'e*e is the s-stematic stud- of the structure and
and 0ehaviour of the ph-sical and
and natural 3orld
through o0servation, evidence and e2periment.
Po't'% S'e*e is the 0ranch of no3ledge that that deals 3ith s-stematic
s-stematic stud- of the
the structure and
0ehav
0ehaviou
iourr of the state
state and politic
political
al instit
institutio
utions
ns throug
throughh scient
scientific
ific anal-s
anal-sis.
is. +t is an academ
academicic
discipline concerned 3ith man;s official institutions and and activities, such as the state , government,
citizensh
citizenship,
ip, pu0lic
pu0lic affairs etc.
etc. +n other 3ords
3ords , it is a social
social science
science concerned
concerned 3ith the theor-,
theor-,
description, anal-sis
anal-sis and prediction of political
political 0ehaviour , political activities, political s-stem as a
3hole.
MEANING
'he term ;Political Science; consists
consists of t3o 3ords ,viz
,viz , political and science. 'he 3ord
;-o't's: is derived from the Gree 3ord ;Polis; 3hich means means the cit-!state. +n ancient Greece,
Greece, the
0asic unit of political organization 3as the cit-!state. +t 3as the Grees 3ho first em0ared upon
the stud- of state as distinct from the church.
church. 'he foundations of political thining
thining 3ere laid 0- the
great Gree philosophers, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Plato 3as the author of the 0oo <'he
)epu0lic=. Aristotle
Aristotle the father of political science,
science, firstl- used the term ;politics; and converted the
su09ect into an academic discipline. He pu0lished his 0oo ;Politics; as a first s-stematic stud- of
politics.
S'e*e9 is the s-stematic stud- of the
the structure and 0ehaviour
0ehaviour of the ph-sical and
and natural
3orld
3orld throug
throughh o0ser
o0serva
vatio
tion,
n, evide
evidence
nce and e2per
e2perimen
iment.
t. So politic
political
al scien
science
ce is the 0ranch
0ranch of
no3ledge that deals 3ith s-stematic stud- of the structure and 0ehaviour of the state and political
institutions through scientific anal-sis. Politics refers to the su09ect matter of our stud- , science
denotes
denotes the methodolo
methodolog-g- or the 3a- of stud-ing
stud-ing the process
process of politics.
politics. 'he first term sees to
ans3er the 5uestion : 3hat is studied: and the second term refers to : ho3 is it studied:. 'herefore,
the political phenomenon 3hich should 0e studied in accordance 3ith a definite plan or s-stem is
called political science.

!e;'*'t'o*s o; Po't'% S'e*e

+t is difficult to give a precise definition to political science , 0ecause of its var-ing scope in
different situations. 4et us e2amine some o f those definitions.
P%) <%*et ! <Political science is that part of science 3hich treats of the foundations of state and
the principles of government=.
H.< L%s=' <'he stud- of politics concerns itself 3ith the life of man in relation to organised
states=.
L%ss>e <political science is the stud- of shaping and sharing of po3er=.
!%+'/ E%sto*!<Political science is the stud- of the authoritative allocation of values for a societ-=.
?Po't'% S'e*e @e'*s %*/ e*/s >'t te st%te  G%r*er
?Po't'% S'e*e /e%s >'t o+er*me*t o*D  Le%o=
S'e*e o; -o's  Ar'stote

S'e*e o; st%te  Gette
Po't's /e%s >'t o+er*me*t  Leo=
Ge*er% -ro@em o; st%te %*/ o+er*me*t  G'r'st
Po't's 's s%-'* %*/ s%r'* o; -o>er  !%
A)tor't%t'+e %o%t'o* o; +%)es  E%sto*
Po't's 's te str)e ;or %*/ )se o; -o>er  More*t%)
8rom the a0ove definitions 3e ma- conclude that the >state? is the central theme of Political
Science. +t is the stud- a0out the state , its origin, its nature, its structure, its functions and so on.
/odern political scientists have also emphasised the element of po3er in the stud- of the
su09ect. A0raham Kaplan, Harold. D. 4ass3ell defined politics as the <stud- of shaping and
sharing of po3er=. +t suggests that struggle for po3er is the su09ect matter of the stud- of politics.
Since this struggle taes place at all levels!domestic ,local ,regional, national and international 
politics 0ecomes an universal activit-. )o0ert A Dahl uses the term >political s-stem? instead of
>politics? and he defined it as an- persistent pattern of human relationships that involves to a
significant e2tent, control, influence po3er or authorit-.
So the stud- of political science or politics include not onl- state and government 0ut also an
en5uir- into the struggles for po3er that taes place at all levels 0eginning from the household to
the 3orld at large. Hence a comprehensive vie3 of the su09ect of political science involves ever-
thing connected 3ith the life of man in the process of maing himself.
NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political science is still gro3ing and developing su09ect. So there is no uniformit- among
political thiners regarding the nature of political science , 3hether it should 0e treated as a science
or not. Aristotle, the father of political science, considered it as the master science. Political
philosophers lie 1odin, Ho00es, 1luntschli, 1r-ce also held the vie3 that political science is a
science.
Political Science (Part-I) Page 

1ut some other political scientists re9ect the scientific nature of political science. +t is said that
in political science there is no uniform principles on la3s 3hich are universall- valid. Human
0ehaviour is unpredicta0le. +t, therefore, does not suppl- sufficient materials for scientific stud-.
'he essence of the scientific method is that it 3ill not accept generalizations unless the- are 0ased
on facts 3hich can 0e verified. Political scientists lie 1ucle and Comte den- the claim of
political science as a science.
'he realit- is that, a social science is different from natural science or a ph-sical science.
Science is the s-stematic stud- of the structure and 0ehaviour of the ph-sical and natural 3orld
through o0servation, evidence and e2periment. +t is the 0od- of true no3ledge ac5uired through
scientific process. 1ut in social science 3e cannot e2pect so much accurac- and precision as 3e
see in science su09ects. Hundred percentage prediction is not possi0le in social science 0ecause it
deals 3ith the 0ehaviour of man and his political institutions. . 'here is onl- remote chance for
verification and prediction in this su09ects. @hile in the stud- of political phenomena , 3e can
appl- scientific method and tools.
So-e o; Po't'% s'e*e
o3 a da-s, it is ver- difficult to determine the precise and definite 0oundaries of political
science. +t is 3ide and comprehensive su09ect and there is no uniformit- among political scientists
a0out its scope. +t is the stud- of organizations and activities of the state, 0oth at national and
international levels. +t also deals 3ith the distri0ution of governing po3er among several agencies
0- 3hich the actions of the state are determined, e2pressed, and e2ercised and 3ith the pro0lems of
international life. Bet some of the important su09ects in the scope of political science are given
0elo3!
. Po't'% S'e*e 's te St)/ o; St%te %*/ Go+er*me*t.
+n the political science 3e stud- a0out the theoretical, structural and 0ehavioural aspects of
organisation and forms of state and government. 1luntschli sa-s : political science is a science
3hich is concerned 3ith the state , endeavours to understand and comprehend the state in its
essential nature, various forms, manifestations and development.:
According to )o0son ,: the purpose of political science is to thro3 light on political ideas and
political actions so that the government of man ma- 0e improved:. 'he government is the agenc-
of the state through 3hich the purpose of the state is realised. +t is the most livel- and integral part
of the state. According to Paul 6anet :political science is that part of social science 3hich treats of
the foundation of state and the principles of the Government=.
2. It 's te st)/ o; Re%t'o*s'- @et>ee* te m%* %*/ te st%te.
'he scope of Political science also includes a stud- of the nature of relationship 0et3een the
individual and the state. 'he process of men 3ith the societ- is an important aspects of political
science. 'he state guarantees certain rights and li0erties to its citizens and at the same time impose
certain reasona0le restrictions on them. +n fact, state e2ists for the 3elfare of the people. As an
agent of the state, it is the function of the government to tr- to secure 3elfare for all 3ho live
3ithin the territorial 0oundar- of the state.
Again the government of an- state greatl- influenced 0- the thoughts and ideas of that state.
'herefore, the stud- a0out the state and government is 0ounded to 0e inconclusive 3ithout the
stud- of the nature of the people 3ho constitute the state. +t is in this connection /a2 @e00er has
stated that political science is a descriptive and normative science and descri0es it as the stud- of
human 0ehaviour in the process of en5uir- of 9ustice.
Political Science (Part-I) Page !
• 3. St)/ o; Po't'% Teor.

'he theories are the results of the thoughts and research of man- scholars and e2ponents of
political science. Political scientists formulate various political concepts and esta0lish
theories. According to Gettle , : political science is concerned 3ith the historical surve- of
origin, development of political theories and ideals, the anal-sis of the fundamental nature
of the state, its organization, relation to the individuals that compose it and its relation to
other states :. +t is the stud- of the fundamental 5uestions of the state , government,
politics, li0ert-, 9ustice, propert-, rights , la3, the enforcement of legal code 0- authorit-
etc.
+t ma- 0e su0divided into political philosoph-, legal political theor-, the concept of
sovereignt- and legal controls for the e2ercise of political po3er, scientific political theor- ,
consisting of empirical o0servations of political events etc. So a student of political science
must start his stud- of the su09ect 3ith the theories.
• 6. St)/ o; -o't'% '*st't)t'o*s.
Political Science is also concerned 3ith the stud- of political institutions and associations
through 3ith the state acts. +t covers the stud- of the constitutions, comparative government,
pu0lic administration and local government etc. .+t also deals 3ith the nature of different
political institutions including government, their structure such as legislature, e2ecutive and
9udiciar-, its 3oring, its merits and demerits etc. 8urther it studies a0out some informal
groups lie social, economic, educational institutions in a societ-.
• 4. St)/ o; -o't'% /*%m's.
Political d-namics e2amines the current forces 3hich e2ert influence on the government
and politics. Along 3ith the change of ha0its also are 0ound to occur of men, social s-stem
also change. 'his e2plains 3h- the cit- states of ancient times are replaced 0- the nation
states in the present centur-. 'he search for the cause of this ind of changes in the
character of the state and government is the stud- of political d-namics. +t covers a 3ide
range and includes the stud- of political parties, pu0lic opinion pressure groups, lo00ies ,
etc. 'he stud- of these political d-namics helps to e2plain the political 0ehaviour of
individuals and different groups.
• 1. A st)/ o; I*ter*%t'o*% re%t'o*s, '*ter*%t'o*% or%*'%t'o*s %*/ '*ter*%t'o*% %>.

Political science deals 3ith the matters relating to the maintenance of international relations,
the international la3 and the organization concerned 3ith the maintenance of 3orld peace
and securit-. 'he human societ- is no3 thining in terms of forming a 3orld government
in the near future. +nternational la3 provides the frame3or 3ithin 3hich the states should
en9o- their rights and duties. 'his has made it necessar- to include in the stud- of political
science. +t is related to the maintenance of international relations and different organisations
connected 3ith the maintenances of peace and securit- among the states of the 3orld.
'he su09ect matter includes international la3, international and regional organisations lie
7, *uropean nion, A/, SAA)C and 4eague of ations, diplomatic relations ,
treaties and agreements, arms control, human rights, pollution control and glo0al 3arming ,
sustaina0le development etc.
. St)/ o; -o't'% -%rt'es %*/ re%te/ or%*'%t'o*s.
Political Science (Part-I) Page "

+n a democratic state, political parties pla- an important role in formation and functioning of
government. 'he- are regarded as an unavoida0le and central part for the successful 3oring of
democratic political s-stem. +ts studies are important for understanding the nature and 3oring of
political institutions of a countr-. 'he stud- of political science is also concerned 3ith the stud- of
informal institutions through 3hich the state acts . ie. pressure groups ,interests groups and other
related social, economic, educational institutions etc.
#. It st)/'es o; P%st, Prese*t %*/ F)t)re /e+eo-me*t o; St%te
'he scope of Political Science includes the stud- of the past , present and future of
states and its activities. According to Gettle , : +n the historical aspects, Political Science deals 3ith
the origin of the state and the development of political theories in the past......... in dealing 3ith the
present it attempts to descri0e and classif- e2isting political institutions and ideas. Political Science
also loo to the future, to improving political organizations and activities in the light of changing
conditions and changing ethical standards:. so its scope is not restricted to the stud- of the past
and the present alone , 0ut it directs future course of the development of the state. 'he stud- is
also helpful to improving the political institutions and modif-ing political activities in order to
meet the changing national and international demands.
Im-ort%*e o; Po't'% S'e*e
@h- stud- politicsE
• 'o understand his position in relation to state.
• 'o stud- political thought and ideas of the great political 'hiners.
• 'o understand the current political pro0lems and find solutions.
• /ae people conscious of their rights and o0ligations.
• 'o understand the current trends
• 'o provide information a0out international la3s ,international legislation, organizations
and maintenance of 3orld peace and international 0rotherhood.
• Anal-se political parties and pressure groups .
• +t maes people vigilant , develop a spirit of cooperation, ad9ustment and tolerance.
• +t deals 3ith great political events lie 8rench )evolution, American 3ar of +ndependence
and freedom movements.
• +t helps to form pu0lic opinion .
• Helps people to safeguard their li0ert-.
• +t prevents to misuse of po3er of government.
• +t improve the 5ualit- of government and administration.
• +t provides no3ledge of the political terminolog-.
• 4i0eralises the human outloo .
• Developing and strengthening a li0eral democratic values and a3areness.
• 'o understanding the political decision!maing process.
Political Science (Part-I) Page #

A--ro%es to te st)/ o; Po't'% S'e*e

According to an D-e , the 3ord : ;approach; is define to denote the criteria emplo-ed in
selecting the 5uestions to as and the data to consider in political in5uir-.: +n political science
different scholars and students emplo- different criteria in order to anal-se the data and find out
the ans3ers of the 5uestions. 'hese criteria have 0een designated as approach.
Alan 1all in his ;/odern Politics and Government ; has categorised the approaches into
traditional and modern or ne3 approaches.
+n the traditional approaches include under the follo3ing  $a% ormative $0% Philosophical
$c% Historical,and $d% +nstitutional approaches. 'he modern approach could 0e divided as
$a%1ehavioural $0% Post 1ehavioural ,and $c% /ar2ian approaches.
Normati! a""roa#$
+n the normative or classical period, political pro0lems 3ere anal-sed philosophicall-. 'he
method 3as deductive and the approach 3as normative. +n this period the ethical 0asis and moral
purpose of the political communit- 3as anal-sed in detail 0- the political philosophers. 'he
purpose of this approach is to clarif- the 3ords and terms used 0- the political philosophers. 'he-
spent too much of their times on the pro0lems of ends and means and also in descri0ing the ideal
state.
'he interpretation of normative approach in political activities evoes intersts in the mind of
the students of political science. +t studies the state, government, and man on political 0eing is full-
mi2ed 3ith the pursuit of certin goals, morals, truths, or high principles. 'he 3ritings of Plato,
Ho00es, 4oce, 1entham and Hegel have the characteristics of the classical period. 'he- 3ere
ver- particular in finding the standards or values of life li e 9ustice, freedom and happiness.
P'oso-'% A--ro%
Philosophical approach is another traditional or classical approach to the stud- of political
science. +t is one of the oldest approaches to the stud- of politics and also no3n as speculative or
ethical or metaph-sical approach. 'he philosophical approach attempts to find the truths of political
events or incidents. . +t is mainl- concerned 3ith the anal-sis of the nature and fundamental
attri0utes of the state, the concept of political o0ligations, the nature of political authorit- and other
pro0lems of philosophical in nature.
According to an D-e :philosoph- denotes thought a0out thought. Some3hat more
0roadl-, it denotes general conceptions of ends and means, purposes and method:. 'he purpose of
philosophical approach is to clarif- the 3ords and terms used 0- the political philosophers. +t
e2plores the o09ective of political 3ritings or the purpose of political 3riter. +t also aims to
enhance linguistic clarit- and reduce linguistic confusion. 'his method starts 3ith assumptions
a0out the nature and end of the state 0ased on philosophical ground.
H'stor'% A--ro%
Historical approach is another traditional approach of stud-ing political science. Histor-
serves as a 0est ind of la0orator- for political science. +t is the store!house of the past incidents
pertaining to human life. 'he stud- of histor- gives us not onl- information a0out 3hat happened
in the past 0ut also a0out the utilit- and futilit- of various institutions of various times.
Political Science (Part-I) Page 1$

According to Gilchrist, the historical approach as the chief method of stud-ing political
phenomena and sa-s,: is the historical method, properl- to understand political institutions, 3e
must stud- them their religion, their gro3th and development . Histor- not onl- e2plains
institutions 0ut it helps us to mae certain deduction for future guidance. ......:. Histor- tells us
ho3 government, political parties and man- other institutions 3ored, their successes and failures
and from these 3e receive lessons 3hich guide for the future course of action.
'he approach is reached on the assumption that political science emerged out of socio!
economic crisis as 3ell as the reactions the- leave on the minds of the great thiners. 8or e2ample,
conditions of ancient Greece created Plato and Aristotle , the "; the centur- *ngland produced
Ho00es and 4oce, the capitalist s-stem created /ill and /ar2 etc.
I%tit'tio%a( a""roa#$
+n the light of the emergence of other social sciences from the second half of "F th centur- ,
the need for a narro3er and precise definition of political science 3as felt. 'he institutional
approach sho3s a shift in the scope , methods, and o09ective of the discipline of political science.
+t gives importance to the stud- of formal as 3ell as informal structure of political institutions lie
e2ecutive, legislature , 9udiciar-, political parties, pressure and interests groups etc. in political
s-stem. +t is also no3n as structural approach.
Political science 0egan to stud- formal governmental institutions. 'he nature and structure
of the legall- constituted institutions 0ecame the su09ect matter of political science. Political
philosophers 0egan to stud- the historical evolution of various political institutions. +n the 3ords of
D-e, ! the stud- of politics is the stud- of the state or of government and related institutions.
@as0- sa-s , : 'he emphasis of the institutional or structural approach is almost e2clusivel- on the
formal aspects of government and politics. Since various institutions constitute the structure of the
societ- it is also called structural approach.:
After anal-sing properl- the actual functions of various institutions political philosophers
compared them 3ith other institutions. Comparative stud- of the merits and demerits of the
different s-stems lie unitar- and federal , parliamentar- and presidential territorial and
proportional representation 3as made 0- the political philosophers of the institutional period. 'he
emphasis 3as on the importance of the governmental institutions and practice in promoting social
conditions and realising moral and political purposes.
'he advocates of institutional approach do not consider the impact of institutions or rules
upon the individuals. @ithout individuals the institutions have no practical importance , thus it has
0een vehementl- criticised.
B!$aio'ra( a""roa#$
1ehaviouralism is one of the most important developments in the stud- of political science
in the th centur- .+t is also considered to 0e a ne3 or modern approach to the stud- of political
science. )eall-, the approach started 3ith a protest movement of American political scientists
against the traditional stud- of political science. 'he- 0elieved that the traditional approaches
totall- neglected the political phenomena. 'herefore , the- developed a ne3 approach for the
careful stud- of political phenomena ,i.e 0ehaviour approach. 'he- 0egan to adopt the methods of
natural sciences lie o0servation, surve- and measurement in political science. 'he e2ponents of
this method 3as Harold D. 4ass3ell, George Catlin, Charles /erriam, David *aston etc.

Me%*'*
'he 0ehavioural approach is reall- 0ased on the assumption that political institutions and
nature of political events are largel- determined 0- the nature and 0ehaviour of the people. 'he
political 0ehaviour of individuals and groups ma- determine the mode of operation of the state
itself. So the essence of the 0ehaviouralist approach is its central focus on political 0ehaviour of
individuals.
'he 0ehaviouralist attempt to understand political phenomena realisticall- in term of
o0served and o0serva0le data. +t is the e2planation, formulation and h-pothesisation of the
o0served and o0serva0le 0ehaviour of men in respect of the governance of the countr-. 'he use of
more and more scientific means inspired several political philosophers to consider political science
as a value free science. 'hat means the- aim at the creation of a s-stematic casual theor- and not a
value theor-.
1ehaviour approach , according to Dhal, : is an attempt to improve our understanding of
points 0- seeing to e2plain the empirical aspects of political life 0- means of methods, theories
and criteria of proof that are accepta0le according to canons and assumptions of modern political
science:.
C%r%ter'st's o; Be%+'o)r % A--ro%
Some of the general characteristics of 0ehaviouralism 3hich are given 0elo3

". Mo+eme*t o; Protest9
1ehavioural approach started 3ith a protest movement of American political scientists
against the traditional stud- of political science. 'he- 0elieved that the traditional approaches
totall- neglected the political phenomena. 'he- changed their emphasis from the ideal state ,
government and political institutions to da- ! toda- political pro0lems of citizens. Hence Dhal
has o0served correctl-  : Historicall- speaing , the 0ehavioural approach 3as a protest movement
3ithin political science........:.
. Fo)s o* Be%+'o)r9
'he main emphasis of 0ehaviouralism is upon the political 0ehaviour of the individuals.
'he- insist upon the collection and anal-sis of data regarding individual;s 0ehaviour in political
activit-. 'he- argued that , it must 0e clear that the 0ehaviour of the individuals is moulded 0- his
o3n ps-chological mae!up and the social atmosphere in 3hich he lives.
I. S'e*t';' o)too= %*/ o@et'+'t9
1ehaviouralism stresses the special importance of the scientific outloo and o09ectivit-.
'he use of more and more scientific means that inspired several political philosophers to consider
political science as a value free science.
J. Meto/oo'% Re+o)t'o*9

1ehaviouralism 0rought a0out a methodological revolution in political science. 'he- started

to adopt the methods of natural sciences lie o0servation, surve- ,intervie3s, research, case
studies, dated collection, statistical anal-sis, 5uantifications ,measurement etc. in political science.
. I*ter /'s'-'*%r st)/9
'he political 0ehaviour of an individual is a part of the total social 0ehaviour of all the
individuals. +n order to get a proper understanding of political pro0lems, a modern researcher
needed the help of other social sciences. According to 4ipson :3e have no3 reached the point
3here all social science must , operate 3ith a common conceptional scheme and voca0ular-:.
*ulou o0served : A man;s political 0ehaviour is onl- one of his total 0ehaviour as a social 0eing,
political 0ehaviour anal-sis must 0e interdisciplinar-...........:
L. I*+e*t'o* o; S'e*t';' Teor
'he main aim of the 0ehaviouralists is to 0uild a scientific theor- 3ith the help of
o0servation and e2perimentation, 3hich ma- 0e a0le to predict things and 0e applied universall-.
C%r%ter'st's o; Be%+'o)r%'sm %s '+e* @ !%+'/ E%sto*
David *aston ,one of the most important e2ponents and founders of the 0ehaviouralist
political school of thought , has summed up eight characteristics of this approach. 'he- are
regularities, verification, techni5ues, 5uantification, values , s-stematisation, pure science and
integration. 'hese are called ; +ntellectual 8oundation Stones; of 1ehaviouralism.
1% Re)%r't'es Discovera0le uniformities in political 0ehaviour and can 0e e2pressed in

generalisations.
. $er';'%t'o*s9 *mpirical or scientific verifications of human 0ehaviour for scientific result.
I. Te*')es  *mphasises the adoption of correct techni5ue for ac5uiring and interpreting the
scientific data.
J. )%*t';'%t'o* Precision in the recording of data and the statement of finding re5uires
measurement and 5uantification.
. $%)es9 Political science is the scientific stud- of politics in its functional aspects , carried
through empirical methods and has nothing to do 3ith moral or ethical 5uestions.
L. Sstem%t'%t'o*9 )esearch in political science must 0e theor-!oriented and theor-!directed
and also closel- interrelated.
. P)re S'e*e9 +n order to solving social pro0lems the- mae research and developed scientific
theories.
#. I*ter%t'o* 'he- applied inter!disciplinar- approach for the 0etter understanding of political
phenomena.

'he 0ehaviouralists made significant achievements in the development and refinement of the
tools and techni5ues of research. Political science has 0een 0enefited in certain areas lie voting
studies , stud- of political elites and pu0lic opinion as a result of the 0ehavioural revolution. 'he
developments in the 0ehavioural sciences, thus are :a good deal more revolutionar- in the realm of
techni5ue than that of validated and e2panded theor-:.
Cr't''sm o; @e%+'o)r% %--ro%

". 1ehavioralism concerns more 3ith techni5ues than result.
. 'he- emphasise the importance of 0ehavioural effect at the cost of institutional effect.
I. Politics can never 0e value!free as held 0- 0ehavioralists.
J. 'he- have 0een concentrating their stud- mainl- on the static su09ects rather on the current
pro0lems.
. +t is difficult to stud- the ever changing 0ehaviour of man 0ecause the emotions, ideas and
thining go on changing continuousl-.
Pot)B!$aio'ra( A""roa#$
 8ailure of 0ehaviouralism to deals 3ith the practical pro0lems of 3orld, failure to

converting political science into a pro0lem solving science, over!emphasis on research methods
and tools and dissatisfication 3ith 0ehaviouralism led to the gro3th of a ne3 and strong
movement in political science called Post!1ehaviouralism. David *aston 3as an ardent advocate of
Post!1ehaviouaral movement. *aston is of the opinion that the 0ehaviouralists are doing useless
research. He 3as dissatisfied 3ith the t-pe of research and teaching done 0- the 0ehaviouralists
3ho 3ere tr-ing to convert the stud- of politics i nto a more rigorousl- scientific discipline 0ased on
the methodolog- of the natural sciences.
Fe%t)res o; PostBe%+'o)r%'sm
'he characteristics or features of post!0ehaviouralism 3hich are given 0elo3
. O--os't'o* to +%)e ;ree so'% s'e*e 9
'he post!0ehaviouralists are deadl- opposed to the attempts of the 0ehaviouralists in maing
political science as a value ! free science. Post!1ehaviouralist give due consideration for values
unlie the 1ehaviouralists 3ho thin of a value free science. alues should not 0e sacrificed for
scientism. David *aston o0serves  :)esearch a0out and constructive development of values 3ere
ine2tinguisha0le part of the stud- of politics. ...........Hence, to understanding the limits of our
no3ledge 3e need to 0e a3are of the value premises on 3hich it stands and alternatives for
3hich no3ledge could 0e used:.
. A Mo+eme*t o; Protest9
'he post!0ehaviouralists assert that the political science must 0e relevant to societ-
and it must deli0erate over such 0asic issues of societ- as 9ustice, li0ert-, e5ualit-, democrac- etc.
*aston asserted that the role of the intellectuals has 0een must 0e to protect human values of
civilization.
I. I*teet)% Mo+eme*t 9
'he post!0ehaviouralism is not confined to a particular section of societ-. +t is a sort of

+ntellectual /ovement and its follo3ers can 0e found amongst all sections of societ- . :Studies
should 0e relevant and meaningful for urgent social pro0lems.
J. PostBe%+'o)r%'sts oo= to te ;)t)re >e@e'* o; te so'et9
'hough the post 0ehaviouralists prefer the 0ehavioural approach to the traditional approach
0ecause it is empirical. 'he strong demands of the post 0ehaviouralists are >relevance? and
>action?.. . Kno3ledge should 0e put into practice, change should 0e the aim of political anal-sis
and for future 3ell!0eing of the societ-.
C%r%ter'st's o; -ost@e%+'o)r%'sm %s '+e* @ !%+'/ E%sto*9
". Su0stance must have precedence over techni5ue.
. *mphasis should 0e on social change and not social preservation
I. Political science should not lose touch 3ith 0rute realities of politic
J. Political science should not 0e value!free science.
. Political scientists must protect human values of civilization.
L. Post! 1ehaviouralists emphasis action in place of contemplative science.
. rgent need to politicise the profession.
'hus post 0ehaviouralists introduce a ne3 orientation in political science 3hich 3ill
encourage political scientist to improve political life according to human criteria. *aton sa-s <to
no3 is to 0ear the responsi0ilit- for acting and to act is to engage in reshaping societ-=.
Mar*ia% a""roa#$
/ar2ian approach to stud- of political science is 0asicall- different from the traditional
and modern approaches. /ar2ian approach provides us a theor- of social change and scientific
philosoph- 3hich help to understand the la3s of social development. +ts main ideas are found in
the ;Communist /anifesto ; and ;Das Capital, the t3o monumental 3or of Karl /ar2.
+n order to understand the /ar2ian approach to political science 3e must to no3 the
li0eral vie3s on politics first, since these t3o s-stems poles apart. According to the li0eral theorists,
the state is an instrument of pu0lic good, that the sovereignt- is rested in the people and a0ove all
that democrac- is the 0est form of government. 'he li0erals also 0elieve that the authorit- of state
is 0ased on the general 3ill and that the aim of the state is to ensure the 3elfare of the people.
/ar2 re9ects the formal or li0eral approach of conventional political anal-sis and puts
forth a more comprehensive sociological anal-sis of politics. According to /ar2, the material
conditions determine the ideological super!structure of societ- and politics is actuall- conditioned
0- the economic s-stem. +t holds that economic s-stem determines the classes structure and as
there is a change in the means of production , distri0ution s-stem and e2change , so there is
corresponding change in the relations of masters and slaves, the feudal lords and the serfs, the
capitalists and the 3orers, the dominant and the dominated classes.

/ar2ism holds the vie3 that all phenomena that 3e e2perience are material, concrete and
o09ective. Again it holds that all phenomena are characterised 0- internal contradictions. 'he
process of development through internal contradictions is called Dialectical Process. So to
understand an- phenomena one must grasp its nature as changing. Human life necessitates the
consumption of certain articles. 'hese articles are reall- produced 0- men . 'he 3a- 0- 3hich
these articles are produced is called means of production. 'he relations of production divided men
into t3o 0asic classes. 'he- are the class controlling means of production through o3nership or
other3ise and the class 3hich contri0ute its la0our po3er. 'hese classes are opposed to each other
0ecause their intersts are mutuall- opposed. 'his leads to class conflict or class struggle.
'he /ar2ist stand for class 3ar, encourage class consciousness, and prepare the people for
a revolution to alter the e2isting class dominated capitalist s-stem. According to Karl /ar2s the
onl- 0asis of the su09ect of politics is po3er and that to an integration of all po3ers! political,
economic and ideological. /ar2 had a 5uite different attitude to3ards the individual. He felt that a
man is first a social creature and then onl- a political creature. His life should 0e seen through the
prism of societ-. 'he dominant class in the societ- has invented the state to hold on economic
po3er and e2ploit the other classes in the societ-. A man cannot have separate e2istence from the
societ- and he should see his salvation through the societ- not individuall-. 'his state of
contradictions can end onl- in the esta0lishment of a socialistic societ- .
Political Science (Part-I) Page 1

CHAPTER II
THE STATE
'he term ;State; occupies the highest place and central theme in the stud- of political
science. 'he modern term <state= is derived from the 3ord <status= earlier used 0- the German
tri0e ;'eutons;. 'he Grees used the 3ord ;Polis; to denote the ;cit-!state; and )omans used the term
;Civitas; 3hich means state. +t 3as the +talian scholar /achiavelli 3ho used the term >state? in
political science in the modern sense. +n political science the term >state? 3e mean an
association of people 3ho live 3ithin a geographical area under an organised government and
su09ect to no outside control
State is an institution to ensure la3 and order and maintain harmon- of social relations.
+t creates those conditions, 3hich are necessar- for the development of individual personalit-. +t
creates la3s and rules to regulate human 0ehaviour. +t stand for the 3elfare of societ- as 3hole
and protect the rights and life of citizen from internal and e2ternal distur0ances or 3ar.
'he ordinar- people usuall- use the 3ord state in a 3rong 3a-. +t is 3rong to e5uate the
3ord state 3ith government, nation or societ-. @hen the- sa- >state aid to industries? >state 0us?
etc., actuall- the- mean >government aid to industries? >government 0us? etc. 8urther, the
constituent units of a federation are called <states= , for e2ample, various states in +ndia and the
federal states in the .S.A. 1ut as far as our stud- is concerned the term state is used in a different
3a-s.
+n the scientific sense of the term <the state means an assem0lage of human 0eings
occup-ing a definite territor-, organised under a government supreme 3ithin the countr- and
su09ect to no outside control=.
!e;'*'t'o*s o; st%te
'he term ;state; has 0een defined differentl- 0- various political thiners. Some of the
popular definitions are given 0elo3
'o 5uote /ac +ver : some 3riters define the state as essentiall- a class structure, others
regard it as an one organisation that transcends class and stands for the 3hole communit-. Some
interpret it as a po3er s-stem, others as 3elfare s-stem. Some vie3 entirel- as a legal construction
either in the old Austinan sense 3hich made it a relationship of the governors and governed or as a
communit- organized for action under legal rules. 'o some it is a necessar- evil and to a ver- fe3 ,
an evil that 3ill some da- 0e unnecessar-:
". According to 1odin, the state is : an association of families and their common possessions ,
governed 0- supreme po3er and 0- reason:.
. Dr. Garner! <A state is a communit- of persons more or less numerous, permanentl- occup-ing
a definite portion of territor- independent or nearl- so of e2ternal control of possessing an
organised government to 3hich the great 0od- of inha0itants render ha0itual o0edience:
I. @oodro3 @ilson! <'he state is a people organised for la3 3ithin a definite territor-=.
J. H.6. 4asi! <State is a territorial societ- divided into government and su09ect claiming 3ith its
allotted ph-sical area, a supremac- over all other institutions=.
. 1luntschli! <'he state is politicall- organised people of a definite territor-=.
Political Science (Part-I) Page 1!

L. Holland defines the state as : a numerous assem0lage of human 0eings generall- occup-ing a
certain territor- amongst 3hom the 3ill of the ma9orit- or class made to prevail against an- of
their num0er 3ho oppose it :.
. Aristotle defined the state as : a union of families and villages having for its end a perfect and
self ! sufficing life 0- 3hich 3e mean a happ- and honoura0le life:.
#. According to /ar2ist opinion M : the state arose as a result of division of societ- into
antagonistic classes for the purpose of cur0ing the e2ploited ma9orit-. 'he state is the political
organisation of ruling classes 3hich uses it for the purpose of suppressing the resistance of its class
enemies. +t is an organisation for the maintenance of the rule of one class over the other classes.
'o achieve this the state possesses such instrument of po3er as an arm- , the courts, a police
force, etc.:
F. 'he modern conception of the state, ie3s of G%@r'e Amo*/ %*/ Ro@ert !%  Almond
used the term : political s-stem: instead of the state. According to him: political s-stem is the
s-stem of interactions to 0e found in all independent societies 3hich perform the functions of
integration and adaptation $ 0oth internall- and vis!a!vis other societies% 0- means of emplo-ment,
or threat of emplo-ment , of more or less legitimate ph-sical compulsion:. : 'he Political S-stem:
he e2plains, : is the legitimate, order maintaining or transforming s-stem in the societ-:.
Eeme*ts o; te St%te
'he a0ove definitions given 0- various 3riters sho3 that there are four elements of a state
namel- Population, 'erritor-, Government and Sovereignt-. 7f these four elements, the first t3o
are ph-sical , the third political and the fourth spiritual. 'he essential four elements are discussed
0elo3.
. POPULATION
Since state is a human institution and highest of all human associations there can 0e no
state 3ithout human 0eings. state can e2ist in an uninha0ited land. 'here is no limit for the num0er
of citizens in a state. According to Plato, an ideal state should consist of J , 3hile Aristotle
fi2ed the population of state at ".. Ho3ever, in the modern times the scholars have not
ventured to fi2 an- upper or lo3er limits of population. 'heir num0er should either 0e too small to
0e self sufficient nor too large to 0e 3ell governed. 'he People?s )epu0lic of China is the largest
state in respect of population and San /arino in +tal- i s the smallest.
'he modern state gives preference to the 0ig size population 0ecause, the 0igger the
population, the greater 3ill 0e its man po3er. 'he- can fight for a longer period of time during the
3ar period. 'his is the reason 3h- azi German-, 8ascist +tal-, and communist )ussia encouraged
mothers to have more issues. Such mothers 3ere called <Heroine mothers=. @hile the pro0lem of
these countries is one of decline of population, the pro0lem of state lie +ndia is one of phenomenal
increase in her population. 'he accepta0le rule, as Dr. Garner sa-s that, population must 0e
sufficient to provide a governing 0od- and num0er of persons to 0e governed and of course
sufficient to support a state organisation.
2.TERRITORY
A modern state cannot e2ist 3ithout territor-. omadic tri0es and g-psies 3andering from
one place to another could not form a state. 1ut no limit can 0e laid do3n on territor- as in
population.
Political Science (Part-I) Page 1"

'he largest state in size is the former .S.S.) ,3hose area covered a0out one 0- si2th of the
3orld, 3hereas atican in )ome has an area of a0out Js5uare miles. 'he advantage of small state
is that the- remain compact and 3ell governed. 1ut at the same time, the- are at great
disadvantage as in the matters of difference and natural resources. 1ut size is no inde2 of
greatness . An- ho3 the modern age is definitel- of large territorial state 0ecause a large state can
mo0ilise all its resources for the economic and social 3elfare and defence.
I. GO$ERNMENT
Government is an essential element of the state. +t is the agenc- through 3hich the 3ill of
the state is formulated, e2pressed and realised. +t is the dut- of the government to protect the
sovereignt- and integrit- of the state, maintain la3 and order, protect citizens from e2ternal
aggression, solve the dispute among citizen and 3or for the all round development of the people.
Hence Government is indispensa0le 0ecause there can 0e no civilised e2istence 3ithout i t.
Government ma- var- from state to state. Democrac- is popular in +ndia, *ngland,
America, 8rance, +tal- etc, communist government is popular in epal and /ilitar- government in
Paistan, 'ure- etc.
J. SO$EREIGNTY
Sovereignt- means supremac- of the state. +t is the most important element of the state. +t is
sovereignt- that differentiates the state from all other social organisation. Since state is supreme in
internal and e2ternal matters. Sovereignt- is of t3o t-pes!internal sovereignt- and e2ternal
sovereignt-. +nternal sovereignt- means that the state has no control over the institutions and the
people of the state. *2ternal sovereignt- means that the state is free from the control of other states.
Or''* o; St%te
State is the central su09ect of stud- of political science. So political scientists have sho3n
een interest in understanding the origin and development of state. /an- theories have come up on
the origin of the state. 1ut there is no precise ans3er to the 5uestion ho3 and 3hen the state came
into 0eing.
'he theories advanced so far 0- the political thiners on the origin of the state areM
• 'he theories of divine origin.
• 'he theor- of force
• 'he theor- of social contract
• 'he patriarchal theor-
• 'he matriarchal theor- and
• 'he *volutionar- theor- or Historical theor-
7f these e2cept the *volutionar- theor- the other theories are not accepted as correct
theories on the origin of the state.
Te E+o)t'o*%r teor or H'stor'% teor
'his is the most scientific theor- on the origin of the state. 'he theor- assumes that a state is
a historical gro3th. 'he state is neither the result of an artificial creation nor it originated at a
period of time. 'o 5uote 4eacoc <the state is a gro3th , an evolution , the result of a gradual
Political Science (Part-I) Page 1#

process running through all the no3n histor- of man and reading into remote and unno3n part=.
6ohn /orle-, Gettel, Garner, 1urgess and 4eacoc are the supporters of this theor-.
Te Eeme*ts o; te or''* o; te st%te

According to the advocates of the *volutionar- theor-, Kinship, )eligion, 8orce, @ar and
Conflict, *conomic activities and political consciousness 3ere some of the various factors 3hich
contri0uted to the origin of the state. 'he part pla-ed 0- each of them ma- 0e stated as follo3s.
.'*s'-
+n the primitive societies people 3ere united on the 0asis of Kinship. +t has 0een a
significant factor in the evolution of the state. +t has pla-ed an important part in earl- civic
development. ).. Gilchrist sa-s that <0lood relationship is an inevita0le 0ond in societ-=. 'he
closest 0ond of inship is the famil- composed of father, mother and children. @ith the e2pansion
of the famil- arose ne3 families and 0- the multiplication of the families of the same stoc, tri0es
or clans 3ere formed. 'hese tri0es or clans pla- a ver- important part in the organisation of the
state 0- their unification.
Henr- /ane sa-s : Kinship created a common consciousness , common interest and
common purpose:. According to /ac +ver it is the Kinship 3hich create the societ- and societ- at
length create the state. 'hus 3e understand that inship pla-ed an important role in the gro3th
and development of the state.
2.Re''o*
+nfluence of religion over primitive societ- 3as ver- great. ational phenomenon lie
floods and thunderstorms 3ere 0elieved to 0e the 3ill of God in ancient times. 'he-, therefore ,
sought remedies for them in the 3orship of god alone. Since ever-one did not no3 the procedures
of 3orship the- authorised a priest to 3orship god on their 0ehalf. 'he priest in course of time
turned into a ruler, and thus , the state came into e2istence.
As supplementar- to the religion the influence of magic ma- also 0e mentioned here.
/agicians e2erted some influence on the minds of the people, 3ho 3ere ignorant and superstitious.
@e have historical evidences in support our vie3. 'he 6ehova 3orship 3as the strongest
force , 3hich united the tri0es of +srael. Prophet /ohamed united the scattered and unsettled races
and tri0es of Ara0ia. Conse5uentl- the people of Ara0ia emerged into a po3erful nation. 'hus
religion assisted in the formation and the development of the state 0- strengthening the unit- of the
tri0e and authorit- of the chief.
3.Fore
8orce pla-ed a dominant role in the gro3th of the state. 'he formula generall- accepted in
the primitive communities 3as <might is right=. Huntsmen and herdsmen possessed a crude t-pe of
organisation. 1ut the- 3ere po3erful and su09ugated the peasants 3ho 3ere compelled to pa-
tri0ute to their victor. 1ig groups called tri0es, having some common features, organised a 9oint
force. 'he tri0e having a 0etter organisation started attacing and con5uering its group.
"%r %*/ o*;'t e- '* te %m%%m%t'o* o; ;%m''es '*to %*s , o; %*s '*to tr'@es
%*/ tr'@e '*to %rer )*'ts t%t @eome te st%te. "'t te >e%=e*'* o; ='*s'- , te
%--'%t'o* o; ;ores @eome *eess%r ;or te m%'*te*%*e o; -e%e %*/ or/er. Te oer'+e
;ore eer'se/ @ te e%/er e+e*t)% /e+eo-e/ '*to -o't'% so+ere'*t. 'his resulted in

the domination of the strong over the 3ea. According to /ac +ver con5uest and domination paved
the 3a- for the emergence of the state.
6. Eo*om' At'+'t'es
*conomic factors such as possession of 3ealth and propert- contri0uted much to the origin
of the state. 'he primitive people had three successive economic stages that 0rought a0out
corresponding changes in the social organisation. 'he- 3ere Huntsman stage , the Herdsman stage
and the Hus0andman or Agricultural stage.
+n the )*tsm%* st%e people 3ere 3andering people and had no private propert- !there
3as no distinction 0et3een the rich and the poor. Hunting 3as onl- the source of livelihood . +n
the er/sm%* st%e there 3as some accumulation of propert- in the hands of some people, so
certain la3s 0ecame necessar-. +n this stage, private propert- emerged in the elementar- form.
'he state ac5uired territorial character onl- in the )s@%*/m%* st%e. @ith the gro3th and
development of agriculture , people 3ere forced to settle do3n in a particular territor-. 4a3s
0ecame necessar- to protect propert- and to settle disputes regarding propert-.
Gettle sa-s : Differences in occupation and 3ealth created social classes or casts and the
domination of one class 0- another for the purpose of economic e2ploitation 3as an important
factor in the rise of Government:
4. Po't'% Co*s'o)s*ess
Political consciousness of the people is the last contri0uting factor for the development of
modern state. Political consciousness means an a3areness among the people of common purposes
and end to 0e realised through political organization, 3hich including the securit- of life and
propert-, to protect from e2ternal attac , social ,economic, moral and intellectual development and
the lie. @ith the rapid increase in population and the 3ealth, a political organization lie the state
3as needed for the maintaining la3 and order and for settling the disputes. All these led to the
emergence of political po3er and the conscious adaption of political institutions contri0uted much
to the origin of state.
@e can conclude 0- sa-ing that the Historical or *volutionar- theor- appears to 0e more
realistic theor- than another theor- regarding the origin of the state. /ac +ver sa-s,: 3e cannot
sa- 3hen and 3here the state 0egins. +t is implicit in the universal tendenc- to leadership and
su0ordination, 0ut it onl- emerges 3hen authorit- 0ecomes government and custom is transacted
into la3:.
M%r'%* Teor o; St%te
/ar2ian 'heor- of State emerged as a protest against the 4i0eral 'heor- of State. 'he
e2ponents of this theor- are Karl /ar2 and 8rederic *ngles. /ar2ism 0elieves in >Dialectrical
/aterialism? and the materialistic interpretation of histor-. He 3as totall- against the 4i0eralists
vie3 of state as a natural institution or an artificial 0od- created 0- the free 3ill of the individuals
and e2ists to promote the 3ell 0eing of all the people. He 0elieved that the state originated at a
certain stage of economic development. 'he societ- 0roe into classes , and the state 3hich arose ,
3as controlled 0- the dominant class. 'his created a 3ide gap 0et3een the haves the have!nots
and led to class struggle . 'hus the state 0ecomes a class institution and it is used to promote the
intersts of the ruling and e2ploiting classes.

8rederic *ngels thro3s ample light on this point 0- stating that : 'he state has not e2isted
from all eternit- . 'here have 0een societies that did 3ithout it , that had no conception of the State
and the State po3er. At a certain stage of economic development , 3hich 3as necessaril- 0ound up
3ith the cleavage of societ- into classes, the state 0ecomes a necessit- o3ing to cleavage:.
4enin , the founder of Communist Part- in )ussia, further clarified this point 0- sa-ing that.:
State is an organ of the oppression of one class 0- another and it create order 3hich legalises and
perpetuates this oppression 0- moderating the collision 0et3een the classes:.
/ar2ism holds the vie3 that all phenomena that 3e e2perience are material, concrete and
o09ective. Again it holds that all phenomena are characterised 0- internal contradictions . 'he
process of development through internal contradictions is called Dialectical Process. So to
understand an- phenomena one must grasp its nature as changing. Human life necessitates the
consumption of certain articles. 'hese articles are reall- produced 0- men . 'he 3a- 0- 3hich
these articles are produced is called means of production. 'he relations of production divided men
into t3o 0asic classes. 'he- are the class controlling means of production through o3nership or
other3ise and the class 3hich contri0utes its la0our po3er. 'hese classes are opposed to each
other 0ecause their interests are mutuall- opposed. 'his leads to class conflict or class struggle.
+n the /ar2ian theor-, the state is first of all considered as superstructure and so the nature
of the state depends on the nature of mode of production . Again /ar2ian theor- holds that the
state is a s-stem of violence and coercion, historicall- created in the class societies in order to
maintain and protect the mode of production . 'he state ensures the dominance and e2ploitative
po3er of the class that o3ns the means of production . 'hus state 0ecomes a class institution. +t is
used to promote the interests of the ruling and e2ploitating classes . 'hus state arises in class
societies and it is an instrument of e2ploitation.
/ar2 and 4enin interpreted the functions of the state mainl- in terms of the use of legalised
violence and forces of the stateM 'he eo /ar2ist theorists lie Antonio Gramsci have dra3n
attention to the control of ideas and opinions of ruled and e2ploited class . 'heir purpose is to
legitimise the po3er of the state in terms of moral ideological grounds. 'hus the /ar2ist vie3 of
the state promotes the domination of the class or classes that o3n the means of production 0- a
com0ination of methods ie. 'he use of direct force and through the hegemonic creation of
consensus and consent.
According to the /ar2ian vie3, state e2ists onl- in class societies 0ecause it is an instrument
of class domination. As soon as classes disappear , the state 3ill automaticall- disappear. /ar2
0elieved in the classless and stateless societ-. He said that after the communist revolution ,
dictatorship of the Proletariat Class 3ill 0e esta0lished , the capitalist or 0ourgeoisie class 3ill 0e
li5uidated and the state 3ill 3ither a3a-, and a classless and stateless societ- 3ill emerge.

FUNCTIONS OF MO!ERN STATES
Esse*t'% ;)*t'o*s %*/ O-t'o*% ;)*t'o*s N
• /aintenance of la3 and order.
• Protect life, li0ert-, propert- of the people.
• Determination of contract rights 0et3een individuals.
• Defining and punishing crime.
• Administration of 9ustice.
• Determination of political duties , privileges and relations of citizens.
• /aintenance of foreign relations , protection of its sovereignt- internal and e2ternal .
• 8inancial functions lie ta2ation , currenc-, and coinage etc.
• /ilitar- functions.
O-t'o*% F)*t'o*.
• )egulation of trade and industr-.
• )egulation of 3ages.
• /anagement of transportation.
• /aintenance of communication s-stem.
• /aintenance of sanitation
• Providing education etc.

CHAP'*) ! +++
SO$EREIGNTY
'he 3ord sovereignt- is derived from the 4atin 3ord <superanus= 3hich means supreme
or paramount. Although the term sovereignt- is modern -et the idea of sovereignt- goes 0ac to
Aristotle 3ho spoe of the : supreme po3er of the state:. +n this technical form it 3as first used
0- the 8rench 3riter 1odin in his 0oo ;)epu0lic;. According to 1odin <sovereignt- is the
supreme po3er of state over citizens and su09ects unrestrained 0- la3.=
Sovereignt- is the most important characteristic 3hich distinguishes the state from all other
organizations. 'he state is supreme and it is a0ove all individuals as 3ell associations. +n one 3ord
3e can sa- sovereignt- denotes the supremac- of the state internall- and e2ternall-. Hence the
concept of sovereignt- is one of the most fundamental concepts in the stud- of political science.
Definitions of sovereignt-.
". :Sovereignt- is the supreme po3er of state over citizens and su09ects unrestrained 0- la3.=
! 1odin
. < Sovereignt- is the supreme political po3er vested in him 3hose acts are not su09ect to an-
other and 3hose 3ill cannot 0e over ridden= ! Grotious
I. :1- sovereignt- + understand the original , a0solute , unlimited universal po3er over the
individual su09ect and all association of su09ect. +t is un derived and independent po3er to
command and compel o0edience ! 1urgass
J. : Sovereignt- is the supreme 3ill of the state: ! @illough0-
. Sovereignt- is the : commanding po3er of the state M it is the 3ill of the nation organised in the
state , it is the right to give unconditional orders , to all individuals in the territor- of the state:
! Duguit
L. :Sovereignt- is the dail- operative po3er of framing and giving efficac- to the la3s:
!@oodro3 @ilson
T>o %s-ets o; so+ere'*t
'here are t3o aspects of sovereignt- internal sovereignt- and e2ternal sovereignt-.
I*ter*% so+ere'*t ! +t refers to the supreme authorit- e2ercised 0- the state over the people and
territor- that it controls. +t is a0solute in authorit- over all individuals or associations 3ithin the
state. +t issues orders to all men and all associations 3ithin that area and it receives orders from
none. 'he 3ill of the state is a0solute and it is su09ect to no legal limitations. +n the 3ords of 4asi,
:Sovereignt- is legall- over an individual or group , he possesses Supreme Coercive Po3er.:
Eter*% so+ere'*t ! 1- e2ternal sovereignt- 3e mean that the state is independent of an-
compulsions or interference from the part of other states. *ach independent state reserves the
authorit- to renounce trade treaties and to enter into militar- agreements. 'hus 0- e2ternal

sovereignt- 3e mean that ever- state is independent of other states .+n other 3ords, e2ternal
sovereignt- means national freedom.
C%r%ter'st's o; so+ere'*t
According to Garner, follo3ing are the characteristics or attri0utes of sovereignt-
". Perm%*e*e  +t is the chief characteristic of sovereignt-. Sovereignt- lasts as long as an

independent state e2ists. 'he death of a King or the overthro3 or the change of a particular
s-stem of the government does not lead to the destruction of sovereignt-. 6ustice Sutherland of
.S.A. said : )ules come and go M governments end and forms of government change M 0ut
sovereignt- is never held in suspense:. 'his is the reason 3h- people in *ngland used to sa- :King
is dead, long live the King:.
. E)s'+e*ess 'he sovereign po3er is e2clusive prerogative of the state and is not shared 0- it
3ith another authorit- or group. +n the state there can 0e onl- one sovereign 3ho can legall-
compel o0edience from all persons and associations 3ithin its 9urisdiction. 1- this 3e mean that
there can 0e no t3o sovereigns in one independent state. +f t3o sovereigns e2ist in a state the unit-
of that state 3ill 0e destro-ed. 'here cannot e2ist another sovereigns state 3ithin the e2isting
sovereign state.
I. A om-ree*s'+e*ess 'he state is all comprehensive and the sovereign po3er is universall-
applica0le. *ver- individual and ever- association of individuals is su09ect to sovereignt- of the
state. o association or group of individuals ho3ever rich or po3erful, cannot resist or
diso0e- the sovereign authorit-. Sovereignt- maes no e2ception and grants no e2emption to
an- one.
J. I*%'e*%@''t Sovereignt- is inaliena0le. 1- inaliena0ilit- 3e mean that the state cannot

part 3ith its sovereignt- .+n other 3ords 3e can sa- that the sovereign or the sovereign state
does not remain, :if the sovereign or the state transfers his or its sovereignt- to another
person or another state. Sovereignt- is the life and soul of the state and it cannot 0e alienated
3ithout destro-ing the state itself.
. I*/'+'s'@''t +t is the essence of sovereignt-. Sovereignt- cannot 0e divided 3ithout 0eing

destro-ed . 'he division of sovereignt- leads to the disunit- of state. +n the 3ords of Gettell : the
concept of divided sovereignt- is a contradiction in terms . +f the sovereignt- is not a0solute ,no
state e2istsM if sovereignt- is divided , more than one state e2ists :.American statesman Calhaun has
declared= sovereignt- is an entire thing to divide it is to destro- it. +t is the supreme po3er in a
state and 3e might 9ust as 3ell spea of half s5uare or half a triangle as half a sovereignt-:.
L. A@so)te*ess A0soluteness of sovereignt- means that there is no legal po3er 3ithin the
state or outside the state superior to it. 'he authorit- of the sovereign is not su09ect to an-
internal or e2ternal limitations. He is a0solute and unlimited the sovereign is entitled to do
3hatever he lies.
T-es o; So+ere'*t

Le%'st' +'e> o; So+ere'*t or A)st'*'%* Teor o; So+ere'*t Or Mo*'st' Teor o;

So+ere'*t
'his is also no3n as monistic theor- of sovereignt-, this theor- finds its e2pression in the
3ors of 6ohn Austin an *nglish 9urist of the "F th centur-. He e2plains his theor- in his 0oo
=4ectures on 6urisprudence=. He formulated his theor- 0ased on the teachings of Ho00es and
1entham.
His theor- of sovereignt- ma- 0e summarised as follo3s.
< if a determinate human superior, not in the ha0it of o0edience to a lie superior, receives
ha0itual o0edience from the 0ul of a given societ-, that determinate superior is sovereign in that
societ-, and the societ-$including the superior%is a societ- political and independent, la3 is the
command of a determinate human superior to an inferior=.
An anal-sis of Austinian theor- of sovereignt- sho3s the follo3ing distinctive features of
sovereignt- and la3.
".According to Austin,in ever- independent societ- there is a sovereign po3er and this sovereign is
a determinate person or 0od- of persons.
.'he po3er of sovereign is legall- unlimited. 'here is no la3 to limit the po3ers of the sovereign.
I.'he sovereign receives ha0itual o0edience from the 0ul of its people. 70edience must 0e a
matter of ha0it not merel- occasional.
J.'he po3er of the sovereign is indivisi0le. 'he sovereign po3er is a0solute and incapa0le of
limitations.
.4a3s are the commands of the superior and 3ithout the superior. 'here can 0e no la3.
+n short, Austin affirms the e2istence of supreme po3er, 3hich is determinate ,a0solute,
inaliena0le, indivisi0le, all comprehensive and permanent.
Critical vie3s
/an- 3riters have severel- criticised Austin?s theor- of sovereignt-. Hentr- /aine ,4asi,
Sidvic are its main critics.
According to Hentr- /aine, in man- empires of the east, there 3as nothing corresponding to
the determinate superior of Austin. He gives the e2ample of /ahara9a )an9ith Singh of Pun9a0,
3ho e2ercised despotic po3ers over his su09ects 0ut 3as at the same time 0ound 0- the customar-
la3s of the communit-. o sovereign can ignore the social customs of the societ-. So /aine
concludes that sovereignt- has never 0een a0solute.
Hence sovereignt- is divisi0le and it must 0e divided 0et3een the state and various other
associations.
Another criticism is that Austin?s theor- of sovereignt- is difficult to appl- in the e2isting
states. +n the SA it is difficult to locate Austin?s sovereignt-. either the union nor the state
governments can 0e called sovereign 0ecause the po3er of each is specified and limited 0- the
constitutions.
Austin?s contention that sovereignt- is a0solute and unlimited has also 0een challenged.
Sovereignt- is never a0solute in the real sense of the term. o sovereign has unlimited po3er. 'he

sovereign ma- 0e legall- unlimited 0ut there are political and historical limits. 1luntchli sa-s <the
state is not almight- ,for it is limited e2ternall- 0- the rights of the other states and internall- 0-
the rights of its individual mem0ers=. 'hus there are e2ternal and internal limitations over the
sovereign.
+t is also argued that the theor- of Austin 3ould lead to legal despotism. 'here should 0e
limitations on the po3ers of the various organs of government.
8rom the a0ove critical anal-sis, the concept of sovereignt- is unrealistic. Austin has
ignored the social force and influences 3hich lie at the 0ac of legal sovereignt-. His theor- la-s
under stress on the legal aspect of sovereignt- and ignores the force of pu0lic opinion. 4a3 is not
merel- a command of the sovereign 0ut also an instrument of social 3elfare. +n spite of these
defects, Austin?s theor- of sovereignt- is clear ,matter of fact and logical.
P)r%'st' +'e> o; so+ere'*t
Pluralism and Pluralistic theor- of sovereignt- 3as a reaction against the /onistic or
A0solute theor- of sovereignt-. 'he Pluralists, unlie the monists , 0elieve that sovereignt- is not
the e2clusive prerogative of the state and is shared 0- the various groups and associations in the
societ- . +t 3as a reaction against unlimited state and sovereignt-. +t 3as a voice to control, limit
and divide the sovereignt- of the state. +t 3as a movement of la0our , economic, religious,
professional association and unions for the fulfilment of demands of price and po3ers against
state.
According to pluralists, sovereignt- resides not onl- 3ith the states 0ut it resides 3ith man-
other institutions. 'here e2ist man- social ,political, cultural and economic, institutions in the
societ- and man- of these institutions are prior to the state. 8or /aine concludes that Austin?s
theor- is inconsistent 3ith the idea of popular sovereignt- . Democrac- is 0ased on the principle
that sovereignt- resides in the people. 1ut according to Austin the sovereign is a determinate
person and ever-0od- else is su0ordinate to him. Austin does not tae into account political
sovereignt-. He ignores the massive influences of the political sovereign.
Austin?s definition of la3 3hich forms the 0asis of his theor- cannot 0e accepted. According
to him, la3 is the command given 0- a superior to an inferior. 1ut in fact, all la3s do not flo3
from the sovereign. +n ever- societ- there are customar- la3s 3hich have gro3n up through
usages. According to Duguit, : la3 is 0inding not 0ecause it is made 0- state 0ut 0ecause it is
necessar- for the attainment of social solidarit-:. 4asi finds the individual conscience to 0e the
true source to la3.
Austin?s contention that sovereignt- is indivisi0le also has 0een re9ected. +n ever- political
societ- there is a division of functions. 'he pluralists challenge the claim of the state to en9o-
supremac- on the ground that societ- consists of several associations and the state is onl- one
among them. Hence the state cannot 0e endo3ed 3ith sovereign po3er of the communit-, e2ample
famil- and church are prior to the state. According to pluralists , the state is not onl- the supreme
institution. 7n the contrar- lie other institutions the state is also one of the institutions of societ-.
'hus the state does not reserve the authorit- to e2ercise sovereignt- according to his 3ill.
Sovereignt- is not his private propert-. 'he pluralistic state is therefore <simpl- a state in 3hich
there e2ists no single source of authorit-=.
Harold 4asi, 6  8iggis , *arnest 1arer, G D H Cole A. D. 4indsa-, Duguit, /aclver
and others are the e2ponents of pluralism.
Te ;oo>'* %re te m%'* -o'*ts o; -)r%'sm.
". Societ- is not unit- 0ut unit- in diversit-. 'here are man- interests in societ-.
. 'he state is an association lie man- other associations of societ-. Sovereignt- and state are
not all comprehensive.
I. 'he state can not have unlimited and a0solute sovereignt-.
J. Sovereignt- of the state is not indivisi0le. +t should 0e divided 0et3een the state and other
association.
. As man has to o3e allegiance also to other organisation and associations of societ-. His total
allegiance is not and can not 0e to3ards the state.
L. 4a3 is not the command of the sovereign as it is 0ased on moral and natural rules, customs,
traditions etc.
. 'he e2ternal sovereignt- of the state is restricted 0- international la3s.
Cr't''sm
". 'he state is needed to control various t-pe of institutions e2isting in societ-. +t is the sovereign
state that 0rings a0out unit- and regulates all the association e2isting in societ-. 'he supporter of
pluralism have to realise the need of the state for this purpose.
. +f sovereignt- is divided among various associations e2isting in societ- , the division lead to the
restriction of sovereignt-. As a result anarch- 3ill prevail in societ- and there 3ill 0e chaos.
I. /an- of the pluralists 0elieve that la3 is superior to the state and the state is controlled 0- la3.
1ut this h-pothesis is 3rong 0ecause la3s are framed 0- the state.
J. +t is a mere illusion and not a realit- that other associations are e5ual in status to the state.
. +f the associations in a state are transferred limited sovereignt-, societ- 3ill deteriorate and
mutual dispute 3ill arise.
L. State is needed for protecting people from the e2cess of associations.
Pluralism has not 0een a0le to have a solid 0ase, so far as its attac on sovereignt- is
concerned. +t can 0e termed as a misfired short on the state sovereignt-. Pluralism is a 3ea theor-.
+t is unpractical so far as politics is concerned ,anarchic as a social theor-, unscientific as an
economic theor- and am0iguous as legal theor-.

CHAPETER I$
LA" , LIBERTY, EUALITY, <USTICE, RIGHTS, AN! !UTIES.
LA"  MEANING AN! !IMENSIONS
+t is difficult to give an e2act definition of la3. 4a3s have different meanings at different
times. +t prescri0es the general conditions of human activit- in the state. +t refers to 0od- of rules
3hich regulate and guide human conduct in various spheres of state and individual activities. +t is a
0od- of principles recognized and applied 0- the state through a set of institutions. 'he- are
virtuall- commands, ordering or prohi0iting certain actions and affect ever-da- life and societ- in a
variet- of 3a-s. 'he policies of the state are e2pressed through la3 and diso0edience to la3s
involves punishment.
!e;'*'t'o*s.
'he term la3 is derived from the old 'eutonic root >lag? 3hich means something 3hich lies
fi2ed. +n *nglish language the term la3 is used to denote something 3hich is uniform. 'he 72ford
dictionar- defines la3 as :a rule of conduct imposed 0- an authorit-:. Some of the definitions of
la3 are as follo3s
". @oodro3 @ilson : la3 as the portion of that esta0lished thought and ha0it 3hich has gained
distinct and formal recognition in the sphere of uniform rules 0aced 0- the authorit- and po3er of
the government:.
. 6ohn Austin : la3 as a command of a sovereign 3ho receives ha0itual o0edience from the
people living 3ithin his 9urisdiction:.
I. Holland  : A la3 is a general rule of e2ternal human action enforced 0- a sovereign political
authorit- :.
J. Salmond : 4a3 is a collection of the rules 3hich the state recognises and applies in the
administration of 9ustice:.
. '.H.Green : 'he la3 is a s-stem of rights and o0ligations 3hich the state enforces:.
L. Pound  : 'he la3 constitutes 0od- of principles recognised or enforced 0- pu0lic and regular
tri0unals in the administration of 9ustice:.
. Kra00e  :4a3 is the e2pression of the 9udgements of value 3hich 3e human 0eings mae 0-
virtue of our disposition and nature:.
8rom the a0ove definitions there are certain characteristics of la3
". 4a3 is concerned 3ith the e2ternal actions of the people.
. 4a3 is definite and is universall- applica0le.
I. 4a3 is enforced 0- the supreme authorit- of the state.
J. 4a3 is essential for maintaining peace and order in the state.
. iolation of la3 is a crime and is punisha0le.

L. 4a3 is concerned 3ith the e2ternal 0ehaviour of man.
. 70edience of la3 is compulsor- .
#. 4a3 is meant for the 3elfare of all.
SOURCES OF LA".
According to Holland , Customs ,)eligion , *5uit- , 6udicial Decisions, Scientific Discussion
and 4egislation are the ma9or sources la3.
". CUSTOMS 9
Customs pla- a decisive role in the framing of the la3s. +t is the earliest source of la3 and
pla- an important role in the gro3th of la3s. /ost of la3 spring from the customs and are
recognised 0- the state. +n ever- societ- people o0serve certain common rules of conduct. 'hese
rules of conduct are popularl- no3n as customs. +t ma- 0e defined :as a 0od- of rules universall-
accepted and follo3ed due to their utilit-:. @hen the state came into e2istence it recognised some
of the customs and these ac5uired the status of la3.
2. RELIGION 9
+n primitive societ- religion pla-ed a decisive role in the framing of la3s. 4ie customs
religion has 0een the earliest school of la3. +t highl- influenced and regulated the social
conduct of the people. @ith the passage of time , the religious principles 3ent deep into human
ps-cholog-. 'he modern 9urists had to incorporate the religious principles in the 0od- of la3. +n
+ndia 3e can got the Hindu 4a3 0ased on the Code of /anu, the /ohammedian 4a3 0ased on
Ouran and the Christian 4a3 0ased on the 1i0le. +n ancient +ndia, it 3as the dut- of the King to
uphold Dharma and the source of the Dharma 3as the edas.
3. EUITY9
Another source of la3 is e5uit-. +t means fairness or 9ustice. 6udges in ever- countr- have
contri0uted a lot to3ards the process of la3 maing .'he- mae ne3 la3s in the course of their
9udicial decisions. Sometime a case a0out 3hich e2isting la3s are silent ma- come up 0efore a
9udge. +n such case , he 3ill give his 9udgement 0- consulting his o3n sense of 9ustice and fair!
pla-. +n the 3ords of Gilchrist ,: *5uit- is an informal method of maing ne3 la3 or altering old
la3, depending on intrinsic fairness or e5ualit- of treatment:.
6. <U!ICIAL !ECISIONS OR A!<U!ICATIONSJ
6udicial decisions pla- an important role in the framing of la3s . Gettell said that the state :
arose not as the creator of la3 0ut as the interpreter and enforcer of custom:. 'he function of the
6udge is to interpret and declare la3. 'hrough its interpretations , the 6udge maes ne3 la3s and
later on recognised 0- the state. +n this 3a- 9udicial decisions are another source of la3.
4. SCIENTIFIC COMMENTARIES.
Scientific discussion and commentaries are the another source of la3. 'he commentaries
or 3ritings of great 9urists sometime 0ecome the important source of la3 . 'he- are valua0le for
the la3-er and 9udge. +t is referred during the discussions of a particular case in a court of la3.: +t
provides the 0asis for ne3 la3 , not the ne3 la3 itself: 8irstl- the commentar- appears for the
convince of argument, 0ut later on 3hich the authorit- is recognised and it 0ecomes la3. 8or
e2ample the commentaries of 1lacstone and Coe greatl- influence to 1ritish legal s-stem.
1. LEGISLATION

4egislation is the modern and most important source of la3 especiall- in democratic
countries. 4egislature constantl- repeals and amends the old la3s 3hich are outdated. +t maes
ne3 la3s to meet the re5uirements of time. +t is a0sor0ing other sources of la3s. Hence in the
3ords of @oodro3 @ilson : All means of formulating la3s tend to 0e s3allo3ed up in one great,
deep and 0roadening sense, legislation:. Gilchrist sa-s : it is the chief source of la3 and is tending
to supplant the other sources. Customs and e5uit- are 0oth largel- replaced 0- legislative acts. 'he
codification of la3 tends to narro3 do3n the field of 9udicial decisions as a source of la3 and
scientific commentaries are used merel- for discussions:.
IN!S OF LA"S
4a3
N

N N
$ational or /unicipal 4a3% $+nternational 4a3%
N

N N
$ Private 4a3% $Pu0lic 4a3%
N

N N
$ Constitutional 4a3 % $ 7rdinar- 4a3 %
N

N N
$ Criminal 4a3 % $ Administrative 4a3 %
. I*ter*%t'o*% L%> 9
+t is a 0od- of rules 3hich governs the relationship among independent sovereign states.
'hese la3s are not framed 0- an- sovereign la3 maing authorit- nor is an- sovereign authorit-
to enforce them. 'hese la3s are meant for regulating the conduct of various state in the 3orld.
2. N%t'o*% or M)*''-% L%>9
+t is the 0od- of the rule interacted 0- the state and governs the rights and duties of the
citizen to3ards each other and to3ards the state 3ithin the municipal 0oundaries. @hile
+nternational 4a3 is the la3 0et3een the states, ational or /unicipal 4a3 is the la3 3ithin the
state.
3. P)@' L%> 9
+t is the la3 3hich determines the relationship 0et3een the state and the citizens. According
to Holland , :the pu0lic la3 is concerned 3ith the organization of the state , the limits on the
functions of the government and the relation 0et3een the state and the citizens:.

J. Pr'+%te L%> 9
+t is the 0od- of rules 3hich governs the relationship of people among themselves. +t
regulates and determine the relations of citizens to one another. +n the 3ords of Holland,: the
parties concerned the private individuals a0ove and 0et3een 3hom stands the state as an impartial
ar0iter:.
. Co*st't)t'o*% L%> 9
+t is the supreme la3 of the land . 'he la3s that define, interpret and regulate the functions
of the government are no3n as Constitutional 4a3. +t is through these la3s that various organs
of the government are regulated and relation 0et3een the state and citizens are esta0lished. +t ma-
0e 3ritten or un3ritten and usuall- enacted 0- a constituent assem0l- setup for framing the
constitution.
L. Or/'*%r L%>9
'he 7rdinar- 4a3 is framed 0- the government as the part of national la3 0- 3hich the
relations of individuals are determined. +t is permanent in nature and considered to 0e the part of
the la3 of the land.
L. A/m'*'str%t'+e L%>9
Administrative 4a3 is the part of pu0lic la3 3hich regulates the conduct of
pu0lic officials in discharge of their duties.
Administrative 4a3 determines the mutual rights and duties of pu0lic officials and the citizens.
'his la3 is not administered 0- the the ordinar- courts 0ut 0- the administrative courts. +n the
3ords of Dice-, Administrative 4a3s interpret the office and the responsi0ilities of government
servants.
. Commo* L%>9
Common la3 is 0ased on customs, traditions, and usages. 'he- are recognised and
enforced 0- courts in *ngland. @hen this common la3 attain in 3ritten form it is no3n as civil
la3.
LIBERTY
'he term li0ert- is derived from the 4atin 3ord >li0er? 3hich means free. +t has 0een defined in
various 3a-s 'he centre theme of li0ert- is the a0sence of all restraints and freedom to do 3hatever
one lies. 1ut it is not possi0le to have such a li0ert- 3hile living in societ-. /an is a social
animal and he is living in societ-. He must , therefore , ad9ust his li0ert- 3ith due regarding to the
li0ert- of others. )egulation of human conduct and 0ehaviour is indispensa0le in social life. 'he
fundamental ma2im of li0ert- is that la3 is the condition of li0ert-. Prof. 1arer has pointed out that
9ust as the a0sence of ugliness does not mean presence of 0eaut-, so the a0sence of all restrains does
not mean the presents of li0ert-. 8reedom is a ver- precious condition 3ithout 3hich neither the
state nor the individuals can mae an- progress.
!e;'*'t'o*s
". G.!.H Coe defines li0ert- <%s te ;ree/om o; e+er '*/'+'/)% to e-ress >'to)t eter*%
'*/r%*e '* 's -erso*%'t.D
. Pro;.Seee defines li0ert- < %s te %@se*e o; restr%'*ts or te o--os'te o; o+er o+er*me*t .=

I. Her@ert S-e*er !!<L'@ert 's te ;ree/om to /o >%te+er o*e '=es -ro+'/e/ 't /oes *ot
'*)re te ;ee'*s o; oters.D
J. G%*/' !! :L'@ert /oes *ot me%* te %@se*e restr%'*t @)t 't 'es '* /e+eo-me*t o;
L'@ert.
. ;4i0ert-; According to B)r*s, : me%*s '@ert to ro> to o*e:s *%t)r% e't, to /e+eo-
o*e:s %@''t'es.
L. H%ro/ L%s=' m%'*t%'*s, : 3ithout rights there cannot 0e li0ert- 0ecause, 3ithout rights , men
are the su09ects of la3 unrelated the needs of personalit-:
NATURE OF LIBERTY
Ne%t'+e Co*e-ts o; '@ert
1erlin defines egative 4i0ert- as a freedom from interference from others. +t means
a0sence of unreasona0le restraints. Simpl- negative li0ert- means, the a0sence of coercion 0-
individuals or institutions over interference into the private sphere of an individual. +t assures
dichotom- 0et3een t3o areas of activit- , the area of pu0lic authorit- and area of private life.
Ho3 3ider or narro3 are the t3o respective areas is a matter of discussion and determined 0-
social and economic circumstances. 4i0ert- is 3ider and activit- is also 3ider if interference
from others is minimum.
4i0ert- alone can ena0le a person to develop his personalit- . 'he state should guarantee
onl- non!interference 0- one 3ith the other. So far as the choice of the individual is concerned, he
must 0e his o3n master. 'he individualist school of thought 3as the main supporter of negative
concept of li0ert-.
'he ma9or e2ponents of negative concept of li0ert- are 6.S./ill, Her0ert Spencer , 1entham,
Smith etc.
Pos't'+e Co*e-ts o; L'@ert
Positive concept of li0ert- means that the state creates positive conditions for a good life. +t
demands conditions 3hich are essential for self development of the individuals. *ver- individual
must en9o- the 0enefit of social life. +n the 3ords of 4asi ,: li0ert- means the eager maintenance
of that atmosphere in 3hich men can have the opportunit- to 0e their 0est selves:. 'hus positive
concept of li0ert- means the removal of hindrances from the 3a- of good life and the creation of
e5ual opportunities for all. All the modern democratic states have more or less accepted this
positive concept of li0ert-.
Positive concept of li0ert- 3as advocated 0- 4asi, '.H. Green, Kant, Hegel.
'*/s o; L'@ert
. N%t)r% L'@ert9
atural li0ert- is generall- identified 3ith unlimited and unrestricted freedom. atural li0ert-
according to Ho00es, is the a0solute right of man in the state of nature to all things including the
right to ill other man. +n the social life no man en9o-s natural li0ert- since he is su09ect to
regulations and rules named 0- the government and moral pressures of societ-.

'he advocates of natural li0ert- hold that man is free 0- nature and that it is civilization,
3hich is responsi0le for his 0ondage. )ousseau 3as the chief e2ponent of the concept of natural
li0ert-, and natural li0ert- e2isted in that state of nature. He sa-s men lost his natural li0ert- 3ith
emerges of the state or civil societ-.
. C'+' L'@ert9
Civil li0ert- implies freedom en9o-ed 0- the people in civil societ-. Civil li0ert- is created
0- the civil rights guaranteed 0- the state. 'he more the civil rights, the more the civil li0ert-.
According to Gettle ,: civil li0ert- consists of the rights and privileges 3hich the state creates and
protects for its su09ects:. +t is manifested in concrete terms in rights such as the right of freedom,
the right of life, freedom of speech and e2pression, propert-, association, education etc.
I. Po't'% L'@ert9
Political li0erties are 0ased on the political rights of an individual and is the freedom to
participate in the political life and affairs of the state. Political li0ert- is essentiall- associated 3ith
democrac- and it maes a state into a democratic one. @ithout political li0ert- neither the state
can 0e democratic nor the individual can en9o- full civil li0erties. 'he t3o essential conditions
necessar- for the e2istence of political li0erties are education and free press. +t consists of the
right to vote, right to stand for election, right to hold pu0lic office and the right to criticise the
government.
J. Eo*om' L'@ert9
*conomic li0ert- implies that the 0asic necessities of life should 0e assured to ever-0od- .
+t means a0sence of economic disparities , e2ploitation , insecurit-, unemplo-ment and
starvation. *conomic li0ert- is said to 0e the mother of all other li0erties. Civil and political
li0erties 0ecome meaningless in the a0sence of economic li0ert-. +n his 0oo ; Grammar of
Politics;, Prof 4asi defines economic li0ert-thus: 1- economic li0ert-, + mean securit- and the
opportunities to find reasona0le significance in the earning of one;s dail- 0read.......:.
. Mor% L'@ert9
/oral li0ert- implies the right of an individual to act according to his conscience . +t means
the freedom of an individual to act as rational 0eing. +t is given an opportunit- to e2press and
develop his personalit-. +t is possi0le in a democratic state and not in a totalitarian state. +n
totalitarian state people are e2pected to act according to the orders of the government and not
according to their inner conscience .
L. N%t'o*% L'@ert
ational li0ert- implies the li0ert- of the nation or the countr-. +t e2ists 3here the
nation or the communit- is independent and sovereign. +t means that, a nation 3hich is
completel- free from foreign domination. *ver- nation has a 0irthright to regulate its national
life as it lies. +f a nation is under the control of others, no cultural, social, economic and political
developments are possi0le.
S%;e)%r/s o; L'@ert
". Est%@'sme*t o; !emor%.

4i0ert- can e2ists onl- in a democratic form of government. +n a democratic government run
0- the elected representatives of the people, government is accounta0le to and remova0le 0- the
people. +n this s-stem, political po3er reall- resides in the hands of the people.
. F)*/%me*t% R'ts 9
Another prere5uisite of li0ert- is that there should 0e a supreme la3 of the countr- , namel-,
the constitution. +t is the onl- constitution that confines the authorit- of the state. Constitution of
democratic countries lie America and +ndia , 3hich should 0e incorporate certain fundamental
rights to the people, 'hese rights protect the personal li0erties of citizens from the state
interference. 'hus constitution safeguards the li0ert- of the people and it is a custodian of those
li0erties.
I. I*/e-e*/e*e o; <)/''%r9
'he 9udges are the interpreters of the constitution and the courts are the custodians of the li0ert-
of the people. So li0ert- can 0e en9o-ed if there is an independent 9udiciar-. +t is completel- free
from the influence of legislature and e2ecutive. 7nl- an impartial and independent 9udiciar- can
safeguard the rights and li0erties of the people.
J. Eter*% +''%*e
4ord 1r-ce has aptl- remared, <eternal vigilance is the price of li0ert-=. People should 0e
conscious of their rights and duties and the- should 0e al3a-s read- to safeguard them . 'he-
should al3a-s alert and read- to resist an- irresponsi0le interference or encroach! ent on li0ert-
from the state.
. Se-%r%t'o* o; -o>ers9
Another condition of li0ert- is that there should 0e separation of po3ers. Separation of
po3ers is an effective safeguard for individual li0ert-. +n the intersts of individual li0ert- ,
legislature, e2ecutive and 9udiciar- 3ings of the government should 0e vested separate and distinct
organs, each independent of the other.
L. R)e o; L%>9
)ule of la3 is an essential prere5uisite of li0ert-. +t means e5ualit- 0efore la3 and e5ual
protection of la3. o0od- is a0ove la3 , la3 applies to ever-one e5uall- and violation of la3 3ill
0e punished e5uall-. +t also means that no person can 0e deprived of his life , li0ert- and propert-
e2cept in accordance 3ith la3 . +n the rule of la3 the government 3or must 0e done in
accordance 3ith the procedure prescri0ed 0- la3. 'hus the rule of la3 is an effective instrument
of individual li0ert-.
. !ee*tr%'s%t'o* o; Po>ers9
Decentralisation of po3ers ensure a large participation of people in the democratic
process of the countr- , reduces 3or load and improves the efficienc- of the government and
prevents the rise of dictatorship. 4asi o0serves that <the more 3idespread distri0ution of po3er in
the state , the more decentralised its character .......:. So at ever- level of administration there
should 0e representation of the people and that is essential for safeguarding the li0ert- of the
people.
#. A@se*e o; s-e'% o; -r'+'ee 9

Another prere5uisite of li0ert- is that none in societ- should en9o- an- privileges 0ased on
caste, se2, colour, religion, language, region or another ground. +f in a state 3hen certain
persons are given special privileges, the rights of the common man cannot 0e safeguarded. 'he
e2istence of special privileges for some spoils the spirit of li0ert- and that creates chaos and
confusion in the societ-. So a0sence of special privileges is an essential safeguard of the li0ert-.
F. Free %*/ I*/e-e*/e*t Press .
'his is an another essential condition of li0ert-. A free and independent press ensures li0ert-
of individuals. +t maes availa0le o09ective and un0iased ne3s , criticises government policies and
ena0les the people from correct attitudes to3ards various pro0lems of the da-. 'his information
helps the people to choose their representatives in elections.
". He%t P%rt Sstem.
'his is necessar- in a democratic set!up as it provides choice to the people in elections . +t is
also an important instrument for improving the political consciousness among the people. +t is the
0est safeguard of people;s li0ert- as it ena0les them to resist un9ust and cruel la3s.
Re%t'o*s'- @et>ee* %> %*/ L'@ert .
4i0ert- e2ists onl- in a ordered state. 'he state frames la3s and the sovereign state operates
through these la3s. o3 it is universall- accepted that la3s are the protectors of li0ert- and
li0ert- ceases to e2istence independence of la3.
4a3 is actuall- the condition of li0ert-. 8irst of all la3 provides congenial atmosphere for
the smooth running civil life in societ-. 4a3 punishes the criminal and defend the rights of the
individuals. Secondl- la3 guarantees the en9o-ment of individual rights and duties and protect
them from hinders. 'hirdl-, constitution is the custodian of li0ert-. 7nl- the constitution that
confines the authorit- of the state and protects the fundamental rights of the people.
EUALITY
*5ualit-, lie li0ert- is one of the fundamental pillars of democrac-. 'he American
Declaration of +ndependence in "L proclaims that : "e o/ tese tr)ts to @e se; e+'/e*t
t%t % me* %re re%te/ e)%  . 'he 8rench Declaration of )ights of /an $"#F% also
emphasises : /en are 0orn , and al3a-s continue , free and e5ual in respect of their rights:.
'he Charter of nited ations also recognizes e5ualit- in international sphere 3hen it sa-s 
: Te or%*'%t'o* 's @%se/ o* te -r'*'-es o; so+ere'* e)%'t o; % 'ts mem@ers .
*5ualit- means that all men are e5ual and should 0e entitled e5ual , opportunit- and
treatment. +t 3as the gro3th of individualism , that is responsi0le for the fresh interest in the issue
of e5ualit-. +n the 0eginning , the focus of attention 3as e5ualit- 0- 0irth i.e. natural e5ualit- and
e5ualit- 0efore la3 i.e. legal e5ualit- . +n the "#;th centur- li0eralism that leads to socio! legal
e5ualit- and in the "F;th centur- economic and political e5ualit-, gained momentum.
!e;'*'t'o*s
". : E)%'t /oes *ot me%* te '/e*t't o; tre%tme*t or te s%me*ess o; re>%r/ . I; % @r'= 
%er ets te s%me re>%r/ %s % m%tem%t''%* or % s'e*t'st, te -)r-ose o; so'et >' @e
/e;e%te/. E)%'t, tere;ore, me%*s ;'rst o; % %@se*e o; so'% -r'+'ees. I* te seo*/
-%e 't me%*s t%t %/e)%te o--ort)*'t'es %re %'/ o-e* to % LASI

.  E)%'t 's /er'+e/ ;rom te s)-reme +%)e o; te /e+eo-me*t o; '* e% '=e %*/
e)% , @)t e% %o* 'ts o>* /';;ere*t t'me %*/ 'ts o>* se-%r%te mot'o*.  BARER
'*/s o; E)%'t
". So'% e)%'t 9
Social e5ualit- means that all citizens are entitled to en9o- e5ual status in societ- and no one
is entitled to special privileges. 'here ma- 0e rational distinction in the societ- 3ith regard to
occupation and professions, 0ut the feeling of inferiorit- and superiorit- should not 0e attached to
these. +t stands for all should 0e treated e5uall- in the e-es of la3, no discrimination on grounds of
colour, caste, creed, se2, religion etc. , removal of social stigmas lie untoucha0lit- . 7n the ";th
Decem0er ,"FJ#. 7, declared the charter of Human )ights 3hich laid stress on social e5ualit-.
. Po't'% E)%'t
Political *5ualit- implies that ever-one has e5ual access to the avenues of po3er. All
citizens 3hatever ma- 0e their differences in status , education and 3ealth should have an
e5ual voice in the management of pu0lic affairs and in holding pu0lic offices. niversal adult
franchise is the e2pression of political e5ualit-. All democratic countries are 0ased the principle
of :one man , one vote , one value: is faithfull- adopted. *5ualit- of opportunit- in getting
elected and in holding pu0lic offices , freedom of e2pression and association and rights to see
redressal of pu0lic grievances are the important pillars of political e5ualit-.
I. Eo*om' E)%'t9
*conomic e5ualit- involves a certain level of income and removal of gross ine5ualities of
3ealth. *conomic e5ualit- is the prere5uisite for the e2istence and en9o-ment of political,
social and legal e5ualit-. +t does not mean e5ual distri0ution of 3ealth, 3hich is not practical,
0ut prevent the concentration of 3ealth in a fe3 hands. *conomic condition of an individual
essentiall- influences his political condition.
J. Le% E)%'t9
4egal e5ualit- or e5ualit- 0efore la3 is fundamental to legal 9ustice. 4egal e5ualit- implies
that all are alie in the e-e of la3 and that are entitled to its e5ual protection. 'he rich and poor ,
the high and lo3 should all 0e treated alie. o distinction should 0e made 0et3een man and man
on the ground of social status , religious faith or political opinion. +n short, 4egal e5ualit- or
e5ualit- 0efore la3 implies a0sence of discrimination. 'he )ule of 4a3 is practiced in the Great
1ritain and man- other countries of the 3orld.
Co*/'t'o*s Neess%r ;or Re%'s'* E)%'t
". *5ualit- is attained 3hen accidental advantages of 0irth and 3ealth are eliminated and success
or failure is made upon a0ilit- and character of individuals.
. +t is realised 3hen the la3 removes all discrimination 0ased on caste, class, communit-,
religion, race or se2.
I. *5ualit- is achieved 3hen e5ual claims for ade5uate opportunities are recognised and no one
person , or class or communit- is sacrificed for the sae of another .
J. 4astl- ,e5ualit- is attained 3hen the claims all to a minimum standard of education, housing ,
food are recognised and there is guarantee against economic insecurit-.

<USTICE
'he term ; 9ustice; is derived from the 4atin 3ord : 9usticia: 3hich means 9oining or
fitting , or of 0ound or tie. 'he concept of 9ustice has 0een anal-sed and defined differentl- 0-
philosophers, political thiners , economists , sociologists and religious leaders. +t has 0een
changing from time to time , depending upon the conditions and circumstances prevailing in each
age. +t has to coordinate and dra3 a harmonious 0alance 0et3een rights and duties of the people
living in the societ-. +t is connected 3ith the moral, social, economic, political, and legal relations
of an individual 3ith others.
According to 6ohn )a3ls ,: 7ur 9ustice of the social scheme depends eventuall- on ho3
fundamental rights and duties are assigned and the economic opportunities and social conditions in
the various sections of societ-:. 'hus, the theor- of 9ustice has t3o meaning, 0roader meaning and
a narro3er meaning. +n the 0roader meaning, there are t3o vie3s! $a% 9ustice is an eternal or
a0solute concept and $0% relative concept ! differs from societ- to societ-.
+n the narro3 meaning of 9ustice is associated 3ith a legal s-stem and legal process in a
societ-. +n this sense, it is related to the settlement of disputes through 9udicial 0odies.
!e;'*'t'o*s
". : 6ustice consists of a s-stem of understanding and procedures through 3hich each in accorded
3hat is agreed upon as fair:.
 C%rs M%rr'%m
. <6ustice is the reconciler and the s-nthesis of political valuesM it is their union in an ad9usted
and integrated 3hole=
! B%r=er
I. : from each according to his capacit- , to each according to his need: ! Saint Simon
 S%'*t S'mo*
J. : All social primar- goods ! li0ert- and opportunities , income and 3ealth and the 0asis of self
respect ! are to 0e distri0uted e5uall- unless an un e5ual distri0ution of an- or all of these goods is
to 0e advantage of least favoured:.
 <o* R%>s
'*/s o; <)st'e or !'me*s'o*s o; )st'e
". Le% <)st'e
'his is the narro3 concept of 9ustice and is associated 3ith the legal s-stem and the legal
procedure e2isting in the societ-. 'he court of la3 interpret the la3 and appl- the la3 after
hearing the parties involved in a dispute. Here , 9ustice is 3hat is administrated 0- the court of
la3 and the interpretation of the 6udge is considered as an em0odiment of 9ustice. 6ustice in the
legal sense re5uires the follo3ing conditions.
a. 6ust and reasona0le non! discriminator- la3s.
0. 'he administration of 9ustice 0- free and independent courts.
c. +ne2pensive 9udicial process.
d. Court procedure should 0e simplified and avoid dela- in 9ustice.

e. 'here should 0e a )ule of 4a3 in the countr-.

. Po't'% <)st'e 9
Political 6ustice stands for a free and fair participation of people in the political sphere.
niversal adult franchise is the e2pression of Political 6ustice. All li0eral democratic countries
are 0ased the principle of :one man , one vote , one value: is faithfull- adopted. Political
institutions should 0e representative in character. *5ualit- of opportunit- in getting elected
and in holding pu0lic offices , freedom of e2pression and association and rights to see redressal
of pu0lic grievances are the important pillars of political 9ustice.
I. So'% <)st'e9
'he concept of Social 6ustice is 0ased on the 0elief that all human 0eing are e5ual and that no
discrimination should 0e made on the ground of race, religion, caste, se2, or place of 0irth.
+t has three implications. $a% e5ual social opportunities $0% special attention to 3eaer sections. $c%
removal of social evils
J. Eo*om' <)st'e 
*conomic 9ustice implies non!discrimination 0et3een man and man on the 0asis of economic
via0ilit-. +t stands for 0- assuring ade5uate means of livelihood to all, 0- maing provisions for
ade5uate 3oring conditions, for e5ual pa- for e5ual 3or, fair distri0ution of resources, e5ual
economic opportunities to all people etc. 'he concept of economic 9ustice 3as emphasised 0- the
socialistic thiners.
. M%r'sts +'e>.
/ar2ists 0elieve that economic 9ustice cannot 0e achieved unless private propert- and
capitalist control of production are a0olished completel-. 'he- thin that economic rights and
economic e5ualit- along can ensure economic 9ustice. 8urther, the- 0elieve that in the a0sence of
economic 9ustice , people cannot achieve legal, political and social 9ustice. Karl /ar2 emphasises
economic 9ustice 3ith the guiding principle : from each according to his a0ilit- , to each
according to his needs:.
R'ts %*/ !)t'es
'he rights are essential for the ade5uate development of human personalit- and for
human happiness. )ights are the necessar- conditions for the personal , social, economic,
political, mental and moral development of individuals . )ights are the social re5uirement of
a social man for the development of his personalit- and societ- at large. 4asi defined rights as :
those conditions of social life 3ithout 3hich he cannot see, in general, to 0e himself at his 0est
and ever- state is no3n 0- the right if maintains :.
!e;'*'t'o*
". < rights are nothing more an nothing less than those social condition 3hich are necessar- or
favoura0le to the development of personalit-=.
 !r.Be*'-r%s%/
.<right is a po3er claimed and recognised as contri0utor- to common good=.
 T.H. Gree*

I.=rights are those condition of social life 3ithout 3hich no man can 0e his 0est self=.
! Pro. L%s='
J. )ights as : the e2ternal conditions necessar- for the greatest possi0le development of the
capacities of the personalit-:
! Pro;. B%r=er
. : 7ne;s natural rights are one;s natural po3er:.
 Ho@@es
C%r%ter'st's o; r'ts
". R'ts %re so'% '* te'r %--'%t'o*  onl- 0- living in a societ- a man can satisf- his needs
and realised 3hat is 0est in him. 'he 5uestion of rights therefor arise onl- in societ-. A lonel- man
in a lonel- island has no rights 0ecause there is no one to attac him or to encroach his
individualit-.
. R'ts %re re%te/ to )m%* *ee/s  the- are those condition or opportunities 3ithout 3hich
3e cannot develop our po3er or latent opportunities.
I. R'ts %re *ot %@so)te if circumstances demand certain restriction can 0e put on the
en9o-ment of rights 3ith a vie3 to secure the larger interest of societ-.
J. R'ts %re *ot -erm%*e*t  'he content of rights is changing according to the changing needs
and aspirations of s societ-. 8or e2ample 0efore the invention of printing press freedom of
e2pression 3as not considered necessar-.
. R'ts %re e*er% '* %r%ter  )ights are general in sense that opportunities for self
developments should 0e e5uall- availa0le to all. 'here cannot 0e an- discrimination as far as the
application of rights.
L. R'ts 'm-'es /)t'es *ver- right has a corresponding dut-. +f + have a right, the en9o-ment of
m- rights implies a dut- on part of others. )ights are real onl- to e2tent to 3hich the- have 0een
e2cepted 0- others as an o0ligation.
. R'ts %re re%t'+e >'t ;)*t'o*s  'he num0er of rights possessed 0- an individual must
correspond to the contri0ution maes to societ-. 'he president of a countr- en9o-s more rights than
his peon 0ecause his contri0ution is definitel- greater than the peon.
CLASSIFICATION OF RIGHTS
IN!S OF RIGHTS
N
NNNN
Mor% R'ts N%t)r% R'ts H)m%* R'ts Le% R'ts
N

N N N
C'+' R'ts Po't'% R'ts Eo*om' R'ts
". )ights to life ".)ights to vote ". )ights to 3or

.)ights to freedom .)ights to contest elections . )ights to leisure & rest
I. Personal securit- I. )ights to form political parties I. )ights to form trade union
J. )ights to propert- J. )ights to hold pu0lic meetings J. )ights to ade5uate 3ages
. )ights to e2pression , . )ights to criticise govt& .)ights against e2ploitation

Speech & fee press diso0e- its un9ust la3s
L. 8reedom of assem0l- L. )ights to petition L. )ights to social securit-
. 8reedom to form unions & . )ights to pu0lic office . )ights to e5ual pa- for e5ual
associations 3or
#. )ights to e5ualit- 0efore la3 and e5ual protection of la3.

)ights are four categories the- are atural )ights , 4egal )ights, /oral )ights and Human
)ights. 4egal )ights further su0divided into three groups ie. Civil )ights , Political )ights and
*conomic )ights.
". N%t)r% R'ts 9
1- natural rights 3e mean those rights 3hich are en9o-ed 0- the people even 0efore the origin
of state. According to 3riters lie Ho00es and 4oce, natural rights 3ere those rights 3hich are
en9o-ed 0- the +ndividuals in the state of nature. According to )ousseau natural rights 3ere those
ideal rights 3hich are en9o-ed 0- the individuals 0efore the origin of the stare. 'he old vie3 3ith
regard to nature rights is not accepted toda-. 'he onl- sense in 3hich the theor- of natural rights
accepted is that these rights are considered to 0e natural and essential for the individual 3hether
the- are actuall- recognised or not.
. Le% r'ts9
4egal rights are those rights 3hich are secured 0- the state and guaranteed through its la3s.
4egal rights ma- 0e defined as the claims recognised 0- the state. 'hese rights are enforced 0- the
state through its police and courts .4egal rights are em0odied in the constitution. 4egal rights are
further divided into three categories, namel- civil rights, political rights and economic rights.
A. C'+' r'ts9
'he- are those rights 3ithout 3hich no civilised life is possi0le. Civilised life is impossi0le
under the fear of 0eing hurt, attaced, illed or our propert- confiscated. Civil rights are considered
to 0e primar- and more vital than the other t3o. 'he important civil rights are protection of life
and propert-, right to education, right to famil-, right to freedom of speech and e2pression.
1. Po't'% r'ts9
'he- are those rights 3hich ena0le the people to have a share in the administration of the
countr-. 1- e2ercising the political rights the individual participates in the affairs relating to the
administration of the countr-. 'he important political rights given to the citizens are right to vote,

the right to stand as candidate for the elections, the right to hold government office and the right to
criticise the government.
C. Eo*om' r'ts9
Political and civil rights are meaningless unless some economic rights are guaranteed.
*conomic rights are the right to 3or, the right to ade5uate 3ages and right to reasona0le hours of
3or. 'hese economic conditions are ver- essential for the economic and political progress of man.
Mor% R'ts
/oral rights are 0ased on our moralit-., 9ustice, or conscience and the- are not guaranteed 0-
an- legal authorit- . /oral rights are largel- 0ased on religious 0elief and the moral conceptions
of the people in an- societ-. 'herefore , the- differ from societ- to societ- . 'he- arise out of
man;s moral sense. )itchie defines moral rights as: the claim of an individual on others recognised
0-the societ- irrespective of its recognition 0- the state:.
J. H)m%* R'ts.
Human rights are rights inherent to all human 0eings 3ithout an- discrimination on
ground of nationalit-, region, language, origin, etc. 'hese rights are often e2pressed and
guaranteed 0- la3 , 3hich is in the form of treaties , customar- international la3 and such other
general principles.
'he niversal Declaration of Human )ights $DH)! Decem0er ", "FJ#% constitutes for
the most significant effort in the direction of protection, preservation and promotion of human
rights in the international sphere. 'he H)D has 0een termed < as an historic event of the
profound significance and one of the greatest achievement of the nited ations=.

CHAPTER $
POLITICAL SYSTEM
Sstems A*%s's  Po't'% Sstem Me%*'* %*/ C%r%ter'st's.
Me%*'* %*/ /e;'*'t'o*

'he concept of political s-stem has assumed great importance toda-. /orden political
scientists used the term -o't'% sstem instead of st%te %*/ o+er*me*t. 'he concept of
political s-stem came to political science from 0iolog- through anthropolog- and sociolog-.
'alcott Parsons and )o0ert K /erton e2ercised great influence on the use of the concept of the
s-stem in political anal-sis. 'he- influenced political scientists lie Ga0riel Almond, David
*aston, Karl Deutsch and A0raham Kaplan and others.
A s-stem is seen as an assem0l- of +nterdependence parts $ su0!s-stems% 3ho interact
among themselves. +nterdependence implies that a change in one part influences other parts ,
ultimatel- affecting the entire s-stem. +n other 3ords, a s-stem is a collection of interrelated
parts 3hich receives inputs, acts upon them in an organised or planned manner and there0-
produces certain outputs.
!e;'*'t'o*s9
". Political S-stem as < that s-stem of interactions to 0e found in all independent societies 3hich
perform the functions of integration and adaptation 0- means of the use of legitimate ph-sical
compulsion < ! Amo*/
. <A Political S-stem is that s-stem of interactions in an- societ- through 3hich 0inding and
authoritative allocations of value are m ade and implemented=  E%sto*
I. < the Political S-stem includes not onl- governmental institutions such as legislatures, courts
and administrative agencies, 0ut all structures in their political aspect= ! Amo*/ %*/ Po>e
'he concept of political s-stem has assumed great importance toda-. 1ecause it refers to the
stud- of governments in its empirical dimensions and also from a strictl- inter!disciplinar-
stand point. 'he ne3 term political s-stem reflects the ne3 3a- of looing at the political
phenomena. +n the past the focus of the stud- of political science 3as on formal institutions lie
state and government. *2tra political factors or conditions 3hich affect political events and
institutions 3ere completel- ignored. 1ut later political scientists 0ecame a3are of the fact that in
all societies the formal governmental institutions are shaped and limited 0- informal groups, their
attitude and 0ehaviour. Since these formal factors influence political processes the stud- of it is also
necessar-. +n this conte2t the stud- of political s-stem offers more comprehensive frame3ors for
political anal-sis.
According to )o0ert. A. Dahl <an- collection of elements that interact in some 3a- 3ith one
another can 0e considered a s-stem=. * g, a gala2-, a foot0all team, a legislature ,a political part-.
Political s-stem is onl- one such a s-stem. /odel of political s-stem 3as first developed 0-
David *aston ,an American political scientist. *aston defines political s-stem as the authoritative
allocation of values, 3hich 0roadl- constitutes the political process. +t is, in this sense that
political s-stem has 0een descri0ed as an open s-stem. +n other 3ords, allocation of values is made
0ecause there are corresponding demands from the societ- or environment.
Almond defines a political s-stem as the s-stem of interaction to 0e found in all independent
societies, 3hich performs the functions of integration and adaptation 0- means of the emplo-ment
or threat of emplo-ment of more or less legitimate ph-sical compulsion. 'hus political s-stem is
not the onl- s-stem that maes rules and enforces them .1ut it is the onl- s-stem that uses
compelling forces or coercive force.
Almond further e2plains that the political s-stem includes not onl- the governmental structures
such as legislatures, courts and administrative agencies, 0ut all structures in their political
aspect. Among these are traditional structures such as inship ties, caste groupingsM and anomic
phenomena such as demonstrations, riots, assassinations as 3ell as formal organisation lie
political parties interest groups and media of communication.
Political s-stem, according to )o0ert A Dhal, an- persistent pattern of human relationships that
involves to a significant e2tent control, influence, po3er or authorit- can 0e called a political
s-stem.
C%r%ter'st's o; -o't'% sstem
Almond gives five essential characteristics of a political s-stem the- are
". U*'+ers%'t o; -o't'% sstem  +t implies that all political s-stem 3hether developing or
developed have political structures. 'his means that the- have a legitimate pattern of interaction 0-
mean of 3hich internal and e2ternal order is maintained.
. U*'+ers%'t o; -o't'% str)t)res  all political s-stem have some structures that perform
some functions though 3ith var-ing degrees of fre5uenc-.
I. U*'+ers%'t o; -o't'% ;)*t'o*s to stud- political s-stem one should tae into consideration
therole of the factors of initiate, communication, authorisation, modification, voting, representation,
+nterpretation and the lie 3ith the stud- of non state institutions lie political parties, interest
groups, elites, mass media agencies etc. 'hat constitute the infrastructure of a political s-stem.
J. /ulti!functionalit- of political structures all political structures are multifunctional. +n a
political s-stem the courts not onl- ad9udicate, the- also legislate. 'he 0ureaucrac- is one of the
most important source of legislation. 'he legislative 0odies effect 0oth administration and
ad9udication. Political parties and pressure groups initiate legislation and participate in the national
administration. 'he means of communication represents interests and affect the 3oring of all the
three departments of a political organisation.
. Culturall- mi2ed character of political s-stem all political s-stem are culturall- mi2ed in
character. o political s-stem is 5uite modern or 3estern in the same sense as no individual is full-
mature
I*-)tO)t-)t A*%s's
S-stems anal-sis has t3o derivatives namel- input!output anal-sis and structural!functional
anal-sis. +nput! output anal-sis is closel- associated 3ith the name of David *aston.
*aston vie3s the political s-stem is 0asicall- an input! output mechanism, 9ust as a means
3here 0- certain inds of inputs are converted into output. +t presupposes political s-stem as
consisting of interacting roles structures and su0 s-stems and of the underl-ing ps-chological
aspects that affect these interactions .+t involves a process that ma- 0e vie3ed as consisting of
inputs from the environment or from 3ithin the political s-stem and the production of outputs into

the environment. 7utputs ma- produce changes in the environment 3hich in turn ma- affect the
political s-stem.
I*-)ts  inputs are in the form of /em%*/s and s)--orts each having four categories of activit- .
!em%*/s  demands are of four t-pes. David *aston defines demands as the ra3 materials out of
3hich finished products called decisions are manufactured.
". Demands for allocation of governments and services such as 3age and hour la3s, educational
opportunities, housing and medical facilities.
. Demands for regulation of 0ehaviour such as control over marets, provisions for pu0lic
safet-, rules relating to marriage ,health and sanitations etc.
I. Demands for participation in political s-stem such as right to vote, to see election, to hold
office ,to organise procession, to petition against pu0lic officials etc. and
J. Demands for communication and information such as communication of polic- intent from the
political elites or displa- of the po3er of political s-stem in periods of threats or ceremonial
occasions.
S)--ort9! supports are divided into four t-pes.

". /aterial support such as pa-ment of ta2es.
. 70edience to la3, rules and regulations.
I. Participator- support such as voting ,political discussion, and other forms of political
activit- and
J. Attention paid to government communication and giving respect to pu0lic authorit-,
s-m0ols and ceremonials.
O)t-)ts
As demands are processed outputs flo3 out of the s-stem into environment. 'he outputs of
the political s-stem decisions and policies fall into four categories and the- are
". *2tractions such as ta2es or personal services.
. )egulations of 0ehaviour.
I. Allocations or distri0utions of goods and services, opportunities and honour, and
J. S-m0olic outputs such as policies statement, affirmations of values, displa- of political
s-m0ols
*+)7/*'
I*-)ts
Demands Po't'% Sstem
Supports
O)t-)ts
Decisions and
Policies
8eed 0ac
Fee/ @%=
Central to *aston?s model of political s-stem is his concept of feed0ac, 3hich 3ere
0asicall- a communication process. 'he feed0acs is a d-namic process through 3hich
information a0out the performance of the s-stem is communicated 0ac to it in such a 3a-
as to affect the su0se5uent 0ehaviour of the s-stem. 7utputs are not the terminal points.
'he- feed 0ac in to the s-stem and there0- influence its su0se5uent 0ehaviour.
'he s-stem model and its derivative input!output anal-sis mar an improvement on
earlier approaches to political anal-sis. +t has great e2planator- value 3hen applied to the
anal-sis of functioning political s-stems. 1ut at the same time critics points out that lie
structural functional anal-sis, input!output anal-sis also tries to maintain status 5uo. +t
sees solutions to the pro0lems concerning persistence, adaptation and regulation of a
political s-stem.
Str)t)r%F)*t'o*% A*%s's
As a derivative of the s-stems anal-sis, the structural!functional anal-sis is a means of
e2plaining 3hat political structures perform 3hat 0asic functions in the political s-stem and
it is a tool of investigation . Structural!functional approach 3as first developed in
disciplines lie anthropolog- and sociolog- . +n anthropolog- )adcliff 1ro3n and
/alino3si emplo-ed this approach in their investigation. +n sociolog- /erton and
'alcott Parsons did the same and 3ith much more telling effect.
Structural!8unctional approach sees to discover the functions 3hich an organism or a

s-stem must perform in order to e2ist or remain in operation . +t then sets to find the
structure 0ut strictl- in light of the function. Q'o put it in a simple form, a student of the
structural!functional approach frames a 5uestion a0out the particular function to 0e
performed and 3ould then see the ans3er a0out the structure performing that function.
He, for instance 3ould not as 3hat does the human mouth $structure% doE His 5uestion
instead 3ould 0e ho3 is the human organism fedE 'he ans3er 3ould 0e through mouth. His
3a- of asing 5uestion 3ould 0e ho3 is the function of seeing perform E +n short he frames
functional 5uestions and then sees structural ans3ers. 'his is structural!functional
approachM through it 3ould have 0een even more apt to call it structural!functional
approach.
+n political science ,the structural!functional theor- 3as first applied in "FL 0- Ga0riel
Almond and 6ames Coleman to the stud- of non 3estern politics .'he primar- interest of
Almond la- in stud-ing ho3 political s-stem change from the traditional to the modern. He
regards the 3estern political s-stem especiall- that of the SA and 1ritain as the norm and
all traditional societies are seen 0- him as moving to3ards that model. +n short, traditional
societies have the opposite properties to the modern political s-stem. +t ma- also 0e said

that the- recognised a midpoint in the process of development 3hich is called transitional .
'hus political development is regarded as a change from the traditional s-stem through a
transitional stage to the modern s-stem. 'he 3estern political s-stem is regarded as the
model and all traditional societies are moving for3ards it.
E+%)%t'o* o; Str)t)r%F)*t'o*% A*%s's
'he structural!functional anal-sis is applied to the all societ- its 0asic tenet 0eing
that parts can 0e understood onl- in terms of the 3hole. 'alcot parsons evolved this
approach to stud- the social s-stem that is treating the 3hole societ- as a s-stem. 'hus
vie3ed a political s-stem 0ecomes a su0!s-stem of the larger social s-stem. 1ut this
approach ma- e5uall- 3ell 0e applied to a political s-stem as an entit- 3ith its o3n
structures functional re5uisites. 'he structural!functional anal-sis is thus a holistic frame
3or.
Secondl- structural!functional anal-sis assumes that a political s-stem as reached

0road consensus on its 0asic values, goals and commitments. 1ut such a s-stem is the
characteristics of developed countries . 8or a countr- recentl- li0erated from colonial rule
this approach ma- not 0e suita0le. Structural!functionalism is therefore 3ea and unhelpful
3hen applied to most of the developing countries, 3hich are still in a process of
evolving the necessar- 3or of institutions and structures to mae them an ongoing
s-stem.
Almond?s anal-sis cannot 0e applied to the stud- of political development in

communist countries. 1ecause according to Almond?s definition communist )ussia does not have a
political s-stem due to the a0sence of autonomous structures to regulate the rule!maing, rule!
application and ad9udication functions.

CHAPTER  $I
MA<OR CONCEPTS IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS

(PO"ER INFLUENCE 5 LEGITIMACY AN! AUTHORITY#
PO"ER
Po3er is the vital element in the stud- of political science. Political science reall- studies ho3
po3er is separated, ho3 it is o0tained, ho3 it is retained and the various 3a-s in 3hich po3er can
0e e2pressed . )eall- po3er can 0e seen in all institutions and associations of societ-. 1ut the
specialit- of the po3er of the state is that the state can afford to 3ield the strongest po3er since it
can appl- the severest sanctions lie imprisonment and death penalt- .'he concern of political
anal-sis is the stud- of po3er in all forms in human or social relation.
!e;'*'t'o*s
". <Po3er is a0ilit- to influence the 0ehaviour of others in accordance 3ith its o3n ends=.
!! E/>%r/ S's
. < po3er is the capacit- to impose one?s 3ill on others 0- reliance on effective sanctions for
non compliance=.
! S>%re*@erer
Po3er is the capacit- to affect others 0ehaviour 0- the use or threat of the use of positive or
negative sanction. So it is clear that po3er is relational and not personal propert-. 7ne can have
po3er onl- over others. +t is from the 0ehaviour of the people that po3er is assessed. Po3er is
also situational. 8or e2ample, the speaer of 4o Sa0ha 3ho has po3er over the mem0ers of 4o
Sa0ha in the conte2t of parliamentar- sessions does not have po3er over the other aspects of their
social and political life. 'he dictators use po3er crudel- and violent.
+n ever- societ- 3here po3er e2ists man see po3er. 'he success reall- depends on the
capa0ilit- of the po3er seeer. 7nce po3er is ac5uired the po3erful tries to gain more po3er.
Po3er once secured can 0e used to achieve a variet- of ends lie fame, reverence ,securit-, respect,
affection, 3ealth and man- other values.
Charles /erriam 3as the first philosopher to mae a detailed intellectual stud- of political
po3er. He considered po3er as the 0asic concept of politics. Po3er is coercive and its ultimate
sanction is force. /erriam?s solution to the pro0lem of political po3er 3as its 3idest possi0le
distri0ution. According to )ussel, concentration of political po3er is destructive to human
initiative and freedom. He o0served that men 3ho have the ha0it of po3er are unfit for friendl-
relation and negotiation.
+n the opinion of /orgenthau, lust for po3er is common to all men. All politics is a struggle
for po3er. He defines political po3er as <'he mutual relations of control among the holders of
pu0lic authorit- and 0et3een the latter and the pu0lic at large.='he most effective form of political
po3er is the legitimised authorit- of the political s-stem 3hich mae and implement decisions.
According to Catlin, it is human nature to desire to have po3er. 'o 4ass3ell political process is the
shaping, sharing and e2ercise of po3er or influence in general. He defines political po3er as
participation in the maing of decisions 3ith severe sanction. 'he e2ercise of po3er does not rest
generall- on violence, force or coercion. +t ma- e5uall- rest on faiths, lo-alties ,ha0its or i nterests .

AUTHORITY
Authorit- is a special ind of po3er. @hen political po3er gets legitimac- it 0ecomes
authorit- or the institutionalised po3er is called authorit-. Authorit- is the rights to rule. Po3er,
3hen legitimised gives rise to authorit-, 0elief that the structure, procedures, acts, decisions,
policies, officials or leaders of government possess the 5ualit- of rightness, propriet- or moral
goodness and should 0e accepted 0ecause of this 5ualit- is 3hat 3e mean 0- legitimac-. 'hus
legitimac- is the legal po3er to act.
Authorit- can 0e seen not onl- in political s-stem 0ut also in other social s-stems. 8or
e2ample, in a famil- father has authorit- over the children. 'he po3er en9o-ed 0- the state is
legitimate. 1ut in the social institutions po3er ma- 0e divorced from authorit-. +n the social
institution 3e can see the e2ercise of authorit- 3ithout right and right 3i thout authorit-.
Authorit- is the recognised right to e2ercise po3er irrespective of the sanctions the po3er
holder is a0le to appl-. 8or perpetuating a po3er relation it is highl- necessar- that po3er should
0e transformed into authorit-. 'here are various means for ac5uiring legitimac-. 7ne of the means
is the development of an ideolog-. An ideolog- ma- 0e full- utilised 0- the po3er holder to
legitimise the use of his po3er.
1esides the use of ideolog- there are certain permanent sources 3here from the po3er holder
ma- derived its legitimac-. According to /a2 @e0er, there are three t-pes of authorit- .'he- are
". 'raditional Authorit- . Charismatic Authorit- and I. )ational!4egal Authorit-.
". Tr%/'t'o*% A)tor't
'raditional Authorit- rests upon the long esta0lished customs, traditions and precedents. +n
traditional authorit- the present order is vie3ed as sacred, eternal and inviola0le. 'he elder or the
dominant person or group, usuall- defined 0- heredit-, is thought to have 0een pre!ordained to rule
over the rest. 'he su09ects are 0ound to the ruler 0- personal dependence and a tradition of lo-alt-.
+n modern 3orld, traditional authorit- onl- provided the 0asic of rule in a fe3 d-nastic monarchies
of /iddle!*ast countries.
. C%r'sm%t' A)tor't 
Charismatic authorit- relies on the e2ceptional personal 5ualities , strength, magnetism, and
some time supernatural 5ualities of a person. 'he charismatic personalities derive their rights to
rule from their e2tra!ordinar- 5ualities and the- stimulates lo-alt- among their follo3ers. 'he-
are inspiring figures 3ho emerge in times of crisis and upheaval. 'he Christ, Gandhi, /artin
4uther King or, indeed, Adolf Hitler are e2amples.
I. R%t'o*%Le% A)tor't9
)ational!legal authorit- rests on la3s , statutes, and rules and regulations. +n this t-pe of
authorit- o0edience is o3ed not an individual 0ut to a set of the legall- esta0lished principles  a
government of la3s , rather than men. 'hus su0ordinates in an organisation must o0e- la3ful
commands from their superiors, irrespective of 3ho occupies higher offices. /odern
0ureaucracies are the 0est e2ample of organisations 0ased on rational!legal authorit-.
'-pe 1asic *2ample

'raditional Custom and the esta0lished 3a- of doing things /onarch-
Charismatic +ntense commitment to the leader and his /an- revolutionar-

message leaders
4egal!
)ules and procedures of office, not the persons 1ureaucrac-.
rational
INFLUENCE
Political influence is the suita0le outcome of possessions. @ealth, health, education,
charm, and other things and the sill 3ith 3hich the- are made use of it 0ecome the ma9or factor
of influence . +n other 3ords, influence is a person?s capacit- to affect others 0ehaviour in a
3a- 3illed 0- the former. +n a societ- resources are distri0uted une5uall- among the people , so
there is an une5ual distri0ution of influence also in such a societ-. +n such a societ- 3ealth 0ecome
ma9or factor of the influence. +n +ndia, religion is the ma9or factor 3hich influence elections
and related democratic sphere. /ass media communication can ver- 3ell 0e used for influencing
the people.
@e can distinguish 0et3een po3er and influence 0- sa-ing that those 3ho have got po3er ,
the- can influence the conduct of others more easil- than those 3ho do not possess an- po3er. +t
is admitted that po3er and influence are co!related terms 0ut influence turn into po3er 3hen
sanctions enter.
LEGITIMACY
4egitimac- is a similar concept of authorit- . +t also refers to rightful po3er. +t is used in
different sense 0- political theorists and political scientists . Political theorists concerned 3ith
principles , the- sa- a government is legitimate if it conforms to some moral principles! for
e2ample , that it has 0een fairl- elected. Political scientists , on the other hand , are concerned
3ith politics as it is. 'he- sa- a government is legitimate if its citizens regard it as such.
@hether a government is democratic is onl- one influence on legitimac- in this second sense.
4egitimac- is distinct from legalit-. 4egitimac- refers to 3hether people accept the validit-
of a la3 , legalit- refers to 3hether the la3 3as made in accordance 3ith correct procedures,
normall- as laid do3n in the constitution.
POLITICAL CULTURE
Political Culture is the part of Social Culture or General Culture. +t consists of the
attitudes, 0eliefs, emotions and values societ- that relates to political s-stem. 'he term :Political
Culture: 3as formulated and used first time 0- Ga0rial Almond in fifties. According to Almond
and Po3ell, : political culture consists of attitudes, 0eliefs, orientations to3ards values and
sills 3hich are current in an entire population, as 3ell as those special propensities and patterns
3hich ma- 0e found 3ithin separate parts of that population:.
+t ma- 0e defined 0- Kavanagh : A political culture is composed of attitudes, 0eliefs, emotions
and values of societ- that relating to the political s-stem and political issues. political culture
relates to people;s attitudes to politics . +t includes political values, ideologies, national character
and cultural tendencies.:
'he people of a given societ- share a common human nature. 'his common nature are e2pressed in
the form of certain values , 0eliefs and attitudes 3hich are transmitted from one generation to
another 0- the processes of teaching and learning , 3hether formal or informal.
Political culture is a set values , 0eliefs , sills and attitudes 3ithin a political s-stem operates . +t
is the pattern of individuals attitudes and orientations to3ards politics among the mem0ers of a
political s-stem. A stud- of political culture ena0les us to understand the political ideals and
standards of 0ehaviour people have set for them self in a polit-. +t is var- from countr- to countr-
and constitutes the lin 0et3een the 0ehaviour of individuals and political events.
According to Almond and Po3ell political culture involves three components of orientations.
'he- are 
a. Cognitive 7rientation +t impl- the no3ledge of people have a0out o09ects 3ithin their
political s-stem.
0. Affective 7rientation  +t is the feeling of attachment, involvement , re9ection and the lie a0out
political o09ects .
c. *valuative 7rientation  +t indicate their 9udgement opinion a0out the political o09ects, 3hich
usuall- involve appl-ing value standards to political o09ects and events.
C%ss';'%t'o* o; Po't'% C)t)re
Amo*/ %*/ Po>e classif- political culture into three 'he- are Parochial political culture ,
Su09ect political culture and Participant political culture .
". P%ro'% -o't'% )t)re 9 +t is found in simple traditional and tri0al societies in 3hich
people have no understanding or a3areness of the political s-stem. 'he political participation or
general orientation is not possi0le in such societies. +n such societies there is ver- little
specialisation and 3here actors fulfil a com0ination of political, economic and religious role
simultaneousl-. 'heir lifest-le, attitudes political values ideologies etc. are full- determined 0-
the tri0al culture ,tri0al leaders and tri0al politics.
. S)@et -o't'% )t)re 9
'here people are a3are of national political s-stem or the governmental s-stem and 3hether
the- lie or not . Here the position of the su09ect in such a case essentiall- a passive one.
+t is mainl- 0ecause he sees there is no role or possi0ilit- of influencing 3oring of the
s-stem. 'his t-pe of political culture is found in the su09ects countries , monarchies,
totalitarian, authoritarian s-stem, etc.
I. P%rt''-%*t -o't'% )t)re 9
+n such a s-stem people are 3ell conscious of their rights and duties. +t e2ists in developed
societies 3here citizens get ample opportunities to participate in the political affairs of the state.
'he- develop a particular attitude to3ards the political s-stem. political parties, pressure groups ,
intersts groups etc. fall in this categor- and decide for themselves 3hat role the- can pla-.
J. Po't'% s)@)t)re

Political su0!culture is the part of political culture. +n some political s-stems Political su0!
cultures are ver- much predominant and 0ecause of this separatists groups and movements
are developed . +n a countr- having various races, cultures, languages, political su0!culture
comes to 0e characteristic feature of the s-stem. +n recent -ears there have emerged in man-
countries political movements and crisis 0ecome the influence of Political su0!culture.
POLITICAL SOCIALIKATION
Political Socialization is the part of general socialization processes. +t is the process 0- 3hich
political culture is shaped at the individual level and at the communit- level and its transmitted
from generation to generation. 'he process starts at an earl- age and continues throughout life.
Political 0eliefs and attitudes developed in -ounger age, ma- undergo fundamental change in older
age due to the contact 3ith ne3 education, changing social environment, ne3 e2periences in life
and performance of political part-. +t is the process , or set of processes , through 3hich people
learn a0out politics and ac5uire political values.
!e;'*'t'o*s
Amo*/ & $er@%  < political socialisation is the process 0- 3hich political culture are maintained
and changed=.
A%* R B% Political socialisation as < the esta0lishment and development of 0elief a0out
Political S-stem=.
E%sto*9 Political socialisation as < those development and processes 0- 3hich person ac5uire
political orientation and pattern of 0ehaviour=.
R)s : Political socialisation is a is a process 0- 3hich an individual 0ecomes ac5uainted 3ith
the political s-stem 3hich determine the reaction to political phenomenon:.
'here are t3o t-pes of political socialisation. Te %re M%*';est or !'ret -o't'%
so'%'s%t'o* %*/ L%te*t or I*/'ret -o't'% so'%'s%t'o*.
/anifest or Direct political socialisation is transmitting information, values or feelings , 3hich

are clearl- political. An individual learns a0out the political structures, its functions,
political process and political ideolog- under the influence of his famil- , teachers or from other
agencies.
4atent or +ndirect political socialisation means developing a general attitude to authorit- as a

result of the relationship 3ith his teachers, parents or other agencies. 'his general attitude ma-
transform into his political orientation. Here the non!political attitudes ultimatel- transform into
political orientation.
AGENTS OF POLITICAL SOCIALIKATION
'here are various agents of political socialisation. 'he most important agencies are the follo3ing.
". FAMILY9
8amil- is the first important agent of political socialisation. +t pla-s a e- role in moulding the
character of child and his attitude to3ards politics. 'he collective decisions in the famil- influence
the children. 'he participation in decision maing in the families help the people in participating

political s-stem. 'he children receive their primar- political learning from the famil-. Political
influence and learning are inculcated among the children 0- the parents. +n the opinion of Almond
and Po3ell that manifest political socialisation 0- the famil- can also have important effects. +n
developed li0eral democracies, families are found to pla- ver- vital role in the manifest political
socialisation.
. E!UCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS9
'he educational institution is the second and po3erful influencing agent of political
socialisation. +t provides manifest transmission political no3ledge to students. 'hese are the
important centres of propagating political ideas , values and pattern of political 0ehaviour.
Children getting education in a particular institution ma- develop particular ind of mind setup.
@e find that all political parties consider these institutions as a fertile land of politicall- educate
the children as per their philosoph-.
I. PEER GROUPS
Peer groups pla- an important role in shaping values orientations. 'hese groups 0eing friendl-
in nature can easil- influence other;s political vie3s. 'heir interaction on political issues is
spontaneous and not formal . 'he mem0ers of the groups are most 3illing to accept ma9orit- vie3
a0out a political issue or value after discussion. +n the li0eral societies these groups are found to
0e active.
J. MASS ME!IA9
/ass media pla-s a significant role in moulding the vie3 of the children. +n man- cases
political vie3 is shaped on the 0asis of ne3spapers and electronic media reports. At present their
role increasing rapidl- in the process of political socialisation and 0rought political change in
num0er of countries. According to 4ucian P-e , : Socialisation through the mass media is the 0est
short!run techni5ue availa0le and it is crucial to modernization:.
. POLITICAL PARTIES9
Political part- is another important agent of political socialisation. Political parties disseminate
political education, ideological teaching, political no3ledge and values, mo0ilize political action
and train political leaders. +t esta0lishes a channel of communication 0et3een the government and
the people. Parties tae active role and interest to ensure people;s participation and mae suita0le
people for the functioning of democratic government. +n short, the progress of political
socialisation, to a considera0le e2tent , depend upon the functioning of political parties.
L. RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS9
'he religious institutions pla- an important role, particularl- in the developing countries
and theocracies states in political socialisation . 'he people get easil- influenced a0out the
vie3 of religious leaders on political issues. )eligious influence is ver- high in +ndian politics,
especiall- in the regional politics. +n +ndia, man- political leaders organized Cast and tri0es
association on political lines and propagate their vie3points.
+t is a difficult tas to estimate the importance of different agents in socialising people.

'he part-, media, educational institutions all mould the political culture and political
socialisation.
POLITICAL !E$ELOPMENT
Political development is 3a- of directional change and modernization to re!structuring

the entire social, economic and political s-stem. Development means the process of
cumulative change and gro3th of a s-stem. So political development refers to that
process of change and gro3th of political s-stem as 3hole. +n the 3ords of )osto3 and P-e
political development aims at <national political unit- and 0roadening of the 0ase of political
unit- and 0oarding of the 0ase of political participation.=
4ucian P-e is the pioneer to anal-se the concept of development in depth. +n his 0oo
the > Aspects of Political Development > he e2plained directions of political development.
• Political development as the political pre!re5uisite of economic development.
• Political development as the political t-pical of industrial societies.
• Political development as political modernization.
• Political development as the operation of nation state.
• Political development as administrative and legal development.
• Political development as mo0ilization and participation.
• Political development as the 0uilding of democrac-.
• Political development as sta0ilit- and orderl- change.
• Political development as mo0ilization and po3er.
• Political development as one aspects of a multi!dimensional process of social change.
4ucian P-e o0served three 0asic characteristic features of political developments are
E)%'t ,C%-%'t %*/ !';;ere*t'%t'o*.
E)%'t ! means that all are e5ual 0efore la3, e5ual protection of la3, impersonalisation of
offices, holding offices 0ased on achievement and performance rather than traditional principles.
'his led to a greater sensitivit- on the part of the people and a 3ider acceptance 0- them of
universalistic la3s.
C%-%'t ! in political s-stem stand for the management of pu0lic affairs, control controvers-
or cope 3ith popular demand. +t pointed out the efficienc- and effectiveness of the government.
!';;ere*t'%t'o*! implies greater structural differentiation, functional specialisation and
integration of the participating institutions. 'hat means to perform specialized functions ,
specialization of structures are necessar-.

Samuel Huntington o0served that the maintenance of political sta0ilit- as the ultimate goal of
political development. According to him , the t3o areas as the 0asic elements of political
development.
8irstl-, a high degree of institutionalisation 3ith in a political s-stem. +t reflects high levels of
adapta0ilit- ,comple2it-, autonom- and coherence.
Secondl-, increasing level of popular participation. +t guaranteed people access to the decision
maing process at ever- level of social structures.
'he indices of political development are  industrialization , ur0anisation, spread of
education and literac- , increasing e2posure of the mass media, e2pansion of secular culture
,gro3th of modern and efficient 0ureaucrac- , apolitical character of the armed forces , rule of
la3 and independenc- of 9udiciar- , effective legislative 0odies , political and administrative
decentralisation , popular participation ,increasing franchise and free elections ,national integration
etc.
POLITICAL MO!ERNIKATION
Political /odernization is the process 0ased upon rational utilization of resources and aimed at
the esta0lishment of a modern societ-. +t refers to the development of sufficientl- fle2i0le and
po3erful institutional frame3or that should meeting the gro3ing demands and
accommodating change. According to @ard , it is characterised : 0- its far!reaching a0ilit- to
control or influence the ph-sical and social circumstances of its environment and 0- value
s-stem 3hich is fundamentall- optimistic a0out the desira0ilit- and conse5uences of this a0ilit- :.
+t is the s-stematic sustained and po3erful application of human energies to the rational control of
man;s ph-sical and social environment for various purposes. Huntington descri0es it as a multi!
faced process involving changes in all areas of human thought and activit-. 'hus /odernization is
a process 3hich means change in all the fields , social, cultural, ps-chological, economic and
political 0ut still it is an economic concept. +t refers to change in the political culture and olitical
institutions as a result of the process of modernization.
'he ma9or characteristics of /odernization

". Application of technolog- and mechanisation.
. +ndustrialisation and development.
I. r0anisation and infra!structural development.
J. )ise in national income and per capital income.
. +ncrease in literac- and educational institutions.
L. political participation and social involvement.
. Development of mass!media techni5ues.
#. Social mo0ilit-
F. Differentiation and decentralization.
". Cultivation of national identit-.
/odernization is a multi faced process and it has several dimensions. At the ps-chological
level it involves the change in the norms, values, attitudes and orientations of people.

Political-Science PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Political-Science PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

School of Distance Education

Political Science(Part-I) Page 1

B.A PHILOSOPHY & B.A. ENGLISH

Prepared by: Sri. Pradeep Kumar. K.

Scrutinised by Dr. G.Sadanandan, $ Co!ordinator%

Layout & Settings: Computer Section SDE

Political Science (Part-I) Page 2

B.A PHILOSOPHY & B.A. ENGLISH

Prepared by: Sri. Pradeep Kumar. K.

Scrutinised by Dr. G.Sadanandan, $ Co!ordinator%

Layout & Settings: Computer Section SDE

Political Science (Part-I) Page 2

CHAP'*) + ! POLITICAL SCIENCE 041

CHAP'*) ++  THE STATE 23

CHAP'*) +++ ! SOVEREIGNTY 26 27

CHAP'*) +  LAW, LIBERTY, EQUALITY,

CHAP'*)   POLITICAL SYSTEM 63  6

CHAP'*) +  MAJOR CONCEPTS IN

Political Science (Part-I) Page 3

Sovereignt- /eaning and Characteristics, '-pes of Sovereignt- 

$a% S-stems Anal-sis ! Political S-stem /eaning and Characteristics.

Political Science (Part-I) Page 4

Political Science (Part-I) Page 5

!e;'*'t'o*s o; Po't'% S'e*e

S'e*e o; -o's  Ar'stote

Political Science (Part-I) Page 

• 3. St)/ o; Po't'% Teor.

• 1. A st)/ o; I*ter*%t'o*% re%t'o*s, '*ter*%t'o*% or%*'%t'o*s %*/ '*ter*%t'o*% %>.

Political Science (Part-I) Page "

Political Science (Part-I) Page #

A--ro%es to te st)/ o; Po't'% S'e*e

Political Science (Part-I) Page 1$

Political Science (Part-I) Page 11

C%r%ter'st's o; Be%+'o)r % A--ro%

Some of the general characteristics of 0ehaviouralism 3hich are given 0elo3

I. S'e*t';' o)too= %*/ o@et'+'t9

Political Science (Part-I) Page 12

1ehaviouralism 0rought a0out a methodological revolution in political science. 'he- started

. I*ter /'s'-'*%r st)/9

L. I*+e*t'o* o; S'e*t';' Teor

C%r%ter'st's o; Be%+'o)r%'sm %s '+e* @ !%+'/ E%sto*

1% Re)%r't'es Discovera0le uniformities in political 0ehaviour and can 0e e2pressed in

measurement and 5uantification.

Political Science (Part-I) Page 13

Cr't''sm o; @e%+'o)r% %--ro%

I. Politics can never 0e value!free as held 0- 0ehavioralists.

 8ailure of 0ehaviouralism to deals 3ith the practical pro0lems of 3orld, failure to

'he post!0ehaviouralism is not confined to a particular section of societ-. +t is a sort of

. *mphasis should 0e on social change and not social preservation

J. Political science should not 0e value!free science.

. Political scientists must protect human values of civilization.

L. Post! 1ehaviouralists emphasis action in place of contemplative science.

. rgent need to politicise the profession.

Political Science (Part-I) Page 15

Political Science (Part-I) Page 1

Political Science (Part-I) Page 1!

Political Science (Part-I) Page 1"

Political Science (Part-I) Page 1#

Te Eeme*ts o; te or''* o; te st%te

Political Science (Part-I) Page 2$

Political Science (Part-I) Page 21

Political Science (Part-I) Page 22

FUNCTIONS OF MO!ERN STATES

!e;''t'os o; Po't'% S'e*e

• 1. A st)/ o; Iter%t'o% re%t'os, 'ter%t'o% or%'%t'os %/ 'ter%t'o*% %>.

I. S'et';' o)too= %/ o@et'+'t9

. Iter /'s'-'%r st)/9

L. I+et'o* o; S'e*t';' Teor

Te Eemets o; te or'' o; te st%te

Esset'% ;)t'os %/ O-t'o% ;)t'o*s N

". Perm%ee  +t is the chief characteristic of sovereignt-. Sovereignt- lasts as long as an

J. I%'e%@''t Sovereignt- is inaliena0le. 1- inaliena0ilit- 3e mean that the state cannot

Le%'st' +'e> o; So+ere't or A)st''%* Teor o; So+ere't Or Mo'st' Teor o;

Co/'t'os Neess%r ;or Re%'s'* E)%'t

Sstems A%s's  Po't'% Sstem Me%' %/ C%r%ter'st's.

Me%' %/ /e;''t'o*

E+%)%t'o* o; Str)t)r%F)t'o% A*%s's