Professional Documents
Culture Documents
EM03 Welded Steel Penstocks PDF
EM03 Welded Steel Penstocks PDF
‘r_i -,
L.
,--, Y..~.
;r.. : _
Steel ,Pensthcksy-r,’ ;
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT ’
6F Tt-tE INTERIOR
BUREAU, OF RECL-AMATI-ON ’ .
,-
-. I
The lower ends of the penstocks at Shasta Dam emerge from conerefa nnckors and pbcnge into the pozus~ho~csc
A WATER RESOURCES TKZHNICAL PUBLICATION
BUREAU OF RECLAMATION
As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the
interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public
’ lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of
our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserv-
ing the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and
historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through out-
door recreation. The Department essessei our energy and mineral
~ resources and works to assure that iheir development is in the best
~ interests of all our people. The Departmerit also has a major respon-
1 sibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people
who live in tsland Territories under U.S. Administration.
THIS MONOCRAPH will assist designers in the This edition now represents the contributions
solution of problems in design and construc- of many individuals in the Penstocks and Steel
tion of safe penstocks which may be fabricated Pipe Section, Mechanical Branch, Division of
in accordance with modern manufacturing Design, on the staff of the Chief Engineer,
procedures. Certain rules relative to materials, Denver, Colo.
stresses, and tests might be considered un- This monograph is issued to assist designers
necessarily conservative. Safety is of para- in the solution of problems involved in the de-
mount importance, however, and penstocks sign and construction of safe and economical
designed and constructed according to these welded steel penstocks.
rules have given satisfactory service through Because of the many requests for informa-
years of operation. tion concerning Bureau of Reclamation de-
Welded Steel Penstocks presents information signed and built penstocks, a comprehensive
concerning modern design and construction bibliography has been added in the back.
methods for pressure vessels applied to pen- Included in this publication is an informa-
stocks for hydroelectric powerplants. The data tive abstract and list of descriptors, or key-
are based on some 40 years experience in pen- words, and “identifiers.” The abstract was
stock construction by the Bureau of Reclama- prepared as part of the Bureau of Reclamation’s
tion. During this period many of the largest program of indexing and retrieving the litera-
penstocks in service today were designed and ture of water resources development. The
constructed. descriptors were selected from the Thesauw
Welded Steel Pmstocks was first issued in of Descriptors, which is the Bureau’s standard
1949 under the authorship of P. J. Bier. Be- for listings of keywords.
cause of the continuing interest in penstock Other recently published Water Resources
design, the monograph has been revised and Technical Publications are listed on the inside
updated to incorporate present day practice. back cover of this monograph.
iii
Contents
PWC
...
111
Materials --____---__-_-_-_--_____________________~~~~-~-~~~~~~~~~ 35
Steel Plates ___---_-_-____--_-_--~-~-~~-~~---~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 35
Flanges, Fittings, Valves, and Other Appurtenances _- ________ 37
Fabrication ____----__________-_____________________-------------- 37
Structure and Arrangement _- ____- ____- _____----------__-__-_ 37
Nondestructive Inspection of Welds ___---_-_-_--_-__--_______ 39
Preheating and Postweld Heat Treatment _______-_- __________ 42
Installation -_-__-__---_--__________________________-~~~-~--~~~~~~ 42
Handling __-_----_-__--___-______________________~~~-----~~-~ 42
Placing and Welding --__--__--_--_--___--------- _____________ 43
Hydrostatic Test -_-_-_-_--_--_----______________________---- 44
Specifications and Welding Control _____-__-_-_-__-__-_---_-______ 45
Specifications -___-___--_-____________________________-------- 45
Welding Control _- ______- ____________ - _______________-_______ 45
Weld Tests ____-__---_-__----______________________-~~~~~~-~~ 45
Corrosion Control for Penstocks ____--___- ______- ____-___-_-_---_-_ 45
A Selected Bibliography
rnd References _____-________-_________________________-------- 47
LIST OF FIGURES
Number PSLW
Numbo Pans
Nwllbw
LIST OF TABLES
Number
FXGUXE l.-The SO-fooGdia?neter &now Arieona and Nevada penstock and outlet keadem were in&u&d in two of the diversion tunnels at Hoover
Dam. The upper headere were installed in special penstock tunnels. The tunnels were not backfilled with the exception of the inclined portion
leading from the intuke tower.
WELDED STEELPENSTOCKS 3
Outlet pipe
No S----. used to provide the required watertightness in
the concrete and at the contraction joints.
Figure 4 shows the g-foot penstocks which are
embedded in Kortes Dam.
Penstocks embedded in concrete dams, en-
cased in concrete, or installed in tunnels back-
SECTION filled with concrete may be designed to transmit
some of the radial thrust due to internal water
pressure to the surrounding concrete. More
P. I. Horimtol bend---’
Sta 1sto6.03 - El. 3810
generally, such penstocks are designed to with-
stand the full internal pressure. In either case,
PLAN
the shell should be of sufficient thickness to
FIWRE 2.-At Anderson Ranch Dam, the l&foot-d&am- provide the rigidity required during fabrica-
eter penstock and outlet header were installed in the tion and handling, and to serve as a form for
diversion tunnel, which wae not backwed. the concrete. Embedded or buried penstock
For low-head concrete dams, penstocks may be shells also should be provided with adequate
formed in the concrete of the dam. However, stiffeners or otherwise designed to withstand
a steel lining is desirable to assure watertight- any anticipated external hydrostatic or grout-
ness. In large concrete dams which have both ing pressures. At Shasta Dam the upstream
transverse and longitudinal contraction joints, portions of the 15-foot penstocks are embedded
such as Glen Canyon Dam, steel penstocks are in the dam, while the downstream portions are
3. Outlet popes
“-% Penstocks
PLAN
exposed above ground, between the dam and Considering only the economics of the penstock,
the powerplant, as shown in figure 5. At other the single penstock with a header system will
plants, the entire length of the penstock may usually be preferable; however, the cost of this
be situated above ground, as in figure 6, which item alone should not dictate the design.
shows the %foot-diameter penstock at Marys Flexibility of operation should be given con-
Lake Powerplant. sideration because with a single penstock sys-
When a powerplant has two or more turbines tem the inspection or repair of the penstock
the question arises whether to use an individ- will require shutting down the entire plant. A
ual penstock for each turbine or a single pen- single penstock with a header system requires
stock with a header system to serve all units. complicated branch connections and a valve
WELDED STEELPENSTOCKS 5
ECONOMIC STUDIES
A penstock is designed to carry water to a
turbine with the least possible loss of head
consistent with the overall economy of installa-
tion. An economic study will size a penstock
from a monetary standpoint, but the final di-
ameter should be determined from combined
engineering and monetary considerations. An
example would be an installation where the
economic diameter would require the use of a
surge tank for regulation, but a more economi-
cal overall installation might be obtained by
using a penstock considerably larger than the
TYPICAL SECTION AT SUPPORT
economic diameter, resulting in the elimination
FIGURH B.-The full length of the d-foot-diameter pen- of the surge tank.
stock at Marys Lake Poweqdant lies above ground. Voetsch and Fresen (1) l present a method of
determining the economic diameter of a pen-
stock. Figure 7 was derived from their
to isolate each turbine. Also, the trashracks method, and figure 8 is an example of its use.
and bulkhead gates will be larger, resulting in Doolittle (2) presents a method for determining
heavier handling equipment. In concrete the economic diameters of long penstocks
dams it is desirable to have all openings as where it is economical to construct a penstock
small as possible. The decision as to the pen- of varying diameters. This “step by step”
stock arrangement must be made considering method requires considerable time but should
all factors of operation, design, and overall cost be considered for final design for long pen-
of the entire installation. stocks.
Proper location of the penstock intake is im- All the variables used in an economic study
portant. In most cases the intake is located must be obtained from the most reliable source
at the upstream face of the dam, which available, keeping in mind that an attempt is
provides short penstocks and facilitates opera- being made to predict the average values of all
tion of the intake gates. In some cases variables for the life of the project. Special
the penstock intake may be situated in an in- attention must be given to the “plant factor”,
dependent structure located in the reservoir, as figure 7, as this item materially affects the cal-
at Hoover and Green Mountain Dams, where culations.
diversion tunnels or topographic conditions
influenced the arrangement. Regardless of
arrangement, the intake should be placed at an
elevation sufficiently below low reservoir level HEAD LOSSES IN PENSTOCKS
and above the anticipated silt level to allow an
uninterrupted flow of water under all condi- Hydraulic losses in a penstock reduce the
tions. Each intake opening is protected effective head in proportion to the length of
against floating matter by means of a trash- the penstock and approximately as the square
rack structure and is controlled by suitable of the water velocity. Accurate determination
gates. of these losses is not possible, but estimates can
be made on the basis of data obtained from
To prevent the development of a partial pipe flow tests in laboratories and full-scale
vacuum during certain operating conditions, installations.
penstock profiles from intake to turbine should,
‘Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited in mxtlon, “A
whenever possible, be laid on a continuous Selected Bibliography and References”. at the end of thla mono-
slope. mwh.
ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH NO. 3
NOTATION
a : Cost of pipe per lb., instolled, dollars. Ii = Weighted overage heod including woter
8 = Diometer multiplier from Groph 6. hommer. (based an design head )
b = Volue of lost power in dollorr per k wh. KS = Friction coefficient in Scobey’s formula (0.34).
D = Economic diometer in feet. n = Ratio of overweight to weight of pope shell.
e = Overall plant efficiency. Cl = Flow in cubic feet per second. (ot design head of turbine)
eJ = Joint efficiency. r z Ratio of onnuol cost ta”a”( see explanotion)
f = Loss factor from Groph A. sg = Allowable tension, p.s.i
t = Weighted overage plate thickness(ot design head) for total length,
t, 2 Averoge plote thickness for length L,.
L,t,+L*t2+LJts’...+Lntn
Kz -I%efsgejb 0.34x095x 0.510x15.000x0.90x0.00~~ 690
t= or( I+n) 0.27x 0.0470 x I.15
L,+ Let Ls+...+ Ln t4 9: 1.285 (from GmphB);D’=3.7(from GmphG); Economic dia.: I.285 x3.7= 4.75 ( use 4’-10”dia.)
FIGUREI 8.-Economic diameter of steel penstocks when plate thickness is a function of the head.
8 ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH NO. 3
The various head losses which occur between V =velocity of flow in feet per second
reservoir and turbine are as follows: D =diameter of pipe in feet.
1. Trashrack losses Values for I& vary for different types of pipe.
2. Entrance losses For new continuous interior pipe unmarred by
3. Losses due to pipe friction projections on the inside (as for butt-welded
4. Bend losses pipe) a value of 0.32 may be used. Scobey
5. Losses in valve and fittings. gives values of Ks for old pipe allowing for
Losses through trashracks at the intake vary deterioration of the interior surface. To allow
according to the velocity of flow and may be for deterioration a value of Ks=0.34 is usually
taken as 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 foot, respectively, for assumed in design for pipes whose interior is
velocities of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 feet per second. accessible for inspection and maintenance.
The magnitude of entrance losses depends Friction losses for this value of KS, for pipes
upon the shape of the intake opening. A cir- up to 10 feet in diameter, can be read from the
cular bellmouth entrance is considered to be chart, figure 9. For pipes too small to permit
the most efficient form of intake if its shape is access for maintaining the interior coating a
properly proportioned. It may be formed in value of Ks=0.40 is usually assumed.
the concrete with or without a metal lining at Bend losses vary according to the shape of
the entrance. The most desirable entrance the bend and the condition of the inside sur-
curve was determined experimentally from face. Mitered bends constructed from plate
the shape formed by the contraction of a jet steel no doubt cause greater losses than smooth
(vena contracta) flowing through a sharp- curvature bends formed in castings or concrete ;
edged orifice. For a circular orifice, maximum however, there is no way to evaluate such
contraction occurs at a distance of approxi- effects since data on actual installations are
mately one-half the diameter of the orifice. very meager. Laboratory experiments on very
Losses in circular bellmouth entrances are small size bends with low Reynolds numbers
estimated to be 0.05 to 0.1 of the velocity head. are not applicable to large size bends with high
For square bellmouth entrances, the losses are Reynolds numbers. When water flows around
estimated to be 0.2 of the velocity head. a bend, eddies and secondary vortices result,
and the effects continue for a considerable
Head losses in pipes because of friction
distance downstream from the bend. In sharp
vary considerably, depending upon velocity of
angle bends the secondary vortex motion may
flow, viscosity of the fluid, and condition of the
be reduced by guide vanes built into the bend.
inside surface of the pipe. Among the con-
Thoma’s (4) formula is based on experiments
ventional pipe flow formulae used for the
made at the Munich Hydraulic Institute with
computation of head losses, the Scobey, Man-
1.7-inch-diameter smooth brass bends having
ning, and Hazen-Williams formulae are the
Reynolds numbers up to 225,000, as shown on
most popular. For large steel pipe the Scobey
the chart in figure 10, and is expressed as:
formula is favored ; for concrete pipe, the
Manning formula ; and for cast-iron pipe in Ha=CL...................... (2)
waterworks, the Hazen-Williams formula. 2g
The Scobey formula(3), derived from ex- where
periments on numerous steel pipe installations, H,, = bend loss in feet
is expressed as follows: C =experimental loss coefficient, for bend
H*=K+. . . . ..,.............. loss
(1)
V =velocity of flow in feet per second.
in which The losses shown in figure 10 vary according
HP= head loss due to friction in feet per to the R/D ratio and the deflection angle of
1,000 feet of pipe the bend. An R/D ratio of six results in the
Ks = loss coefficient, determined experimen- lowest head loss, although only a slight de-
tally crease is indicated for R/D ratios greater than
WELDED STEEL PENSTOCKS
FRICTION LOSS - FEET PER 1000 FEET
,URE 9-Fmktion losses in welded steel pipe based on Scobey’s formula for &year-old pipe and nonaggressive
wat em.
IO ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH NO. 3
.26
.24
; .I6
W
i?
E .I4
g
o .I2
:
2 .I0
.06
.02
0’ 5” IO” 15“ 20” 25* 30” 35O 40=’ 45.’ 50” 55’ 60’ 65’ 70’ 75=’ 80’ 65’
DEFLECTION ANGLE A0
Fxoum lo.-LO88e8 for vari5248 value8 of g ratios and d43flection andes UP to 90'.
four. This relationship is also indicated by plished by the wicket gates of the turbines),
the curves of figure 11, which were plotted only the loss which occurs at the full open
from experiments with 90” bends, As the condition needs to be considered. According
fabrication cost of a bend increases with in- to experiments made at the University of
creasing radius and length, there appears to be Wisconsin (5) on gate valves of l- to Z-inch
no economic advantage in using R/D ratios diameter, the coefficient K in Equation (3)
greater than five. varies from 0.22 for the l-inch valve to 0.065
Head losses in gates and valves vary accord-
for the 12-inch valve for full openings. For
ing to their design, being expressed as:
large gate valves an average value of 0.10 is
H,=K-& . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3) recommended ; for needle valves, 0.20 ; and
in which K is an experimental loss coefficient for medium size butterfly valves with a ratio of
whose magnitude depends upon the type and leaf thickness to diameter of 0.2, a value of 0.26
size of gate or valve and upon the percentage may be used. For sphere valves having the
of opening. As gates or valves placed in pen- same opening as the pipe there is no reduction
stocks are not throttled (this being accom- in area, and the head loss is negligible.
WELDED STEEL PENSTOCKS II
In his notes published in 1903 and 1913, in turbine speed regulatipn. A surge tank may
Alhevi introduced the mathematical analysis be considered as a branch pipe designed to ab-
of water hammer, while M. L. Bergeron, R. S. sorb a portion of the pressure .wave while the
Quick, and R. W. Angus developed graphical remainder travels upstream toward the fore-
solutions of water-hammer problems which are bay. When located near the powerhouse, it
more convenient to use than the analytical provides a reserve volume of water to meet
methods. A comprehensive account of methods sudden load demands until the water column in
for the solution of water-hammer phenomena the upper portion of the penstock has time to
occurring in water conduits, including graphi- accelerate.
cal methods, was published by Parmakian (7). When the length, diameter, and profile of
For individual penstocks of varying the penstock have all been determined, con-
diameter, the pressure reflections at points of sidering local conditions and economic factors,
change in diameter complicate the problem. the selection of a minimum closure time for the
However, if the varying diameter is reduced turbine gates will require a compromise be-
to a penstock of equivalent uniform diameter, tween the allowable pressure variation in the
a close estimate can be made of the maximum penstock, the flywheel effect, and the permis-
pressure rise. For penstocks with branch sible speed variation for given load changes on
pipes, it is necessary to consider the reflection the unit.
of pressure waves from the branch pipes and With reaction turbines, synchronous relief
dead ends in order to determine the true pres- valves, which open as the turbine gates close,
sure rise due to velocity changes. may be used to reduce the pressure rise in the
As the investment in penstocks is often con- penstock. Reduction of pressure rise is
siderable, they must be safeguarded against proportional to the quantity of water released.
surges, accidental or otherwise. Surges of the As relief valves are usually designed to dis-
instantaneous type may develop through charge only a portion of the flow, this portion
resonance caused by rhythmic gate movements, is deducted from the total flow in computing
or when the governor relief or stop valve is the reduced velocity and the corresponding
improperly adjusted. A parting and rejoining pressure rise.
of the water column in the draft tube or a
hasty priming at the headgate may also cause
surge waves of the instantaneous or rapid type. Pressure Rise in Simple Conduits
Adjustments iw the profile of a penstock may
be necessary to prevent the development of a With instantaneous gate closure, maximum
vacuum and water column separation during pressure rise in penstocks of uniform diameter
negative pressure surges. As water-hammer and plate thickness occurs at the gate ; from
surges occurring under emergency conditions there, it travels undiminished up the conduit
could jeopardize the safety of a penstock if they to the intake or point of relief. For slower
are not considered in the design, their magni- closures which take less than 2L/a seconds
tude should be determined and the shell thick- (L = length of penstock ; a = velocity of pressure
ness designed for the resultant total head. wave), the maximum pressure rise is trans-
Stresses approaching yield-point values may be mitted undiminished along the conduit to a
allowed. By using ductile materials in the point where the remainder of the distance to
penstock, excessive surge stresses may be ab- the intake is equal to Ta/2 (T=time for full
sorbed by yielding without rupture of plates gate stroke), from which point to the intake
or welds. Design criteria for including the the pressure rise diminishes uniformly to zero.
effects of water hammer in penstock and pump With uniform gate closure equal to or greater
discharge line installations, as used by the than the critical time, ZL/a, the maximum
Bureau of Reclamation, is shown in table 1. pressure rise occurs at the gate, from which
Surge tanks are used for reduction of water point it diminishes uniformly along the length
hammer, regulation of flow, and improvement of the penstock to zero at the intake. An anal-
TABLE l.-Basic conditions for including the effects of loater hummer in the design of turbine penstocks.
The basic conditions for ineludIng the &acts of water hammer in the design of turbine Denstock instaIlat.ions are
divided into normal and emergency conditions with s&able factors of safety assigned to each type of oDeratIon.
Nomad conditions of omwation Emergsncu conditiona of operation Emarmncu wnditious +wt to be comideed
as a basis for design
I. In those instances where. due to a The bssic conditions to be considered as 1. Other Doesible emereency conditions of
higher reservoir elevation. it is necessary WlergeneJT ODeration are as foIIows: operation are those during which certain
to set the st.,DS on tbe main relay valve pieces of control equipment are assumed to
1. The turbine Denstock installation may for a slower rate of gate movement. the 1. The turbine gates may be closed at malfunction in the most unfavorable man-
be werated at any head between the maxi- water hammer elTen3.a will be computed ner. The most severe emergency condition
mum and minimum values of the forebay foe this slower rata of gate movement any time by the action of the governor
head. manual control knob with the main of o~aration which wiII yield the maximum
water surface elevation. relay valve. or the emergency solenoid head rise in a turbine Denstock installation
device. will oeeur from either of the two following
2. The turbine eaten may be moved at 8. The reduction in head at various conditions of operation:
any rate of steed by the action of the BOV- points along the penstock will be corn-
emor head UD to a Dredatermined rate. or puted for the rate of gate opening which 2. The cushioning stroke will be as-
sumed t.0 be inoperative. (a) Rapid &sure of the turbine
at a slower rate by maneal control through is adually set in the governor in those gatesinIessthan2&seconds, (Lbthe
the aorili relay vaIve. cases where it aDDears that the u,mfiIe of
tbe Denstock is unfavorable. This mjni- a. If a relief valve is Dresent it, will be
length of the Denatik and a is the
2. The turbine may be operating at any mum Dressure will then be used as a bqsis assumed to be inoperative.
wte Dosition and be required to add or for normaI design of the pentik to in- wave velocity). when t& flow of water
drop any or ail of its load. sure that subatmospheric Dressures will in the Denstock is a maximum. (The
4. The Bate traversing time will be maximum head rise in feet due to this
not cause a penstock failure due to col- taken as the minimum time for which the
4. If tbe turbine penstock installation is IaDse. wndition of oDeration is 100 to 126
eanipDed with any of the following Dres- governor is designed. times the water velocity in feet per sac-
sure control devices it will be assumed that 9. If a surge tank is Drasent in the and. )
these devices are properly adjusted and penstock system the upsurge in the surge 6. The maximum head including water
function in tbe manner for which the tank will be computed for the maximum hammer at the turbine and along the (b) Rhythmic opening and closing of
equipment is designed: length of the panstock will be computed the turbine gates when a complete cy-
reservoir level condition for the rejection cle of gate owration is performed in
of the turbine flow which correspondb to for the maximum reservoir head condi-
(a) Surge tenks the rated output of the generator during tion for 5naI DWt gate closure to the -4L seconds. (Under extreme condIt,icms
the gate transversing time which is ac- zero-gate position at the -imum gover-
(b) Relief valves tually set on the governor. Unless an nor rate in 2& seconds. tie maximum head rise due to this con-
(e) Governor control SDParatus overflow sDiIlway is provided the top d- a ft$) of OD-tiOn is twice the static
(d) Cushioning stroke device evation of the surge tank will be deter-
mined by adding a freeboard of 20 Dar 6. If a surge tank is present in the
(e) Any other pressure control device. cent of the com~utd upsurge to the max- Since these conditions of operation re-
Denstock system the upsurge in the surge mire a complete malfunctioning of the
imum height of water at the highest tank wiII be eOmDUted for the maximum
6. Unless the actual turbine character- IlDSnrge. reservoir head condition for the rejection gowrnor control apDaratus at the most un-
istics are known. the efieetive area of fnil gate turbine flow at the maximum favorable moment. the DrobabiIIty of obtain-
through the turbine gates during the 10. The downsurge in the surge tank rate for which the governor Is designed. ing this t4pe of. oDeration is exceedingIy
mruimum rate of gate. movement will be will be e0m~ut.d for the minImum reser- The downsurge in the surge tank will be remote. Hence. these wnditioM will not. be
Upk as * linear relation wxth resDect to voir level condition for a load addition computed for the minimum r-air head used as a basis for design. However. after
from sDeed-no-load to the full Bate Do& condition for a fuI1 gate oDening from Se design has been eatabIiied from other
tion during the sate traversing iime the speed-n*Ioad position at tbe maxi- considerations. it is desimbIe that the
6. The water hammer &ecta will be which is actually set on the governor. The mum rate for which the governor is de- stresses in the turbine scrdl case. ~enstock.
computed on the basis of governor head bottom of the surge tank will be Iocatsd sign+. In determining the tom and bottom Bnd Dressme contrd devices be not in ax-
action for the governor rate which is BE- at a distance of 20 per cent of the com- elevatmns of the surge tank, nothing will :ess of the ultimate bursting strength of
anally set on the turbine for speed regal& DUti downsurge b&w the lowest down- be added to the UPsurgea and downsurges ;he structures for these emergene~ con%-
tion. If the r&w valve stoos are adinsted surm in the tank to safeguard against air for this -‘3EZX,CY eO&it&X, Of OD-- tiOns Of ODeratiOn.
to Bive a slower governor setting than wtering the Denstock. tion.
that for which the governor is designed,
this rate shall be determined DriOr to 11. The turbine, pens&k. surge tank. 7. The turbine. Denstuck. surge tank.
Droceeding with the design of turbine and other DRaWre control devices will be relief valve. or other control devices will
penstock installation and later adhered to designed to withstand the conditions of be designed to withstand the above emer-
at the Dower plant so that an economical normaI operation which are given above BemY wndltions of operation with a min-
basis for designing the penstoek. sclDu with a minImum factor of safety of 4 to imumfa+rofsafetqof2288an
WE=% etc.. Under ma-maI ODersting wndi- 5 based on the ultimata bursting or col- thgeh~mIbte bmxtmg or C0Sapaing
tions can be established. laDsing strenpth.
-
w
14 ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH NO. 3
Ysis of pressure time curves shows that the static and water-hammer heads. Working
maximum pressure rise is determined by the stresses which will assure safety under all ex-
rate of change of velocity with respect to time. pected operating conditions should be used.
Maximum pressure rise will develop in a pen- However, stresses approaching the yield point
stock when closure starts from some relatively may be used in designing for emergency con-
small percentage of full stroke so that some ditions. For penstocks supported on piers in
finite velocity is cut off in a time equal to 2L/a open tunnels or above the ground, allowance
seconds. should be made for temperature and beam
The governor traversing time is considered stresses in addition to the stresses due to in-
to be the time required for the governor to ternal pressure. The diagram shown in figure
move the turbine gates from the rated capacity 14 permits a quick determination of equivalent
position to the speed-no-load position. As the stresses if principal stresses are known. The
rate of governor time is adjustable, it is im- diagram is based on the Hen&y-Mises theory
portant that a minimum permissible rate be of failure, sometimes called the shear-distor-
specified if maximum pressure rise in the pen- tion or shear-energy theory. The plate thick-
stock is to be kept within design limits. ness should be proportioned on the basis of an
Water-hammer conditions should be deter- allowable equivalent stress, which varies with
mined for the unit operating at rated head and the type of steel used. The ASME code gives
under maximum static head. The highest total maximum allowable tensile stresses for various
head, consisting of static and water-hammer types of steels.
heads, should be used for computing plate The hoop tension, S, in a thin shell pipe, due
thickness of the penstock. to internal pressure is expressed as:
R. S. Quick (6) simplified water-hammer
computations by using a pipeline constant, K,
s=* . .... .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5)
and a time constant, N, in the equations in which
(similar to Allievi’s) which determine pressure D=inside diameter of pipe in inches
rise, or water hammer, resulting from instan- p=internal pressure in psi
taneous closure. The chart in figure 13 shows t =plate thickness in inches
the relative values of K and P (equal to e =efficiency of joint.
h) for various values of N. Also in- Regardless of pressure, a minimum plate
h ..I thickness is recommended for all large steel
eluded is a chart which shows the velocity, a, pipes to provide the rigidity required during
of the pressure wave in an elastic water column fabrication and handling. For penstocks the
for various ratios of penstock diameter to desired minimum thickness for diameter, D,
thickness. Figure 14 gives only the maximum may be computed from the formula:
values of P for uniform gate motion and com-
plete closure. It covers a range of closures &in= D+zo.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6)
400
from instantaneous to 50 intervals, and a range A thinner shell may in some cases be used if
of values of K from 0.07 to 40, which includes the penstock is provided with adequate stiff-
the majority of practical cases. The nearly eners to prevent deformation during fabrica-
vertical curve shows the limiting value for tion, handling, and installation.
maximum pressure rise at the end of the first Joint efficiencies for arc-welded pipe depend
time interval, 2L/a. Values of pressure rises on the type of joint and the degree of examina-
to the left of this line attain their maximum tion of the longitudinal and circumferential
values at the end of the first interval. joints. The ASME code stipulates a maximum
allowable joint efficiency of 100 percent for
double-welded butt joints completely radie-
PIPE SHELL graphed, and of 70 percent if radiographic
As has been stated, penstocks should be examination is omitted. Corresponding joint
c designed to resist the total head consisting of efficiencies for single-welded butt joints with
EXPLANATION
0.6
0.5
Ok
0.3
0.2
0.10
0.09
E!
0.06
0.05
0.04
FIGURE 13.-Water-hamm.er values for uniform gate motion and complete closure.
VI
I6 ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH NO. 3
NENCKY-YISES THEORY
5-
)-
i-
)-
I-
)-
I ‘I
32-k i&t----...s
19”Byposicowi.:- -
1; f ” \+---uownsrreom mce bI uWn
IntOk-El. bl!j-:
2’
n.1
Plate thicknessesvary from i’to 2b’
I Efficiency of joints : 99 X
-.-.
FIG- 16.-A graphical illustration of heada and stresses de temnined for the hydrostatic testing of the Shasta pen&o&.
WELDED STEELPENSTOCKS 19
temperature variation in the steel corresponds elastic theory of thin cylindrical shells (9).
to the small temperature range of the water, The shell will be mainly subjected to direct
expansion joints may be eliminated and all beam and hoop stresses, with loads being
temperature stresses carried by the pipe shell. transmitted to support rings by shear. Be-
For a pipe without expansion joints and an- cause of the restraint imposed by a rigid ring
chored at both ends in which the beam stresses girder or concrete anchor, secondary bending
are negligible, the longitudinal stresses may stresses occur in the pipe shell adjacent to the
be kept within allowable limits by welding the ring girder or anchor. Although this is only a
last girth joint in the pipe at the mean temper- local stress in the shell, which decreases
ature of the steel. A procedure similar to this rapidly with increasing distance from the
was used for the penstock and outlet headers stiffener, it should be added to the other longi-
at Hoover Dam where expansion joints for the tudinal stresses. For a pipe fully restrained,
30-foot pipe were not considered to be feasible. the maximum secondary bending stress is:
In this case it was desired to eliminate all
longitudinal tension in the penstock because %=1.82+. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7)
the pinned girth joints had an efficiency of in which
only 60 percent in tension but 100 percent in p =pressure in psi
compression. The lowest anticipated service r= radius of pipe in inches
temperature was.46” F. In order to reduce the t=plate thickness in inches.
length of a penstock section between anchors This secondary bending stress decreases with
to that corresponding to a temperature of 45” any decrease in restraint.
F, mechanical prestressing by means of jacks If use of Equation (7) results in excessive
applied at the periphery of the pipe was re- longitudinal stresses, it may be necessary to
sorted to. A compressive force corresponding increase the pipe shell thickness on each side
to the difference between the erection tempera- of the stiffener ring for a minimum length of
ture and the lowest service temperature was 3/q, in which q=1.236/\lx At this distance
applied. After welding the final closing joint from the stiffener ring, the magnitude of the
the jacks were removed, leaving the penstock in secondary stresses becomes negligible. Sec-
compression. At 46O F. the longitudinal stress ondary bending stresses at edges or corners
is then zero, and at higher temperatures the of concrete anchors may be reduced by cover-
penstock is in compression. ing the pipe at these points with a plastic
material, such as asbestos -or cork sheeting,
prior to concrete placement. This will also
SUPPORTS protect the edges or corners of the concrete
against cracking or spalling.
Modern trend in design requires that steel Pipes designed in accordance with the pre-
pipes located in tunnels, above ground, or ceding principles may be supported on long
across gullies or streams be self-supporting. spans without intermediate stiffener rings.
This is possible in most cases without an in- Figure 16 shows the lo-foot S-inch Shoshone
crease in plate thickness except adjacent to River siphon, which has a 150-foot span. The
the supports of the longer spans. If the pipe length of the span to be used on any particular
is to function satisfactorily as a beam, defor- job is usually a matter of economy. Very long
mation of the shell at the supports must be spans, such as shown in figure 16, are econom-
limited by use of properly designed stiffener ical only under certain conditions, as in the
rings or ring girders. A long pipeline with a crossing of rivers or canyons where the con-
number of supports forms a continuous beam struction of additional piers, which shorter
except at the expansion joints, where its con- spans would require, is not feasible.
tinuity is lost. Ring girders prevent large de- If continuous pipelines with or without ex-
formation of the pipe shell at the supports. pansion joints are supported at a number of
Stresses may therefore be analyzed by the points, the bending moments at any point
20 ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH NO.3
FIGURE 16.-Tke Shoshone River siphon cro8ses the river on a 150-foot span.
along the pipe may be computed as in an 4. By stiffener rings which carry the load
ordinary continuous beam by using applicable to concrete piers by means of support
beam formulae. Spans containing expansion columns.
joints should be made short enough that their
As the static pressure within a pipe varies
bending moments will correspond to those of
from top to bottom, it tends to distort the
the other spans. Expansion joints should be
circular shape of the shell. This is especially
placed at midspan where deflections of the two
pronounced for thin-shelled large-diameter
cantilevered portions of pipe are equal, thus
pipes under low head or partially filled. The
preventing a twisting action in the joint.
weight of the pipe itself and the weight of
A pipe can be designed to resist safely the backfill, if the pipe is covered, also cause dis-
bending and shear forces acting in a cross- tortion of the shell.
sectional plane by several methods, as follows: Depending on the method of support,
1. By sufficient stiffness in the shell itself stresses and deformations around the circum-
2. By continuous embedment of part of the ference of a filled pipe will assume various
periphery of the pipe patterns as shown in figure 17. These dia-
3. By individual support cradles or saddles grams indicate the best location for longitudinal
WELDED STEEL PENSTOCKS 21
cs~-)pJ-+
N-Pr p +,w]
t = Tension, - = Compression
+ f &7sion, - = Compression
RtFERLNC~ - WULDER CANYON PRoJtXT - FINAL RLPoRTS, PART S,- bULLLlIN 5, 1ASLU NO% 3.4 i 6.
.--Centroid of combined
4 e .w. ,’ 1,’
_Li
c.rt;nn;;nn
.2.zbIIV8, I ,u,*
FIWRE lg.-Formulae and coeficimate for the ompututkm of strsssee in ring #i&8 dus to eadhqu& &a&.
occur. The theoretical buckling stresses in a which results from temperature change. Ex-
cylindrical shell of perfect form is given by pansion joints also serve as construction joints
Timoshenko (12) and others as: to adjust discrepancies in pipe lengths. Dis-
For buckling failure by the formation of a regarding frictional resistance, the change in
single wrinkle length of a pipe of length L per degree temper-
s= E t ature change, is 0.0000066 L.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (9)
d3(1-W) ( -7 ) Among the several types of expansion joints
in use, the sleeve type is the most popular for
large steel pipes. Longitudinal movement is
EXPANSION JOINTS permitted by two closely fitting sleeves, one
sliding in the other, with a stuffing box and
For penstocks above ground, the tempera- packing to prevent leakage. A bolted packing
ture of the steel is influenced principally by gland is used to compress the packing which
the temperature of the water when filled, and consists of long-fibre braided flax impregnated
by the temperature of the air when empty. with a suitable lubricant.
If the pipe is exposed, its temperature will be
affected by heat from the sun. In underground A typical expansion joint of this type de-
installations, the pipe temperature is af%cted signed for an &foot penstock under 210-foot
by the temperature of the contained water and static head is shown in figure 22. The ex-
surrounding soil. terior surface of the inner sleeve is clad with
The main purpose of expansion joints is to chromium to prevent corrosion and insure ,
permit longitudinal expansion of the pipe free sliding in the joint. This type of joint ”
24 ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH NO. 3
Support ring-,.
FPipe shell ’
SECTION B-B
SECTION C-C SECTION A-A
TYPICAL SECTIONS
Fmuae 20.-Typical kg girder and column support.
WELDED STEEL PENSTOCKS
Fx~mm 21.-Typical rocker support. The angle yoke is used only for alinement during grouting.
Packing gland---..,
\\ ,,---Retainer ring
k- _ _ _ _ - . -A %\ ‘.
J ‘----Inner sleeve ‘----Inside of pipe shell
I
:
“---Packing rings
L .___ ‘b_._._. i
“.---lnslde of pipe shell
“----Packmg r,nqs
FIGURE 23.-Flem’ble sleeve-type expansion joint with two stuflng boxes used to pemnit longitudinal temperature
movement and transverse dejIection.
26 ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH NO. 3
may also be designed with two stuffing boxes, , pipeline is frequently empty and exposed to
as shown in figure 23, to permit longitudinal the direct rays of the sun.
temperature movement and transverse deflec- The sleeve-type expansion joint must be
tion in the line. Such a flexible joint is desirable well-fitted with reasonably close tolerances to
where a penstock passes through a construction insure watertightness under high heads. If
joint separating the concrete masses of a dam it is deemed necessary to machine portions of
and a powerhouse. As the dam is built on a the expansion joint in order to obtain water-
foundation considered to be elastic, its down- tightness, postweld heat treatment will assist
stream toe will deflect vertically with respect to in maintaining dimensional tolerances.
the powerhouse when subjected to reservoir
pressure.
Sleeve-type expansion joints have been used
successfully for penstocks up to 22-foot-dia- BENDS, BRANCH OUTLETS,
meter, as at Davis Dam, and for heads up to AND WYES
700 feet. This type of expansion joint can be
used only on pipes which are accessible for Pipe Bends
tightening and replacing the packing. Also,
the lubricated flax packing may lose its plas- Changes in direction of flow are accom-
ticity and water-sealing effect after a period plished by curved sections commonly called
of service. This is particularly true where the bends. Plate steel bends are made up of short
FIGOIUC 24.-Con&ant diamdw bend with the radiw of the bend five tima the dimnetm.
WELDED STEEL PENSTOCKS 27
FIGURE 26.-Bend reducing in diameter from 9 feet to 8 feet, the radius equal to four times the smaller diameter.
segments of pipe with mitered ends. To con- Branch Outlets and Wyes
serve as much of the available head as pos-
sible, bends for penstocks should be made with On some large penstocks, specially fabri-
large radii and small deflections between suc- cated branch outlets and wyes are used for
cessive segments. Bend radii of three to five diverting water from the headers. The main
times the pipe diameter and deflection angles considerations in the design of branch outlets
of 5” to 10” between segments are recommended. and wyes are structural strength to withstand
Bends may be designed with a constant diam- the internal pressure, and proper streamlining
eter or with a different diameter at each end. to reduce hydraulic losses.
Figure 24 shows a typical constant diameter Since outlet openings reduce the strength
bend with a total line deflection angle of about of the pipe at the opening, reinforcement must
38O designed for a g-foot penstock. The bend be provided to compensate for the removed
radius is 45 feet, while the seven mitered seg- material. As a general rule the reinforcement
ments have deflection angles of about 5-1/2O should be adequate to make the connection
each. Figure 25 shows a reducing bend with a equal in strength to that of the pipe without
reduction in diameter from 9 feet to 8 feet. the opening. Several branch outlets and wyes
Compound or combined bends, in which the are illustrated in figures 27 and 28, respec-
plane of the bend is neither vertical nor hori- tively. These two figures show some of the fit-
zontal, require certain trigonometric computa- tings commonly used and the different methods
tions. Usually the plan angle and profile of providing necessary reinforcement. The un-
angles are known and it is required to deter- supported pressure areas in the pipe shells are
mine the true angle in the plane of the bend shown by shading, and the distribution of load
and the bend rotations. These computations in the reinforcing members is indicated graphi-
and applicable formulae are shown in figure 26. cally. The right angle tees shown in figures 27a
28 ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH NO. 3
FIGURE 26.-Computation method fm determining true pipe angle in a compound pipe bend.
WELDED STEEL PENSTOCKS 29
(a)
W SECTION A-A
SECTION 8-B
SECTION C-C
NOTATION
C = Corrosion allowonce
SECTION D-D pz Internal pessure,pounds per sq in.
Y = Reaction force pfoduced by
restraining members.
SECTION G-G
-SECTION H-H
I ..-
(e)
Notation
p=lnternol pressure,pounds
per sq. in.
FIGURE .%.-Loading d&grams for the development of reinforcement of zvye branches in penstocks.
WELDED STEEL PENSTOCKS 31
and 27d are hydraulically ineffi&nt and should ’ .ysis based on’the theory of elasticity becomes
be avoided whenever possible. The use of a too involved to be of much practical value. In
frustum of a cone with convergence of 6O to P, the approximate method, simplifying assump-
as shown in figure 27b, reduces the branch loss tions are made which give results considered
to approximately one-third that of a cylindrical sufficiently accurate for practical purposes.
branch or outlet. Branch losses may also be re- The reinforcement of a fitting should be pro-
duced by joining the branch pipe to the main portioned to carry the unsupported loads, the
pipe at an angle less than 900 as shown in figure areas of which are bhown shaded in figures 27
27~. Ordinarily deflection angles, 0, of branch and 28. The total1load ,to be carried by the
outlets, vary from 30” to 750. However, diffi- reinforcement is equal $0 the product of the
culties are encountered in reinforcing branch internal pressure and ‘the unsupported area
outlets and wyes with deflection angles less projected to the plane’of the fitting. A por-
than 45”. The hydraulic efficiency increases tion of the pipe shell ‘is considered as acting
as the deflection angle decreases. Branch out- monolithically with the girders as in the case
lets of the type shown in figures 27f and 27g of stiffener rings.
are not desirable when the diameter of the In the analysis of ring girder reinforcement
branch pipe is in excess of, say, three-fourths of the type shown in figures 27f and 27g it is
of the diameter of the header, since the curva- assumed that the curved girder acts as if it lay
ture of the reinforcement becomes very sharp. in one plane, that the loads in both directions
In such cases the type of reinforcement shown are uniformly distributed, ,and that the ring is
in figure 27e is preferable. Branch outlets circular. The first of these assumptions is
and wyes are usually designed so that the believed to be reasonably accurate because the
header and the branches are in the same plane. ring girder is supported along its entire perim-
Branch outlets as shown in figures 27a, 27b, eter by the pipe shell and cannot be appre-
and 27~ may be reinforced with a simple ciably twisted or deflected laterally. The
curved plate designed to meet the require- assumption of uniform load distribution is on
ments of the ASME code referred to previously. the side of safety. In regard to the circularity
Branch outlets and wyes as shown in figures of the ring, however, it should be noted that
27d to 27g inclusive, and in figures 28b to the ring girder is egg-shaped for branch out-
28f inclusive, may be reinforced with one or lets with small deflection angles, while for
more girders or by a combination of girders larger deflection angles the shape is more
and tie rods. The type and size of reinforce- nearly circular and the assumption of circu-
ment required depends on the pressure, the larity is more proper. The ring girder is
extent of the unsupported areas, and clearance statically indeterminate when used as this
restrictions. For branch outlets which inter- type of reinforcement and, for the stress anal-
sect in a manner as shown in figures 27d and ysis, the ring dimensions must first be assumed.
27e, and for wyes asshown in figure 28f, three Computations will be simplified by using a
or four exterior horseshoe girders may be used,
ring of constant cross section. Where tie rods
the ends of which are joined by welding. The
welding of the ends of the horseshoes will be are used, the deflections of the girder at the
facilitated by use of a round bar at the junc- junctions with the tie rods must be calculated.
tion. For wyes used in penstocks designed These deflections, which are due to the loads
for low velocity flow, an internal horseshoe in both directions, and the redundant tie-rod
girder, sometimes called a splitter, as shown forces are then equated to the elongation of
in figure 28a, may be used. Although the the tie rods and the forces in these obtained by
splitter is structurally efficient, it will cause solving the resulting equations. A symmetrical
disturbances if the flow is not equally divided arrangement of the tie rods with respect to the
between the branches. centerline of the ring will simplify calculations.
Stress analysis of branch outlets and wyes To provide additional strength at a branch out-
is approximate only. Exact mathematical anal- let, the plate thickness of a portion of the header
ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH NO. 3
EN 0 ELEVATION
I 1
SIDE ELEVATION SECTION A-A
SEC. C-C
d. Manholes for inspection and maintenance should be placed at elevations sufficiently below
work shall be located to facilitate ventilation the frostline to protect the structures against
and the entry of men and materials during frost damage.
inspection and maintenance work. One type
is shown in figure 31.
e. Walkways and stairs are required for in- Support Piers
spection and maintenance of large penstocks
in open tunnels or above the ground. Piers are designed to support the deadload
f. Service connections are usually required of pipe and contained water and resist the
to provide a source of water for the power- longitudinal forces resulting from temperature
plant, dam, or municipal use. change. Earthquake forces may be considered
in the design in areas subject to seismic dis-
g. The reinforcement of all openings in a
turbances. For large thinshell pipes and pipes
penstock such as manholes, connections for
supported on high piers or bends, lateral wind-
drains, waterlines, filling lines, and air vents
shall be designed in accordance with the loads on the empty pipe may affect the design
of the supports. The magnitude of longitud-
ASME code.
inal forces in a penstock provided with ex-
pansion joints is dependent on the methods
DESIGN OF PIERS AND ANCHORS of support between pipe and pier. Piers which
carry the pipe directly on the concrete or on
General steel bearing plates are subjected to large
longitudinal forces when axial movement of
Penstocks installed above ground or in open the pipe occurs. These longitudinal forces
tunnels are usually supported on piers spaced may be reduced by placing lubricated plates or
from 20 to 60 feet apart. At bends, anchors other low friction factor material between pipe
are used to resist the forces which tend to and pier or by use of rocker and roller supports.
cause displacement of the pipe. Sometimes The friction coefficients recommended in each
anchors are also placed at intermediate points case have been mentioned in the section on
between bends. Piers and anchors are usually design of pipe shell. After all the forces acting
of reinforced concrete. As the sizes of piers on the supports have been ascertained, the
and anchors are influenced by the type of soil proportions of the pier may be determined
on which they rest, information regarding the from the moments and shear forces. Piers
soil is required before a design can be prepared. should be designed. so that the resultant of the
It is preferable to construct piers and anchors vertical load (including the weight of the pier
on rock foundations wherever possible. Bases and the prism of earth over the base) and the
.ANCHOR
PIER
INSTREAM
SIDE DOWNSTREAM
various specifications will eventually require the rocker pins are usually made from bridge
that coarse grain steels be specified in accord- bearing bronze, Class C, conforming to the
ance with ASTM A-515, and that fine grain steel “Standard Specification for Bronze Castings
be obtained under ASTM A-516. Bothspecifica- for Bridges and Turntables”, ASTM B-22.
tions include firebox quality material and Rocker pin bushings may be of manganese
the Grade 60 steel has tensile properties com- bronze, Federal Specification QQ-B-726e. Flax
parable to the ASTM A-201 Grade B steel. packing used for expansion joints should con-
A number of low alloy steels suitable for form to Federal Specification HH-P-106~.
pressure vessel construction are available and Sheet packing for gaskets should conform
approved by the code. However, the objec- to Federal Specification HH-P-151e. Bolts,
tions of greater cost and the fabricating diffi- studs, and nuts used for pipe connections and
culties previously experienced are gradually expansion joints are usually Class B, conform-
becoming reconciled and the utilization of low ing to Federal Specification FF-B-571a (1).
alloy steels is becoming more common under For platforms and stair treads, galvanized
certain design conditions. steel grating which conforms to Federal Spec-
ification RR-G-661b should be used.
plates are to be assembledinto sections of pipe heads. This limitation should be considered
at a field fabricating plant, it is usually eco- in the design. If penstock sections are to be
nomical to prepare the plates and appurtenant installed and welded under a separate contract,
fixtures in the manufacturer's home plant and it will be n~essary to predetermine their
ship them to the field plant for assembly. This length.
preparation in home plant usually consists of Fabrication includes cutting the plates to
cutting the plates to size, preparing the edges exact dimensions, preparing the edges for
for welding, and rolling in two or more circu- welding, pressing and rolling the plates to the
lar segments, the number of segments being required radius, and welding the plates to-
dependenton the diameter of the penstock and gether. The type of edge preparation required
length of the plates available. In some cases, dependson the welding procedure to be used.
it may be possible to completely fabricate pipe Shop joints are usually welded with semi-
sections of large diameter in the contractor's automatic or automatic welding machines,
home plant provided they can be shipped to while field joints are manually welded. In
the site of installation. Length of the sections shop welding, after the plates have been rolled,
is influenced by various factors such as the they are tack-welded into pipe courses, figure
width of plates, loading economy, capacity of 35, then welded by automatic machines, figure
testing and field handling equipment, etc. 36. With the submergedarc-welding process,the
Steel mills publish information concerning joints are either machine welded on either
the availability of sheared plates of various side, and the opposite side welded manually,
thicknesses, widths, and lengths and the se- or are welded by one pass of the machine on
lection of plates conforming with mill limita- both inside and outside. If a multiple-pass
tions will provide an economic advantage. machine is used, the weld metal is deposited
If pressure tested in a testing machine, the in successivelayers, the number of layers de-
length of the section will be limited by the pending on the thickness of the plates being
length of the machine. Bends or sections ex- welded. In the installation of a penstock in
ceeding the capacity of the testing machine a tunnel, there may not be sufficient clearance
may be tested by closing both ends with bulk- between penstock and tunnel walls to back-
weld field girth joints from the outside. In short section of pipe, which may be provided
such cases, it will be necessary to complete with some excess length in order to adjust
the weld from the inside using an outside back- misalinements between pipe and flanges in the
ing strip. field.
Stiffener rings may be formed from bars or
flame-cut from plates. The segments so pro-
duced are butt-welded into full rings, then Nondestructive Inspection of Welds
welded to the pipe with fillet welds either
manually or by machine. After completion, butt-welded joints are
Special rounding-out spiders are often used usually radiographed to detect defects in the
to aid fitup and welding work and to prevent welds. The same standards of inspection are
distortions in the pipe. Makeup sections with applied to longitudinal and .circumferential
excess laying lengths are provided for long joints. If joints are fully radiographed the
tangents to provide for discrepanciesin length joint efficiency may be increased from 70 per-
between anchors. They are also useful be- cent for nonradiographed joints to 100 percent.
tween penstocks and turbines or control The corresponding reduction in plate thick-
valves for the same purpose. Flanges for con- ness and weight is often sufficient to defray
nection to turbines or valves should be faced the cost of inspection. Weld defects may con-
after welding to the pipe to eliminate distor- sist of slag inclusions, cracks, gas pockets,
tions due to welding. This facing operation porosity, incomplete fusion, and undercutting.
will be facilitated by welding the flange to a Cracks, incomplete fusion, and undercuts are
40 ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH NO.3
than those produced with X-rays in steel up to FIGURE 37.-Radiographic inspection of welds is per- 1
about 1 inch thick. In steel from 1 inch to formed using portable X-ray equipment.
P
42 ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH NO.3
Preheating and Postweld Heat the normal contraction due to welding. Peen-
Treatment ing thus controls distortion and reduces the
tendency to crack. It will be most effective
Preheating and postweld heat treatment are if performed at dull red heat (16) .At this
not always required, being used for the heavier temperature, the grain size will be refined and
plates and for steels of high carbon or alloy the ductility of the weld metal increased. If
content. However, penstocks fabricated from performed at temperatures below dull red
plates thicker than 1 inch are usually benefited heat, peening decreasesductility of the weld
by preheating before welding. This reduces and may cause cracking. Because it is diffi-
the cooling rate of the welds and reduces cult to control the temperature at which peen-
residual stresses in the completed section. ing should be done, the requirement for
Sections to be heat treated are heated in an peening has been eliminated from many spec-
enclosed furnace to a minimum temperature ifications.
of 1,100° F and maintained at that tempera-
ture for 1 hour for each inch of plate thickness, INST ALLA TION
then cooled in the furnace to 600° F at a rate
not exceeding'500° F per hour divided by the Handling
maximum thickness in inches, then cooled in Upon delivery of penstock sections at the
still air to normal temperature. Figure 38 specified delivery point, they are usually trans-
shows a penstock section being moved into a ported to the place of installation by truck
postweld heat treating furnace. It is desirable or trailer (figure 39) and lifted in place by
that branch outlets be heat treated after fabri- cableway, derrick, or other means. For in-
cation so as to reduce residual stresses caused stallations in tunnels, special handling equip-
by welding. ment consisting of trolleys and hoists is
Welding stresses may also be relieved by required. The installation work becomescom-
mechanical peening which spreads the weld plicated by limited clearances and ventilation
and, if properly performed, counter-balances requirements. As has been stated, the length
WELDED STEEL PENSTOCKS 43
FIGURE 41.-Penstocks installed in Flaming Gorge Dam are encased in mass concrete.
graphic inspection, portable X-ray machines are installed in tunnels excavated through un-
similar to those previously mentioned are used. stable rock, as at Parker Dam, the space
Figure 37 shows the radiographic inspection around the penstock should be backfilled with
of field joints. Penstock sections which are concrete.
to be embedded in the dam are placed in
position on temporary structural steel supports
and welded into the line. Supports are an- Hydrostatic T est
chored to the concrete to prevent displacement
or flotation of the pipe during concrete place- A proof hydrostatic test on the penstock
ment. In Bureau of Reclamation dams, the after installation is most desirable. If the
concrete around penstocks is reinforced with entire penstock cannot be tested hydrostati-
sufficient steel to keep rim stresses around the cally, individual sections may be tested in the
opening within safe limits. When penstocks shop after they have been radiographed. Hy-
WELDED STEEL PENSTOCKS 45
large direct and indirect costs associated there- The exterior of buried penstocks may also
with, dictates selection of the most durable be protected by coal-tar enamel. The enamel,
materials which are appropriate to the par- which protects the metal from corrosive soil
ticular exposure. Coal-tar enamel, with an constituents, must in turn be protected against
estimated service life in excess of 50 years, soil stresses and backfill damage by a bonded
stands out among current protective coatings felt wrapping, or by an embedded glass mat
with long, well-established service records. reinforcement plus the felt wrapping. Pen-
When suitable, such a material should there- stocks exposed above ground to atmospheric
fore be specified. Frequently, however, con- weathering may receive a synthetic resin primer
ditions will preclude its use and selection must and topcoats of aluminum or other material
be made from a variety of coatings which, selected to furnish the required protection and
although costing nearly as much or more to also achieve any decorative effects desired.
apply, can be expected to last only about 20 Preparation of surfaces to receive the pre-
years and to require more maintenance. Out- ceding coatings must remove all contaminants
standing among such coatings are those based and should provide a somewhat roughened
on vinyl resins. Lately, coal-tar epoxy paints surface. Sandblasting to base metal is the
are also gaining acceptability and showing only practical method known to insure this
strong promise of lengthy service, and a va- result for coatings to be in immersion or buried
riety of other resin combinations are showing exposure,
up well in early evaluations. Cathodic protection should rarely be re-
Penstocks are generally lined with coal-tar quired for properly coated buried penstocks.
enamel, if buried or embedded, or if they will However, in special circumstances, such as
be operating continuously so as to eliminate when the coating may have been damaged
exposure of the enamel to temperature ex- during backfilling, the subsequent use of cath-
tremes. Shop-spun enamel linings are prefer-
odic protection might be indicated. Provision
able to hand applied linings for straight pipe
sections because of the low hydraulic friction for this eventuality may be made at small cost
afforded by the glassy smooth surfaces. When during construction by insuring the electrical
above-ground penstocks will be empty at times, continuity of the piping (bonding across any
the selection should be a vinyl resin or other couplings) and attaching any necessary test-
paint which is less sensitive to temperature. ing and power leads.
WELDED STEEL PENSTOCKS 47
Abstract
This monograph assists in the design and construc- and expansion joints; bends, branch outlets, and wyes;
tion of welded steel penstocks which must be hy- penstock accessories, piers and anchors, and materials;
draulically efficient to conserve head and structurally fabrication, installation, specifications, and welding and
safe to prevent failures. It gives up-to-date information corrosion control for penstocks. A new selected bibliog-
on penstocks for hydroelectric plants based on 40 years raphy of 16 references has been added.
of Bureau of Reclamation experience in powerplant de-
sign and construction. Until a special penstock code is
adopted, steel penstock practice is governed by appro- DESCRIPTORS-Arc welding/casings/codes/wrrosion
priate codes that apply to pressure vessels. Present control/dam design/flanges/head losses/hydraulic tur-
Bureau design standards and construction practices bines/hydroelectric powerplants~*penstocks/*pressure
were developed gradually, and result from improve- wnduits/*pressure vessels/safety factors/strwses/
ments in welding quality steels, in welding processes, *welded joints/tunnel linings/field tests. ’
and in the inspection and testing of welds. This mono-
graph is based on studies first published in 1946 and
revised twice since then. It contains sections on loca- IDENTIFIERS-hydraulic design/American Water
tion and arrangement; economic studies, head losses, Works Association/American Society for Testing & Ma-
and effect of water hammer; pipe stresses, supports, terials/Federal Specifications/*Welded Steel Penstocks.
,.
-
.~
_
-
i
‘x ~-
/
_ - _ -
.- A free pamphlet +s availabk from t-he Bureali entitled “Publications
for S?k.” 11 describes some of the tec,hnicil prrblicatjons currently
. available, their cost, and hqw..to order them. The pamphlet car%be’.- ’
obtai&d upon request from the Bureau of Reclamation, Attn D-7923A; 1
PO Rox 25007, Denver Federal Cent&; Denver CO 80225-0007. -
.- / ..
/