HUMAN ANATOMY EVALS 3

Lecture 3: Bone and Cartilage

Lecturer: Dr. Gonzales

• Mature chondrocytes: larger and rounded
CARTILAGE AND BONE • Cytoplasm is finely granular and basophilic
• Cartilage and bone can refer either to a tissue or organ • Limited number of mitochondria
• They are special types of dense regular connective tissue • Well-developed rER and Golgi complex
o Similarities with dense regular CT: • Contains inclusions such as fat droplets and glycogen
§ Relatively few cells granules
§ Abundant intercellular substance • Nucleus is ovoid
o Differences:
§ Cells (chondrocytes and osteocytes) CARTILAGE MATRIX OF HYALINE CARTILAGE
are inside cavities called lacunae • Consists of ground substance where extracellular fibers
§ Intracellular substance (matrix) is are embedded
firmer and harder • Ground substance:
o 70-80% water
CARTILAGE o Proteoglycans are abundant
• No blood vessels (avascular), lymph vessels, or nerves § GAGs’ sulfate, carboxyl, and hydroxyl
• Nourished by diffusion of nutrients from surrounding groups are strongly acidic causing
tissues basophilic intercellular substance
• Three types o Immediate surrounding of chondrocyte is called
o Hyaline territorial matrix (capsule)
o Elastic § Rich in GAG thus basophilic area
o Fibrous § Innermost layer (pericellular capsule)
resembles basal lamina and protects
HYALINE CARTILAGE chondrocyte against mechanical stress
§ Interterritorial matrix: area between
• Most abundant type of cartilage
territorial matrices which is less
o Joints
basophilic
o Sternal end of ribs
o Ground substance also has non-collagenic
o Some parts of respiratory system
proteins and glycoproteins
• Glistening, smooth, pearly white in fresh specimen
§ Chondronectin: fibronectin-like
• Predominant type of skeleton of fetus in-utero
substance promoting adherence of
• In adults: only around joints, sternal ends of ribs, parts of collagen fibers to cell surface of
the respiratory system and external ear, tendons, and
chondrocyte
ligaments. o Extracellular fibers of hyaline cartilage
• Capable of growing rapidly § Type II collagen fiber
• Gets replaced by bone (endochondral ossification) • NOTE: Hyaline Car-2-lage
• Consists of chondrocytes, lacunae, and cartilage matrix • 40% of dry weight of the
tissue
• Thinner than type I

ELASTIC CARTILAGE
• More flexible than hyaline cartilage
• Yellowish in fresh experiments
• Present in auricle and external acoustic meatus of the ear,
auditory tube, epiglottis, and some parts of larynx
• Matrix is less abundant as compared to hyaline cartilage
matrix
• Has both collagen (type II) and elastic fibers

Figure 1. Hyaline Cartilage

CHONDROCYTE
• Fills the lacunae where it resides
• Young chondrocytes: elliptical
o Capable of mitosis
o Formation of isogenous daughter cells
§ Tends to stay close to each other
seeming as if they’re occupying only 1
lacunae
§ Still separated through thin layer of

intercellular substance Figure 2. Elastic Cartilage
TRANSCRIBERS: Mitchelle Nazario, Cb Reyes, Clare Villanueva
SUBTRANSHEAD: Daniela Marquez 1 OF 8
 HUMAN ANATOMY EVALS 3
Lecture 3: Bone and Cartilage
Lecturer: Dr. Gonzales

FIBROUS CARTILAGE BONE
• Can withstand greater stress (awow edi siya na) than • Comprises the bulk of the adult skeleton
hyaline or elastic cartilage • Forms rigid framework for the body
• White in fresh specimens • Protects vital organs (i.e. cranium protects brain)
• Makes up: • Levers for muscles
o Intervertebral discs • Storehouses for calcium and phosphorus
o Articular discs • Formed either through endochondral ossification or
o Glenoid intramembranous ossification
o Acetabular labra • Covered by dense irregular connective tissue
o Surface layers of tendons and ligaments o Periosteum - covers external surface of bone
• Has collagen type I which is thicker than those in hyaline o Endosteum - lines an internal surface or cavity in
and elastic cartilage (type II) bone
• Looks like dense connective tissue • Can be classified according to:
• Regarded as transitional state between dense regular CT o Shape
and cartilage § Long (body/shaft + epiphyses)
• Acidophilic because of abundance of collagen fibers • Usually tubular and consists
of a body or shaft and two
PERICHONDRIUM ends (proximal and distal
• All cartilages except articular cartilages are enveloped by epiphyses)
dense irregular connective tissue • Shaft has a hollow core
• Special because of chondrogenic potency (it can form (medullary cavity)
cartilage) • Epiphyses covered by
• Has two layers: articular (hyaline) cartilage
o Outer Fibrous Layer § Short (cuboidal; i.e. wrist and ankle)
§ Blends with surrounding tissue § Flat (sternum, scapulae, skull bones)
o Inner Chondrogenic Layer § Irregular (vertebrae, hip bones, non-
§ Adheres to cartilage flat skull bones)
§ Cells on surface layer of cartilage are § Sesamoid (patella/kneecap)
labeled as osteoprogenitor cells (stem o Form
cells) § Compact (cortical, dense)
• Can transform into § Spongy (cancellous; more abundant)
chondroblasts when • All bones of the body consist of an:
stimulated o inner region that is made up of spongy bone
• Chondroblasts o outer casing of compact bone
o Cells that synthesize the precursors of o exceptions are those with central area occupied
extracellular fibers (e.g. collagen and elastin) and by air sinuses or medullary cavity
other organic constituents of cartilage matrix
o When surrounded by matrix, they acquire
lacunae and become chondrocytes
DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERING
• Periosteum
• Fibrous layer – outer layer that blends with
surrounding tissue
• Osteogenic layer – more cellular layer that
adheres to the bone
§ Cells on this layer are called
osteoprogenitor cells
• Sharpey’s fibers
§ Bundles of collagen fibers from
periosteum trapped within the bone
matrix
§ Anchor the periosteum to the bone
• Endosteum
• Lines all medullary, marrow, and vascular
cavities of bones
• Thinner than periosteum
Figure 2. Perichondrium • Often consists of a single layer of
osteoprogenitor cells

TRANSCRIBERS: Mitchelle Nazario, Cb Reyes, Clare Villanueva

SUBTRANSHEAD: Daniela Marquez 2 OF 8
 HUMAN ANATOMY EVALS 3
Lecture 3: Bone and Cartilage
Lecturer: Dr. Gonzales


MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF BONE TISSUE o Consists of serval bone lamellae that are
• Intercellular substance (bone matrix) is arranged in thin arranged concentrically around a tiny
layers (lamellae) endosteum-lined channel (Haversian canal) that
• Cavities (lacunae) are dispersed in the bone lamella contains the blood vessels and nerves
o Radiating from it are small canals called o Outer boundary is defined by a cement line
canaliculi o Haversian systems are connected to each other
o Occupied by a cell called an osteocyte through Volkmann’s canals
§ Canal that also contains blood vessels
and nerves
§ Also lined by endosteum
o Nutrition and excretion of waster through
Haversian and Volkmann’s canals along with
periosteum and medullary cavity

• Interstitial Lamellae
o Bone lamellae that are not arranged around a
Haversian canal
o Believed to be remnants of resorbed Haversian
systems

Figure 3. Haversian system • Circumferential Lamellae
o Most developed in long bones
ARCHITECTURE OF SPONGY BONE o Outer circumferential lamellae
• Has numerous interconnecting bone fragments called § Immediately beneath the periosteum
spicules or trabeculae o Inner circumferential lamellae
o Forms framework of a complex system of spaces § Lamellae that delineates the inner
(bone marrow cavities) that are composed of aspect of compact bone encircling the
bone lamellae and associated lacunae and whole medullary cavity
osteocytes
• Marrow cavities are occupied by bone marrow
• Nutrients are derived either directly or indirectly
o Direct – area closest to marrow cavity obtain
nutrients and oxygen from the blood vessels of
the bone marrow
o Indirect – receive nutrients through canaliculi
(lacunar processes that radiate between cells)


Figure 5. Parts of compact bones

BONE MATRIX
• Consists of ground substance with embedded
extracellular fibers
• Consists mainly of water
• Structural components (inorganic and organic materials)

GROUND SUBSTANCE
Inorganic Minerals
Figure 4. Spongy bone • Mainly calcium and phosphorus à forms crystals
similar to calcium hydroxyapatite
ARCHITECTURE OF COMPACT BONE • Others: bicarbonate, citrate, magnesium, potassium,
• No cavities occupied by bone marrow and sodium
• Lamellae organized and arranged through 3 ways: Organic Materials
o Haversian systems • Contains proteoglycan molecules
o Interstitial lamellae • Core protein are shorter than in cartilage with few
o Circumferential lamellae GAGs attached
• Haversian systems (aka osteons) • Non-collagenic proteins and glycoproteins
o Make up the bulk of compact bones

TRANSCRIBERS: Mitchelle Nazario, Cb Reyes, Clare Villanueva

SUBTRANSHEAD: Daniela Marquez 3 OF 8
 HUMAN ANATOMY EVALS 3
Lecture 3: Bone and Cartilage
Lecturer: Dr. Gonzales

o Glycoproteins believed to cause
calcification of bone matrix since
connective tissue do not have these
OSTEOCYTE

• Occupy lacunae in bone tissue
EXTRACELLULAR FIBERS
• 90% Type I collagen fibers (NOTE: Type one = bONE)
• Osteoid tissue (i.e. uncalcified matrix) separates
osteocyte within a lacuna from calcified matrix
CELLS OF BONES • Has gap junctions with adjacent cells
• Osteoprogenitor cells • Do not divide but retain secretory capability to their
• Osteoblasts surrounding maintain bone matrix
• Osteocytes • Does not have receptor for parathormone thus not
• Osteoclast capable of osteolysis
• First three are of same lineage while the osteoclast
is believed to be of same lineage as monocyte (from
bone marrow cells)

OSTEOPROGENITOR CELLS
• Differentiate from embryonic mesenchymal cells
• Differentiates into either osteoblasts or
chondroblasts
• Found at periosteum and endosteum
• Fusiform cells
Figure 7. Osteocytes in lacunae
• Cannot be differentiated from fibroblasts or
mesenchymal cells
OSTEOCLAST

OSTEOBLAST • Multinucleated cells found in concavities called
• Differentiate from osteoprogenitor cells Howship’s lacunae (resorption area)
• For synthesis of the precursors of collagen fibers and • Basophilic in younger cells
other bone matrix materials • Surface of osteoclast forms striated/ruffled border
• Found where new bone is formed o Gives branches that anastomose with each
• Round or cuboidal in shape other
o Increase active area of osteoclast
• Basophilic (abundant rER); developed golgi complex
o Contraption where small particles are
(negative golgi image)
trapped and enzymatically digested
• Single nucleus
• Primarily for bone resorption
• Lay down their secretions around themselves
o Proton (H+) pumping for acidifying and
o Transforms into osteocytes when the matrix
decalcifying the bone
that would trap them has calcified
o Lysosomal enzymes release digesting
• Produces growth factors for bone growth
collagen and other organic materials of the
• Research shows osteoblasts help in bone resorption
matrix
o Through secreting enzymes that removes
• Same lineage as monocyte
uncalcified bone tissue
o Stem cell is colony-forming unit-granulocyte
o Through parathyroid hormone
macrophage (CFUGM)
(parathormone)
§ Secretes osteoclast stimulating
factor à increased activity of
osteoclasts

Figure 7. Osteoclasts


Figure 6. Osteoblasts
TRANSCRIBERS: Mitchelle Nazario, Cb Reyes, Clare Villanueva
SUBTRANSHEAD: Daniela Marquez 4 OF 8
 HUMAN ANATOMY EVALS 3
Lecture 3: Bone and Cartilage
Lecturer: Dr. Gonzales

• Responsible for growth of cartilage from within and
CARTILAGE FORMATION (CHONDROGENESIS) growth in length of long bones
th
• Starts during the 5 week of intrauterine life Appositional growth (Exogenous growth)
• Arises from mesenchyme • Function of perichondrium
• Mesenchymal cells in the center of chondrification • Cells in perichondrium multiply then differentiate
differentiate into osteprogenitor cells into chondroblasts
• Chondroblast secretes precursors of extracellular • Followed by addition of cartilage matrix on the outer
fibers and other organic components into surface of developing cartilage (making the walls
intercellular area thicker through application of successive layers)
• Chondroblast continue to secreting around
themselves until they get stuck in lacunae DEGENERATION AND REGENERATION OF CARTILAGE
(chondrocytes)
• Young chondrocytes can still mitotically divide but Calcification of the Matrix
mature chondrocytes cannot • Most common degenerative process
• Mesenchyme surrounding developing cartilage • Fatal to chondrocytes because when intercellular
differentiates into perichondrium substance calcifies, nutrition is compromised
o Responsible for growth and repair of • Calcification normally occurs in the formation of
cartilage bones
• Interstitial growthà cartilage formation starts from • Cartilage loses its translucency and becomes opaque
the center and proceeds outwards as it matures
o Mature chondrocytes occupy the central • Becomes less cellular and the matrix becomes less
area (larger cells) basophilic (indicating a decrease in GAG content)
o Young chondrocytes and chondroblast • Regeneration of tissue is difficult and limited
occupy the periphery (smaller cells) because cartilage is avascular
• Scar tissue replaces damaged area in cartilage
• Regeneration of cartilage is greater in children than
mesenchymal osteoprogenitor in adults
chrondroblasts
cells cells
OSTEOGENESIS/OSSIFICATION
nd
• Starts during the 2 month of intrauterine life
young mature • Bone is produced to replace existing mesenchyme or
chondrocytes chondrocytes hyaline cartilage

Figure 8. Chondrogenesis Mesenchymal Osteoprogenitor

Osteoblast
cells cells

GROWTH OF CARTILAGE
Interstitial growth (Endogenous growth)
• “Growth from within” Osteoid Bony spicules

• Heralded by mitosis of young chondrocytes

• Daughter cells enlarge the cartilage from within Figure 9. Intramembranous ossification
through secreting precursors of matrix
Intramembranous ossification
• Secretory capacity of daughter cells coming from
• Bone formation in areas occupied by mesenchymal
mitosis of young chondrocytes are limited
cells
• Daughter cells = isogenous cells
• Forms membrane bones
• Isogenous cells lie close to each other until maturity
• Flat bones of skull like parietal and occipital bones
• Mother and daughter cells involved in interstitial

growth
PROCESS
• Interstitial growth stops when intercellular
substance becomes rigid (cartilage ages) • Starts with appearance of center of ossification
(becomes highly vascularized)

TRANSCRIBERS: Mitchelle Nazario, Cb Reyes, Clare Villanueva

SUBTRANSHEAD: Daniela Marquez 5 OF 8
 HUMAN ANATOMY EVALS 3
Lecture 3: Bone and Cartilage
Lecturer: Dr. Gonzales

• Mesenchymal cells differentiate into • Osteoblasts start laying down bone matrix on shaft
osteoprogenitor cells then into osteoblasts of cartilage
• Becomes round with basophilic cytoplasm • Bone matrix calcifies, periosteal bone ring
• Cytoplasmic processes thicken (periosteal collar) materializes
• Links between process of neighboring cells become
secretion of
pronounced chondrocytes
alakaline
calcification of
hypertrophy cartilage matrix
phosphatase
• Osteoblast lays down precursors of bone matrix (aka
osteoid)
• Osteoidà uncalcified bone matrix chondrocytes lie, perichondrium is
Oxygen tension
leaving empty invaded by
• Osteoid calcifies giving rise to bony spicules lacunae capillaries
increases
• Calcification traps osteoblast in lacunae transforming
them into osteocytes
• Cytoplasmic processes get lodged in canaliculi (tiny perichondrium - osteoprogenitor periosteal bone
Periosteum cells- osteoblast ring in diaphyses
tunnels)
• Alkaline phosphataseà secreted by osteoblast,
Figure 10. Endochondral ossification part 1
enzyme for calcification of bone matrix
• Spicules thicken and growing bone fragments fuse • Periosteal bud (connective tissue and cellular
together elements from periosteal collar) invades cavities left
• Mesenchyme that envelops developing bone by chondrocytes in the center of shaft
differentiates into periosteum • Osteoprogenitor cells in periosteal bud attach
• Mesenchyme that surrounds bony spicules themselves to cartilage remnants à differentiate
differentiates into endosteum into osteoblasts à secrete precursors of bone
• Tissue that fills the space between spicules matrix
transforms into myeloid or hemopoietic tissue • Bone matrix calcifies and gives rise to spicules
• Process of cartilage destruction and bone
Intracartilaginous Ossification (Endochondral) deposition: starts at the center of diaphysis and
spreads towards both ends of the cartilage
• Bone formation in areas occupied by hyaline
• Periosteum thickens and widens periosteal bone
cartilage
collar and extends it towards the epiphyses
• Forms cartilage bones
• Bones of limbs, pelvis and vertebral column bone matrix lied
down by osteoblast bone spicules
calcifies
PROCESS

• Heralded by the appearance of a primary center of

ossification in the middle of diaphysis periosteum thickens
cartilage
• Simultaneous changes appear in the center of the and widens bone
destruction and
collar extending to
cartilage model and in the perichondrium bone deposition
the epiphyses
• Chondrocytes at center of cartilage hypertrophy and
Figure 10. Endochondral ossification part 2
their lacunae enlarge
• Chondrocytes secrete alkaline phosphatase • While ossification process is spreading towards the
triggering calcification of cartilage matrix epiphyseal ends of the cartilage model, osteoclasts
o Calcification cuts off their lifeline killing the appear in the central area of the diaphysis and begin
chondrocytes, leaving empty cavities resorbing previously-formed bone and
(lacunae) medullary/marrow cavity is created
• Highly vascularized environment oxygen tension • ↑ bone circumference = ↑ medullary cavity
increases and is followed by: (because of osteoclastic activity)
o Perichondrium transforming into • Secondary centers of ossification appear in both
periosteum epiphyses (childhood)
o Osteoprogenitor cells differentiating into • Events that happen in primary center repeats
osteoblasts
TRANSCRIBERS: Mitchelle Nazario, Cb Reyes, Clare Villanueva
SUBTRANSHEAD: Daniela Marquez 6 OF 8
 HUMAN ANATOMY EVALS 3
Lecture 3: Bone and Cartilage
Lecturer: Dr. Gonzales

• Only epiphyseal plates (articular surfaces of bone • Zone of calcification
and narrow bands of tissue between the diaphysis o Thin region; only a few cells thick
and epiphyses) remains cartilaginous o Cartilage matrix is calcified, most cells are
dead
BONE GROWTH (LENGTH) • Zone of ossification
• Only by appositional method since the intercellular o Where bone is deposited through actions of
substance does not allow interstitial growth or osteoblasts, thin layers of bone are seen on
expansion from within and osteocytes are not the surface of the calcified cartilage
capable of cell division • Amount of cartilage produced in proliferative stage =
amount replaced by bone in ossification zone
• Closure of epiphyseal plate/epiphysisà cartilage
cells stop dividing, cartilage plate is replaced by
bone, signifies end of the increase in length of bone

Figure 11. Bone anatomy

• Possible until 20 years old or so

• Function of epiphyseal plate

Figure 13. Bone zones

BONE GROWTH (WIDTH)
• Function of periosteum
• When osteoprogenitor cells in osteogenic layer
Figure 12. Epiphyseal plate differentiate into osteoblasts
• Osteoblast adds multiple layers of bone matrix on
• Epiphyseal Plateà disc of hyaline cartilage the outer surface of the bone
sandwiched between diaphysis
• Interstitial growth of epiphyseal plates à bone CONVERSION OF SPONGY TO COMPACT BONE
growth • Lamellar bone is first laid down in the form of
spongy bone
Zones (from epiphysis to diaphysis) • Bone spicules are connected together to form
irregular tunnels
• Zone of resting cartilage cells
• In compact bone: layers of bone matrix are
o Anchors epiphyseal plate to epiphysis
deposited on inner surface of tunnel by osteoblasts
o Chondrocytes irregularly scattered
in endosteum until Haversian Canals remains
throughout intercellular substance
• Zone of proliferation BONE REMODELING
o Site of interstitial growth • Bone is a very dynamic tissue that constantly
o Young cartilage cells continuously undergo undergoes remodeling
mitosis, cells are piled up on top of each
other External Remodeling
• Zone of maturation / hypertrophy • Changes in the shape of the bone in response to
o Consists of large cells and lacunae, cells do external factors
not divide anymore • Accomplished by bone resorption and deposition of
o Cells were originally in zone of proliferation bone tissue
TRANSCRIBERS: Mitchelle Nazario, Cb Reyes, Clare Villanueva
SUBTRANSHEAD: Daniela Marquez 7 OF 8
 HUMAN ANATOMY EVALS 3
Lecture 3: Bone and Cartilage
Lecturer: Dr. Gonzales

• Example: Formation of tubercles in long bones in o Estrogen (in females) à increases number
response to the pull of muscles of osteoblast, stimulating bone formation
o Absence of androgen (in males)à delays
Internal Remodeling closure of epiphyseal plates, limbs become
• Never ending cycle of resorption and formation of disproportionately long
haversian systems • Human Growth Hormone (hGH) à secreted by
o Renew haversian systems pituitary gland
§ Nutrients and oxygen is inefficient o Absence of hGH results in cessation of
§ Osteocytes are mostly dead mitosis (dwarfism)
§ Remaining osteocytes are o Excess hGH results in enhanced mitosis in
incapable of maintaining chondrocytes of epiphyseal plates
§ 2 stages (gigantism)
• Resorption of existing o Acromegalyà in adults, epiphyseal plates
systems are closed, excess hGH does not result in
• Formation of new ones increase in height, overgrowth and
o Release Calcium protrusion of mandible
§ Haversian systems resorb to
mobilize the Ca they contain REFERENCES:
1. PPT
NUTRITIONAL EFFECTS ON BONE 2. Book
• Deficiency of Ca of Phosphorus leads to poor
mineralization of bones
o Bones become brittle and fracture easily
• Vitamin D deficiencyà poor absorption of Ca,
osteoid fails to calcify, rickets (stunting of growth
and weak bone development) in children,
osteomalacia (lack of bone mass and frequent
fracture) in adults
• Vitamin C deficiencyà causes scurvy (poor
production of bone matrix)
• Vitamin A deficiencyà retards bone growth

ENDOCRINE EFFECTS ON BONE
• Bone as storehouse of Ca
o Ca is essential for blood coagulation, muscle
contraction, nerve function
• Parathyroid Hormone (parathormone)
o Produced by parathyroid gland, primary
regulator of blood Ca levels
• ↓ Ca levels stimulates parathyroid gland to secrete
parathormone targeting osteoblast
• Parathormoneà inhibits bone-forming activity and
stimulates secretion of osteoclast stimulating factor
(accelerate bone resorption)
• Calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin) à Inhibits bone
resorption (suppresses osteoclast), secreted by
parafollicular cells of thyroid gland
• Gonodal Hormones
o Role in determining rate of skeletal
maturation

TRANSCRIBERS: Mitchelle Nazario, Cb Reyes, Clare Villanueva

SUBTRANSHEAD: Daniela Marquez 8 OF 8