Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.

14. D.C. Circuits

14. D.C. CIRCUITS

Content
• Practical circuits
• Series and parallel arrangements
• Potential divider
• Balanced potentials

Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) recall and use appropriate circuit symbols as set out in SI Units, Signs,
Symbols and Abbreviations (ASE, 1981) and Signs, Symbols and Systematics
(ASE, 1995).
(b) draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing sources, switches, resistors,
ammeters, voltmeters, and/or any other type of component referred to in the
syllabus.
(c) solve problems using the formula for the combined resistance of two or more
resistors in series.
(d) solve problems using the formula for the combined resistance of two or more
resistors in parallel.
(e) solve problems involving series and parallel circuits for one source of e.m.f.
(f) show an understanding of the use of a potential divider circuit as a source of
variable p.d.
(g) explain the use of thermistors and light-dependent resistors in potential
dividers to provide a potential difference which is dependent on temperature
and illumination respectively.
(h) recall and solve problems by using the principle of the potentiometer as a
means of comparing potential differences.

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Types of electric current

• Direct Current (D.C.): Flow of charges in the circuit is in the same

direction all the time, from a higher potential to a
lower potential (e.g. current from battery).

• Alternating Current: Flow of charges in the circuit reverses direction at

regular intervals (e.g. current from household
mains).

Electric circuits consist of circuit components (e.g. batteries, resistors, and

switches) connected by conductors (e.g. copper cables).

For electric current to flow, the circuit components and conductors must form
closed loops. There must also be sources of electrical energy (e.g. batteries)
and sinks of electrical energy among the circuit components (e.g. resistors and
lamps).

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

(a) recall and use appropriate circuit symbols as set out in SI Units, Signs,
Symbols and Abbreviations (ASE, 1981) and Signs, Symbols and
Systematics (ASE, 1995).

Electrical Circuit Symbols (a)

Recall and
use
Symbol modifier

variable value inherent non-linearity preset value

Conductors and terminals

with connection between conductors no connection between conductors

current-carrying conductor open terminals ground/earth

single pole single single pole double double pole double

throw (SPST) switch throw (SPDT) switch throw (DPDT) switch

D.C. sources

cell battery (>1 cell) photovoltaic cell

d.c. source variable d.c. source

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

Measuring instruments

mA

ammeter and milliammeter voltmeter and millivoltmeter

galvanometer (alphabetical symbol, null deflection, current detected in

certain direction, current detected in another direction)

Resistors

fixed resistor variable resistor (rheostat) thermistor

light-dependent resistor (LDR) potentiometer (voltage divider)

Other circuit components

diode photodiode light-emitting diode (LED)

fuse heating element indicator, lamp or light source

Other symbols found in TYS

generator Motor loudspeaker thermocouple

oscilloscope aerial/antenna electric bell buzzer

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

(b) draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing sources, switches,

resistors, ammeters, voltmeters, and/or any other type of component
referred to in the syllabus.

Note that, for a certain electric circuit, there are different ways of drawing its (b)
Draw and
circuit diagram. interpret

Actual circuit Circuit diagram

Two other possible circuit diagrams for the above electric circuit are as
follows:

R2

R1

Example 1: Draw the circuit diagram for the electric circuit shown below.

Actual circuit Circuit diagram

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

Conservation of charge (must know in order to solve circuit problems)

Given that we are dealing with steady currents (i.e. no accumulation of charge at
circuit junctions), the sum of currents entering a circuit junction is equal to the sum of
currents leaving it.

I1 + I 2 = I 3 + I 4 + I 5

Taking currents entering circuit junction as positive and

currents leaving circuit junction as negative, we have:
I1 + I 2 − I 3 − I 4 − I 5 = 0

Taking currents leaving circuit junction as positive and

currents entering circuit junction as negative, we have:
I 3 + I 4 + I 5 − I1 − I 2 = 0

Example 2

The given diagrams show wires carrying currents I1, I2, I3, and I4, meeting at a junction.
Which of the following diagrams represents the equation I1 + I2 = I3 + I4?

A B C D

I1 + I3 + I4 + = I2 I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 Impossible, all
(correct answer) currents are entering
and no current
leaving.

Conservation of energy (must know in order to solve circuit problems)

The algebraic sum of e.m.f. (i.e. sources of electrical energy) is equal to the algebraic
sum of p.d. (i.e. sinks of energy) for any closed loop within the circuit.

Example 3

Find I1 and I2 in terms of E1, E2, R1, R2 and R3.

Given that

E1 = 3.0 V
E2 = 1.5 V
R1 = R2 = R3 = 10 Ω

find the values of I1 and I2.

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

Solution:

Conservation of energy for the loop:

E1 + E 2 = I1R1 + I1R2 = I1 (R1 + R2 )

E1 + E 2
I1 =
R1 + R 2

Conservation of energy for the loop:

E1 + E2 = I 2 R3

E1 + E 2
I2 =
R3

Substituting E1 = 3.0 V, E2 = 1.5 V and R1 = R2 = R3 = 10 Ω,

I1 = 0.23 A and I2 = 0.45 A.

(c) solve problems using the formula for the combined resistance of two or
more resistors in series.

Derivation of the effective resistance of resistors in series (for reference only):

For series connection, the effective resistance is the sum of individual resistance.

In general, for n similar resistors (each of resistance R) connected in series, the

effective resistance is Reff = nR .

Note: The effective resistance always increases when additional resistors are
connected in series.

1. Same water current flowing through each 2. Resistance to water flow increases
section of the tube, whether wide or as number of narrow portions along
narrow (water cannot be compressed, no the tube increases (adding
accumulation, inflow = outflow). obstruction to water flow).

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

Example 4
Calculate the effective resistance of a 4 Ω and two 3 Ω resistors connected in series.

Solution:
Reff = 4 + (2)(3) = 10 Ω

(d) solve problems using the formula for the combined resistance of two or
more resistors in parallel.

Derivation of the effective resistance of resistors in parallel (for reference only):

For parallel connection, the reciprocal of effective resistance is the sum of

reciprocal of individual resistance.

In general, for n similar resistors (each of resistance R) connected in parallel, the

1 n R
effective resistance is = ⇒ Reff = .
Reff R n

Note: The effective resistance always decreases when additional resistors are
connected in parallel.

The effective resistance of resistors in parallel is always less than the individual
resistance of each resistor.

1. The water current through the wide 2. Resistance to water flow

tube is the same as the sum of the water decreases as number of narrow tubes
currents in each of the narrow tubes (water increases (adding channels for water
cannot be compressed, no accumulation, flow).
inflow = outflow).

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

Example 5
Calculate the effective resistance of a 2 Ω, a 3 Ω and a 4 Ω resistor connected in
parallel.

Solution:
1 1 1 1 6 + 4 + 3 13
= + + = =
Reff 2 3 4 12 12
Reff = 0.903 Ω

(e) solve problems involving series and parallel circuits for one source of
e.m.f.

Example 6
A battery C of 1.5 V and negligible internal resistance is connected to the combination
of resistors as shown. Find the values of the currents I1, I2, and I3 in the diagram.

10 Ω 10 Ω 1.5
I1 = = 0.109
10 + 3.75
I3 = 0.11 A

5Ω 5Ω 5I 3 = 15I 2
C
⇒ I 3 = 3I 2
I1 I2
I1 = I 2 + I 3 = I 2 + 3I 2 = 4I 2

10 Ω I1 0.109
⇒ I2 = = = 0.0273
4 4
= 0.027 A

3.75 Ω I 3 = I1 − I 2 = 0.109 − 0.0273 = 0.0817

C
= 0.082 A
I1

More worked examples

Find the equivalent resistances between points A and point B in Examples 7, 8, and 9.
Assume that all resistances in the circuits are 2 Ω each.

Example 7
E
B

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

Solution:

Step 1: Assign potential at each terminal of each resistors.

E

VA VB VC

VA

VF VD

Step 2: Group resistors which have same potential at its terminals.

E
VA VC
VB
VA

VF VD

Step 3: Simplify the circuit

E
VA VB

2 Ω //2 Ω 2 Ω //4 Ω
1 1Ω 2 Ω 1.33 Ω 1
= =1Ω = = 1.33 Ω
1 1 1 1
+ +
2 2 2 4
VF 2 Ω VD

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

E
VA VB
3 Ω //2 Ω
1
= = 1.2 Ω
1 1 1.33 Ω
+
3 2

1.2 Ω VD

Hence, effective resistance between point A and point B = 1.2 + 1.33 = 2.53 Ω

Example 8

Solution:

Step 1: Assign potential at each terminal of each resistors

VF
VD
VA

VB VC
VC

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

Step 2: Group resistors which have same potential at its terminals.

VF VD
VA

2 Ω //2 Ω //4 Ω
1
= = 0.8 Ω
1 1 1
+ +
VB VC 2 2 4
VC

Step 3: Simplify the circuit

2 Ω //(2 Ω + 0.8 Ω )
1
= = 1.2 Ω
1 1
+
2 2.8

Hence, effective resistance between point A and point B = 2 + 1.2 = 2.2 Ω

Example 9

A B
E

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

Solution:

Step 1: Assign potential at each terminal of each resistors

VB VC

VB

VA VB
E
Step 2: Group resistors which have same potential at its terminals.

VB VC

VB

VA VB
E

Step 3: Simplify the circuit

VB

0 Ω (short circuit)

VA VB

Hence, effective resistance between point A and point B = 2 Ω

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

(f) show an understanding of the use of a potential divider circuit as a

source of variable p.d.

A potential divider circuit is formed when two resistors are connected in (f)
Show
series and a source of e.m.f. is applied across them. The e.m.f. produces a understanding
p.d. across each resistor in the ratio of their resistances.

Thus the potential divider circuit

can be used to provide a certain
fraction of the source of e.m.f. to
the external circuit.

Note: This equation holds only if

the external circuit draws a very
small current compared to the
current flowing through the
potential divider circuit.

If a variable resistor is used, the

output voltage can be varied. The
potential divider becomes a
source of variable p.d. to the
external circuit.

Example 10

Find the value of the potential difference V of the voltmeter in the diagram.

Solution (using formula): Solution (from fundamentals):

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

(g) explain the use of thermistors and light-dependent resistors in potential

dividers to provide a potential difference which is dependent on
temperature and illumination respectively.

A thermistor is a semiconductor device whose resistance decreases as its (g)

Explain
temperature increases.

Thermistors can be used

in potential dividers to
provide a p.d. that is
dependent on
temperature.

A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is a semiconductor device whose

resistance decreases as its illumination increases.

Light-dependent resistors
can be used in potential
dividers to provide a p.d.
that is dependent on
illumination.

Example 11

Solution:

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

(h) recall and solve problems by using the principle of the potentiometer as
a means of comparing potential differences.

A voltmeter is often used to measure the potential (h)

Recall and solve
difference between two points in a circuit. problems

Ideally no current should be drawn by the

voltmeter so as not to affect the circuit in any way.

In practice, voltmeters draw a very small current

when measuring the p.d. between two points.

A potentiometer can be used to compare p.d.s without drawing a current

from the circuit involved. It consists of a length of resistance wire of uniform
cross-section area through which a steady current is maintained by a cell
(called the driver cell).

Therefore the p.d. between two points along the wire is proportional to the
distance l between them.

Application in comparing potential differences:

The potential difference V1 is connected to the potentiometer circuit as shown

below. Its higher potential end is connected to point A. Its lower potential end
is connected via a galvanometer to a jockey to make contact with the
resistance wire.
Point C1 is its balance point,
obtained when the galvanometer
shows null deflection. The balance
length is l1 and

V1 = kl1

The experiment is then repeated for potential difference V2.

Point C2 is its balance point,
obtained when the galvanometer
shows null deflection. The balance
length is l2 and

V2 = kl 2
V2 l 2
Therefore, =
V1 l1

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Jurong Junior College, H2 Physics (9646) Lecture Notes for 2014 JC1.
14. D.C. Circuits

Application in determining unknown e.m.f.:

After calibration, V = kl where k is a known constant with the units of V cm-1.

The unknown e.m.f. E is connected to the potentiometer circuit as shown

below. Its higher potential end is connected to point A. Its lower potential end
is connected via a galvanometer to a jockey to make contact with the
resistance wire.
The balance point is obtained when
the galvanometer shows null
deflection. The balance length is l.

The unknown e.m.f. E can be

determined since
E = kl
(k is known after calibration and l is
measured experimentally.)

Since the unknown e.m.f. is not delivering any current, there will not be any
potential drop across its own internal resistance. Its terminal p.d. will be
equal to its e.m.f. hence this experiment measures its e.m.f. (unlike the
voltmeter which draws a small current from the source and thus can only
measure its terminal p.d. which is slightly lower than its e.m.f.).

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Acknowledgements:

Adapted from JJC Physics 2010 DC Circuits lecture notes.

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