BIOLOGY

1.0: MOLECULES OF LIFE

1.1 WATER
1.2 CARBOHYDRATES
1.3 LIPIDS
1.4 PROTEINS
1.5 NUCLEIC ACIDS
 1.0: MOLECULES OF LIFE
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
1.1 Water
• a) State the structure and properties of
water molecules.
• b) Relates the properties of water and its
importance.
 WATER
WATER MOLECULE
1.1 WATER

Water has a simple molecular structure. It is composed of

one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms.
 WATER MOLECULE
▪ A hydrogen atoms
1.1 WATER

combined with the oxygen

atom by sharing of
electrons.
Angle of water atoms

▪ Each hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to the oxygen via a

shared pair of electrons.

▪ Oxygen also has two unshared pairs of electrons. Thus, oxygen

is an "electronegative“ compared with hydrogen.
 Polarity of water
Polar molecule : A molecule with uneven distribution of charges
in different regions of the molecules. (Campbell 9th edition)
1.1 WATER

 Oxygen region Partially negative side

has partial negative of water molecule
charge.
 Hydrogen has a
partial positive
charge.

Partially positive side

of water molecule
Ball-and-Stick Model
 Bonds of water molecules
1.1 WATER
 PROPERTIES OF WATER

Universal solvent due to its polarity/

polar molecules
1.1 WATER

Low viscosity

High specific heat capacity

High latent heat of vaporization
High surface tension

Maximum density at 4°C

 1.0: MOLECULES OF LIFE
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

1.2 Carbohydrates

• a) State the classes of carbohydrates such

as monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.
• b) Illustrate the formation and breakdown of maltose.

• c) Compare the structure and function of starch, glycogen and

cellulose.
 CARBOHYDRATES
Organic compounds
1.2 CARBOHYDRATES

containing C, H and O
(ratio of 1:2:1)

• Empirical formula :
(CH2O)n
 MONOSACCHARIDES
• Characteristics: • Simple sugar
1.2 CARBOHYDRATES

• Small
• Sweet tasting
• Primary source of
energy
• Readily soluble in water
• Reducing sugar
• Crystalline
 MONOSACCHARIDES
Carbon backbone of 3 to 6 carbon atoms.
1.2 CARBOHYDRATES

Have a carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups.

ALDOSE KETOSE
Carbonyl group : C = O CARBONYL CARBONYL
Hydroxyl group : OH group is located group is located
on the terminal on a carbon
carbon in That is not
All carbon atoms except
the chain. on the end
one have a hydroxyl of the chain.
group attached.
 DISACCHARIDES
1.2 CARBOHYDRATES

 Formed by condensation reaction of TWO monosaccharides.

 Bond linking : glycosidic bond.
• Disaccharides:  Characteristics:
• Maltose
• Sucrose • Water-soluble
• Lactose • Sweet tasting
• Readily soluble in
water
• Reducing sugar
(maltose, lactose)
• Crystalline
1.2 CARBOHYDRATES
DISACCHARIDES
 DISACCHARIDES
MALTOSE - condensation
1.2 CARBOHYDRATES
1.2 CARBOHYDRATES
MALTOSE - hydrolysis DISACCHARIDES
 POLYSACCHARIDES
Polymers of monosaccharides made up of condensation of
1.2 CARBOHYDRATES

hundreds of monosaccharides
• Polysaccharides: Characteristics:
• Starch
• Glycogen - Large and complex
• Cellulose
- Most are not soluble in water
- Not sweet tasting
- Food storage
 POLYSACCHARIDES
STARCH
• Condensation of α-glucose subunits
1.2 CARBOHYDRATES

• Used for energy storage in plants

• Made up of two components :
1. Amylose
• A linear unbranched polymer
•Glucose units joined by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds

2. Amylopectin
• A branched polymer
• linear chains held together by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds
• short branches: held by α-1,6 glycosidic bonds
 GLYCOGEN POLYSACCHARIDES

• Condensation of α-glucose subunits

1.2 CARBOHYDRATES

• Major storage of carbohydrate in animals

• Structure similar to amylopectin : larger & with more branches.
 CELLULOSE POLYSACCHARIDES

• Condensation of β-glucose subunits

1.2 CARBOHYDRATES

• Structural polysaccharides in plant cell walls

• Composed of long unbranched chains
• linked by β -1,4 glycosidic bonds
• Many hydrogen bonds are formed between hydroxyl groups on parallel
chains ( between C atoms 3 and 6).
 1.0: MOLECULES OF LIFE
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
1.3 Lipids
• a) State the types of lipid: triglycerides (fat and oil),
phospholipids and steroids.
• b) Describe the structure of fatty acids and glycerol.

• b) Explain the formation and breakdown of

triglycerides.
 LIPIDS
• Not polymer
• Lipids are organic compounds.
• General formula : CnH2nO2
• Proportion of oxygen is lower than
1.3 LIPIDS
Characteristics:
• Insoluble in water
• Have little or no affinity
for water (hydrophobic
behavior)
• Soluble in organic solvent

such as ether, acetone,

in carbohydrates. chloroform
and hot alcohol
• Can store large amount of energy:

The ratio of energy storing C-H bonds

in fats is more than twice that
carbohydrates / more C and H.
 LIPIDS
TYPE OF LIPIDS
• - TRIGLYCERIDES
i.e Fat and oil
• - PHOSPHOLIPIDS
i.e Lecithin
• - STEROID
1.3 LIPIDS

• i.e Cholesterol
Testosteron
TRIGLYCERIDES: LIPIDS
STRUCTURE OF FATTY ACIDS AND GLYCEROL

• Glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol that contains three

hydroxyl group (-OH)
• a fatty acid is a long, unbranched hydrocarbon chain with
carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end.
1.3 LIPIDS
 Formation/Breakdown of
Triglycerides

condensation
1.3 LIPIDS

hydrolysis
 1.0: MOLECULES OF LIFE
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

1.4 Protein
• a) Describe the basic structure of amino acid

• b) State how amino acids are grouped.

• c) Describe primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
level of proteins and the type of bonds involved
 1.0: MOLECULES OF LIFE
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

1.4 Protein
• d) Describe the effect of pH and temperature on the
structure of protein.
• e) Explain the formation and breakdown of dipeptide

• f) Classify proteins according to structure and composition

 PROTEINS

Molecule made up of one/more polypeptides, each folded and

coiled into specific 3D structure.

Constructed from amino acids.

1.4 PROTEINS

The bond between amino acids

is called peptide bond.

• Each polypeptide has a unique linear

sequence of amino acids.
 PROTEINS

Protein Monomer : Amino acid

• Amino acid containing
• an amino group
1.4 PROTEINS

• a carboxyl group,
• a hydrogen atom

• a side chain
– that are specific to
(R group)
each amino acid.
a variable group
 PROTEINS
How amino acids are grouped?

Nonpolar
amino acid
1.4 PROTEINS

The 20 amino acids Polar

are grouped amino acid
according to the
properties of their Acidic
side chains (R amino acid
groups)
Basic
amino acid
 PROTEINS
Proteins Structure
• The sequence of amino acids determines a
protein’s three-dimensional structure.
4 levels of protein structure
1.4 PROTEINS

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

(1 ͦ ) (2 ͦ ) (3 ͦ ) (4 ͦ )
 Proteins Structure: Primary (1 ͦ )
Primary Structure
1
5 • sequence of amino
+ H3N
acids determined by
1.4 PROTEINS

Amino end
genetic code carried in
DNA molecules in the
10
nucleus.
15 Amino acid
subunits • Eg: Insulin
20

25
 Proteins Structure: Secondary (2 ͦ )
• Polypeptide chains are coiled (-helix ) and folded (β-pleated sheet) .

A coiled shape of the -helix

1.4 PROTEINS

is held in place by hydrogen

bonds between amino groups
and the carboxyl groups of the
amino acids.

• Hold protein in a parallel • E.g. : keratin in hair, nails,

arrangement (β-pleated
horn and feathers
sheet) with hydrogen
bond.
• E.g.: silk protein of a spider’s web.
 Proteins Structure: Tertiary
• Involves interactions (attractions & repulsions) between R
groups of the amino acids
Hydrophobic
• Structure is interactions and
van der Waals
1.4 PROTEINS

maintained by : interactions
–Hydrogen bond Polypeptide
backbone
–Ionic bond Hydrogen
bond
–Disulfide bridge
–Hydrophobic Disulfide bridge
interactions
–van der Waals
interactions Ionic bond
 Proteins Structure: Quaternary

• Two or more polypeptide chains

form one functional macromolecule.
1.4 PROTEINS

• Combination two or more tertiary

units.
• Stabilized with the same
interactions found in
tertiary structure.
 Factors Affecting Protein Structure

Temperature
• Heat increases the kinetic energy of the protein
1.4 PROTEINS

chain.
• Excessive motion can break relatively weak
hydrogen bonds, electrostatic interactions (ionic
bond) and hydrophobic interactions.
• Protein chain is free to rearrange after disrupting.
• E.g : Fried egg
 Factors Affecting Protein Structure

pH
• Extreme of pH can cause protein to denature.
1.4 PROTEINS

• Change the charges of acidic and basic functional

groups of proteins.
• Those functional groups will lose & gain a proton.
• Break hydrogen bonds between acidic and basic R
groups & disrupt ionic bonds.
 The Formation and Breakdown of Dipeptide
1.4 PROTEINS
 PROTEIN CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
THEIR STRUCTURE
Fibrous protein Globular protein Conjugated protein
1.4 PROTEINS

Collagen Enzymes Hemoglobin

α-keratin Antibodies
Elastin Hormones
 1.0: MOLECULES OF LIFE
1.5 Nucleic Acids

At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

• a) State the structure of nucleotide as the basic composition of
nucleic acid (DNA and RNA)

• b) Illustrate the structure of DNA based on Watson and Crick model.

• c) State the types of RNA

• d) Compare DNA and RNA

 NUCLEIC ACIDS
NUCLEIC ACIDS
• Macromolecules (large molecules) made up of
1.5 NUCLEIC ACIDS

chains of individual units called nucleotides.

• Each nucleotide is made up of pentose sugar,

phosphate group and nitrogenous bases.

40
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
Components of Nucleotide
1.5 NUCLEIC ACIDS
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
Formation of Phosphodiester bond between phosphate group at C5
& Hydroxyl group (OH) at C3 next monomer.
1.5 NUCLEIC ACIDS
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
Watson and Crick’s DNA Model
 A DNA molecule is linkage
1.5 NUCLEIC ACIDS

of nucleotides forms long

chains called
polynucleotides.
 A Chemically, one strand
G
T

runs 5’ to 3’ upward while

C
A
T
C

the other runs in the

opposite direction of 5’ to
3’ downward.
 and coiled (clockwise
C
spiral) into a double helix.
G A
T

43
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
RNA Structure
• A single-stranded polymer of
nucleotides
1.5 NUCLEIC ACIDS
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
Differences of DNA and RNA
1.5 NUCLEIC ACIDS
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
Differences of DNA and RNA
1.5 NUCLEIC ACIDS
 DNA
Mostly two polynucleotide chains //
double-stranded
Double helix
Deoxyribose as pentose sugar
Organic bases: A, T, C, G
* Base thymine (T)
Manufactured in nucleus
Chemically very stable// long live
Larger molecular size/ mass
Only one basic form
Susceptible to UV damage
RNA
Mostly single polynucleotide chain // most
single-stranded
No double helix
Ribose as pentose sugar
Organic bases: A, U, C, G
* Base Uracil (U)
Manufactured in nucleus but found
throughout the cell
Chemically much less stable// temporary
Smaller molecular size/ mass
Many/ 3 basic forms : mRNA, rRNA and
tRNA
Relatively resistance to UV damage