Chapter I

Permutation and Combination

Permutations and combinations are the various ways in which objects from a set may be
selected, generally without replacement, to form subsets. This selection of subsets is called a
permutation when the order of selection is a factor ―order matters”, a combination when
order is not a factor “order doesn’t matter”.

1.1 Permutation and Combination

For permutation, if there are n objects available from which to select, and permutations
(P) are to be formed using k of the objects at a time, the number of different permutations
possible is denoted by the symbol nPk. A formula for its evaluation is
 nPk = ( )
The permutation of n objects arranged in a circle is
 P = (n-1)!

For combinations, since k objects have k! arrangements, there are k! indistinguishable

permutations for each choice of k objects; hence dividing the permutation formula by k!
yields the following combination formula:
 nCk = ( ) ,
where n = number of objects
k = number of positions

In general n! is read as ―n-factorial‖ and is given by

n!=n*(n-1)*(n-2)*….2*1
We also define 0! = 1.

Example 1: How many 3 letter words can we make with the letters in the word LOVE?
Solution:
There are 4 letters in the word love and making 3 letter words is similar to arranging these 3
letters and order is important since LOV and VOL are different words because of the order of the
same letters L, O and V. Hence it is a permutation problem. The number of words is given by:
n =4,
k=3

1|Page
 nPk = ( )

4P3=( )

= 24, (3 letter words can we make)

Example 2: In how many ways can 8 differently colored beads be threaded on a string?
Solution:
As necklace can be turned over, clockwise and anti-clockwise arrangements are the same.
P = (n – 1)!
P = (8-1)! ÷ 2
= 7! ÷ 2
= 7*6*5*4*3*2*1 ÷ 2
= 5040 ÷ 2
= 2520 ways
Example 3: We need to form a 5 a side team in a class of 12 students. How many different
teams can be formed?
Solution:
There is nothing that indicates that the order in which the team members are selected is important
and therefore it is a combination problem. Hence the number of teams is given by:
n =12, k=5

nCk = ( )

12C5 = ( )

12C5 =

=792 teams
In this lesson, permutation was discussed, including permutation with identical objects,
circular permutation, and its real life application. You may go back to the previous lesson and
compare your initial ideas about the concept of permutation. Were these further clarified? Now
that you have learned the basic ideas about permutations let us deepen your understanding.

2|Page
 Try it Now!
Exercise 1.1
1.) How many 4 digit numbers can we make using the digits 3, 6, 7 and 8 without repetitions?

2.) How many 3 digit numbers can we make using the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 without repetitions?

3.) How many 6 letter words can we make using the letters in the word LIBERTY without
repetitions?

4.) In how many ways can you arrange 5 different books on a shelf?

5.) In how many ways can you select a committee of 3 students out of 10 students?

6.) How many triangles can you make using 6 non collinear points on a plane?

7.) A committee including 3 boys and 4 girls is to be formed from a group of 10 boys and 12
girls. How many different committees can be formed from the group?

8.) In a certain country, the car number plate is formed by 4 digits from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8 and 9 followed by 3 letters from the alphabet. How many number plates can be formed if
neither the digits nor the letters are repeated?
9.) How many different words can we make using the letters A, B, E and L?
10.) At a dinner party 6 men and women sit at a round table. In how many ways can they sit if:
a.) there are no restriction b.) men and women alternate

In the activity you have done, were you able determine the exact number of ways of doing
each task or activity describe? What mathematics concept of principle did you used? How was
that principle applied? Some of these tasks or activities share similarities or differ from others in
some sense. How do they differ? You will find out as you go through the next section of this
module.

3|Page
 Explore!
Problem Set
1) We need to form a 5 side team in a class of 12 students. How many different teams can
be formed?

2) How many lines can you draw using 3 non collinear (not in a single line) points A, B and
C on a plane?

3) How many 2 digit numbers can you make using the digits 1, 2, 3 and 4 without repeating
the digits?

4) How many different 8 letters words are possible using the letters of the word
SYLLABUS?

5) Permutation of {a, b, c, d, e}, taken 3 at a time.

6) In how many ways can the letters GOOGLE be arranged?

7) Find the value of 14C5, 10C8, and C (7,2).

8) Find out the number of ways in which 4 girls can form a group of 15 in total to be lined
up for a click.

9) Given a word MATHS, find the number of possible arrangements of its letters.

10) How many ways can we award a 1st, 2nd, and 3rdplace prize among 8 contestants?

11) Picking a team of 3 people from a group of 10.

12) Picking a President, VP and Water boy from a group of 10.

13) Choosing 3 desserts from a menu of 15.

14) John has 8 friends. In how many ways can he invite one or more of them to dinner?
15.) In how many ways 5 balls can be selected from ‗12‘ identical red balls?

4|Page
 Chapter II
Union and Intersection
Of an Events

First of all we should know some basic concepts.

Any process of observation is referred to as an experiment. It results are called outcomes. An
experiment is called random experiment. If we know the outcomes but not without particular
outcomes will happens.
The set of all outcomes in an experiment is called a sample space. An event is a subset of a
sample space.

2.1 Probability of Simple Event

Probability of simple event: if each of the outcomes in the sample space is equally likely to
occur, then the probability of an event E, denoted as P (E) is given by

P (E) =

Or

P (E) =

Example 1: What is the probability in getting 5 in rolling a die once?

Sol.

P (E) =

P (5) =

Thus, the probability in getting 5 in rolling a die once is .

5|Page
 Example 2: What is the probability of getting head in tossing coin once?
Sol.

P (E) =

P (H) =

Therefore, the probability of getting head in tossing a coin once is .

Now that you have a deeper understanding of topic, you are ready to do the tasks in this lesson.

6|Page
 Try it Now!

Exercises 2.1
In shuffling a regular deck of cards, what is the probability of getting?
a. P(king)
b. P(heart ace)
c. P(heart)
d. P(spade)
e. P(diamond)
f. P(club)
g. P( ace)
h. P(red king)
i. P( black jack)
j. P(red even cards)

How were the activities done so far? Were you able to answer all of the exercises? I hope you
just did successfully!

Now that you have a deeper understanding of topic, you are ready to do the tasks in this lesson.

7|Page
 Explore!

Problem Set

1. What is the probability of getting tail in tossing a coin once?

2. In tossing a die, what is the probability in getting odd numbers?
3. What is the probability of getting head in tossing a coin?
4. In tossing a die, what is the probability in getting even numbers?

In shuffling cards with two jokers, what is the probability of getting?

5. P(Prime cards)
6. P(Even red cards)
7. P( composite red cards)
8. P(odd cards)
9. P(red face cards)
10. P(even cards)
11. P(black face cards)
12. P( face cards)
13. P(jokers)
14. P(not jokers)
15. In a school institution with 16 sections, for every section it has 45 students with 15 boys
and 30 girls. A principal is planning to choose one student to avail a scholarship grant. He
plan to select randomly, what is the probability of selecting a boy?

8|Page
2.2 Probability of Compound Events

Events which consist of more than one outcome are called compound events. Compound
events consist of two or more simple events.

P (E) =

Example 1: Find the probability of ―getting a 5 and a 2‖, when two dice are rolled.
Sol.

Since the first die falls in 6 different ways and the second die falls in 6 different ways. Thus,
using the fundamental counting principle, the number of outcomes in the sample space is 6x6 =
36. Take note that ―getting a 5 and a 2‖ when two dice are rolled is an event consisting of {(5, 2),
(2, 5)} as outcomes.

P (getting a 5 and a 2) =

Therefore, the probability of getting a 5 and a 2 is .

Example 2: What is the probability of getting a head and a tail in tossing a coin twice?
Sol.
Note that in first toss there are two possible outcomes and the second toss also has two possible
outcomes. Using the fundamental counting of principle the number of outcomes in the sample
space is 2x2 = 4. Also in getting a head and a tail when tossing a coin twice, their will appear
{(H, T), (T, H)} as outcomes.

P (getting a head and a tail) =

9|Page
 Try it now!

Exercises 2.2
In tossing a coin thrice, what is the probability of getting?

a. P(two heads and a tail)

b. P(three heads)
c. P(three tails)
d. P(two tails and a head)

In tossing two coins at the same time, what is the probability of getting?

e. P( two heads)
f. P( two tails)
g. P(a head and a tail)

In a set of face cards, Paing wants to pick two face cards at the same time. What is the
probability of getting?

h. P (red jack)

i. P (black king)

j. P (a heart king and queen)

How were the activities done so far? Were you able to answer all of the exercises? I hope you
just did successfully!

10 | P a g e
 Explore!
Problem set
In rolling a die twice, what is the probability of getting?

1. P(an odd and an even)

2. P( two prime numbers)
3. P(a composite and a prime)
4. P(two even numbers)
5. P(two odd numbers)

In a deck of cards with two jokers, Anton wants to pick two cards at different times. What is
the probability that Anton can get:

6. P(black aces)
7. P(a club 10 and a heart king)
8. P(a spade 6 and a diamond 4)
9. P(a heart 2 and a club queen)
10. P( two consecutive clubs)
11. P(a prime and a composite)
12. P( two consecutive odd hearts)
13. P(two consecutive face cards)
14. P(two consecutive even clubs)
15. In a standard deck of cards, Arnel shuffled it thrice. In every shuffling, he wants to get 2
cards at the same time. What is the probability of getting two red kings, two black aces,
and a club jack and queen after shuffling it thrice?

11 | P a g e
2.3 Probability of Mutually Exclusive and Non – mutually Exclusive Events

Mutually Exclusive Events. Two events are said to be mutually exclusive events if events A
and B cannot happen simultaneously. If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then
P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B).
Note: If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then P (A and B) = 0.

Example 1: In tossing a coin once, what is the probability of getting a head or a tail?
Sol:

P (getting a head or a tail) =

=1

Example 2: What is the probability of getting a heart or a club?

Sol:

P (getting a heart or a club) = +

Example 3: What is the probability of getting an odd and 2 after rolling a die once?
Sol:
P (getting an odd and 2) = 0, since an odd and 2 cannot happen simultaneously.

Non-mutually Exclusive Events. Two events are said to be non-mutually exclusive events if
events A and B can happen simultaneously. If A and B are non-mutually exclusive events,
then P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A B).

Note: If A and B are non- mutually exclusive events then P (A and B) = P(A) x P(B).

12 | P a g e
Example 1: What is the probability of getting a face card or a card with a prime number from
a playing card?
Sol:

P (getting a face card or a card with prime number) = + -

Example 2: In rolling a die once, what is the probability of getting an even or a 2?

Sol:

P (getting an even or a 2) =

Example 3: In flipping a coin thrice, what is the probability two heads and one tail?
Sol:

P (two heads and one tail) =

How did you find the preceding activities? Are you ready to learn?

13 | P a g e
 Try it now!
Exercises 2.3
A card is chosen from a well- shuffled deck of 52 cards. What is the probability of getting?
1. P( a king or a queen)
2. P( a red jack or a black king)
3. P( an even card or a red card)
4. P( a spade or a jack)
5. P( a face card or a queen)
6. P( a heart and a king)
7. P( an ace and a jack)
8. P( a face card and an ace)
9. P( a face card and a club)
10. P( an even and a face card)

How were the activities done so far? Were you able to answer all of the exercises? I hope you
just did successfully!

Now that you have a deeper understanding of topic, you are ready to do the tasks in this lesson

14 | P a g e
 Explore!
Problem Set
A spinner number 1 to 10 is spun. Each number is equally likely to be spun. What is the
probability of spinning?
a. P( an even number or a power of 3)
b. P( an odd number or a power of 3)
c. P( a number less than 8 or a divisor of 15)
d. P( a prime number or a power of 2)
e. P( a perfect square or a divisor of 100)

A box contains 36 marbles. Inside the box are only 3 kinds of marbles namely: yellow, red, and
blue. The yellow marbles are 1/5 times the red marbles, and the total of red and yellow marbles
are 24.If you want to get one marble inside the box, what is the probability of getting:
f. P(yellow or red marble)
g. P(blue or yellow marble)
h. P(red or blue marble)
i. P(blue and red marble)
j. P(a marble that has divisible of 2 number of marbles inside the box and a yellow marble)

In well-shuffled face cards, what is the probability of getting?

h. P(a composite and a red cards)
i. P(a card divisible by 3 or a king)
j. P(a card less than 11 and a jack)
k. P(an even or an odd cards)
l. P(two composite cards)

Now that you have learned the basic ideas, let us deepen your understanding and study the
next lesson.

15 | P a g e
2.4 Probability of the Complement of an Event
Complement of an event is the set of all outcomes that are not in the event. This
means that if the probability of an event, A is P (A), the probability that the event would not
occur is 1-P(A), denoted by P(Ac). Thus,
P (Ac) = 1- P(A).

Example 1: The probability that Mark will pass in Math is 0.23 or 23%. What is the probability
that he will fail?
Sol:
P(Ac)= 1- 0.23= 0.77 or
P(Ac)= 100%- 23%=77%
Example 2: The probability that will rain today is 72%, what is the probability that will not rain?
Sol:
P(Ac)= 100%- 72%= 28%

16 | P a g e
 Try it now!
Exercises 2.4
1. The probability that Mandalones love Calpiz is 99%, what is the probability that Mandalones
will not love Calpiz?
2. In a box contain 10 marbles which is red, green and blue. The probability of getting green
marbles is 33%, what is the probability of not getting green marbles?
3. The probability that Judy Ann will say yes to Roxelito is 55%, what is the probability that
Judy Ann will say no to Roxelito?
4. The probability that Sardual pass the exam is 80%, what is the probability that he will fail the
exam?
5. The probability that Mandalones son looks like him is 60%, what is the probability that his son
don‘t look like him?
6. The probability that Angielou can eat 30 apples per hr is 90%,what is the probability that
Angielou can‘t eat 30 apples per hr?
7. The probability that Mr. Sardual can grow is 10%, what is the probability that he will not
grow?

8. The probability that we can finish our workbook on time is 90%, what is the probability that
we can‘t finish our workbook on time?

9. The probability that John knows how to drive a motorcycle is 65%, what is the probability that
he can‘t drive?

10. The probability that Mr. Ramirez can have his practice teach is 87 %, what is the probability
that he can‘t practice teach?

How were the activities done so far? Were you able to answer all of the exercises? I hope you
just did successfully!

17 | P a g e
 Explore!
Problem Set

1. In the classroom there are 50 students with 10 boys and 40 girls. The probability of getting
boys is 20%, what is the probability of getting girls student?

2. Mini library contains different kinds of books and it consists of 5 Algebra, 7 English and 4
Geometry. The probability of getting geometry is 0.25, what is the probability of getting
English?

3. The probability that he will get 95% grade in math is 70%, what is the probability that can‘t
get 95% ?

4. The probability that Pacquiao won the game is 85%, what is the probability that Pacquiao lose
the game?

5. My bag contains different kinds of lecture notebook, Math, English, Araling Panlipunan, and
Science. The probability that I can get math notebook is 0.25, what is the probability that I can
get English?

6. The probability that President Duterte fulfill his promises is 79%, what is the probability that
he can‘t fulfill it?

7. The probability that the Numerican batch 2018-2019 can get 95% passers for LET is 90%,
what is the probability that they can‘t get?

8. The probability that we won the contest is 0.85, what is the probability that we lose?

9. My cabinet contains pants, shirts, shorts and long-sleeves. I want to get pants. The probability
that I can get pants is 20%, what is the probability of not getting pants?

10. The probability that Boston Celtics won the NBA finals next season is 0.93, what is the
probability that Boston Celtics will not won?

11. The box contains 12 coins, one peso coins, five peso coins and ten peso coins. The
probability of getting ten peso coins is 60%, what is the probability of getting one peso coins and
five peso coins?

18 | P a g e
12. The probability that Mr. Siarez can have a girl friend is 12%, what is the probability that he
can‘t have a girl friend?

13. Mr. Labrador and Ms. Valiente relation long last with the probability of 0.50, what is the
probability that their relation will end?

14. The probability that we will sleep in the class today is 87%, what is the probability that we
are awake?

15. The trey contains of 5 plates, 7 spoons, 4 pork and 3 glasses, Dr. Yurfo wants to get plate and
pork. The probability that he can get plate and pork is 49%, what is the probability that he will
get spoons and glasses?

How were the activities done so far? Were you able to answer all of the exercises? I hope you
just did successfully!

19 | P a g e
2.5 Probability of Dependent and Independent Event
Independent Events. Two events are independent if the occurrence of one of the events
gives no information about whether or not the other event will occur, that is, the events have
no influence to each other. If A and B are independent events, then
P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B).

Example 1: What is the probability in tossing two coins at the same time two heads will come
up?
Sol:

P (two heads) = x

= .

Example 2: In rolling two dice at the same time, what is the probability of getting 2 and 3?

P (2 and 3) = x

Dependent Events. An event is said to be dependent if the outcome of one event depends upon
the outcome of the other events. The probability of dependent events happens if the occurrence
of the given set of events affects the probability of the others. If A and B are dependent events,
then,
P (A and B) = P (A) x P (B)
Be careful with the phrase, ―no replacement‖ because it may lead you into misunderstanding!

Example 1: Two cards are picked at random from a pack of playing cards. What is the
probability of picking an ace and then a face card? Picked cards have no replacement.
Sol:
First, we must get P (ace) since it was the first that being picked.

P (ace) =

Second, we also get P (face card). Observe that we already got 1 card, so the total possible
outcome is decrease by 1.

20 | P a g e
 P (face card) =

Finally, we are now going get

P (ace then face card) = x

= x

How did you find the preceding activities? Are you ready to learn?

Now that you have a deeper understanding of topic, you are ready to do the tasks in this lesson

21 | P a g e
 Try it now!
Exercises 2.5
In tossing two coins at the same time, what is the probability of getting?
a. P(two heads)
b. P(two tail)
c. P (a tail and a head)
In rolling two dice at the same time, what is the probability of getting?
d. P(two even numbers)
e. P (two odd numbers)
f. P (two consecutive even numbers)
g. P (two consecutive odd numbers)
h. There are two green cards, a brown card, and three red cards. What is the probability of
getting a red card, a brown card, and a green card in this order if no replacement?
i. Two cards are picked at random from a pack of playing cards. What is the probability of
a picking an ace and a face card, picked cards are not replace?
j. The probability of Jepoy that he will get a grade of 85 in math is 60%, the probability that
he will get 90 in science is 50%, and the probability that he will get 80 in English is
40%.What is the probability that he will get 85 in math, 90 in science, and 80 in English
in the same semester?

How were the activities done so far? Were you able to answer all of the exercises? I hope you
just did successfully!

Good Job!!!

22 | P a g e
 Explore!
Problem Set

1. Two cards are chosen from a deck of 52 cards without replacement. Find the probability
that one is red and second is black.
2. From a deck of 52 cards, what is the probability of choosing two kings?
3. A box contains 5 purple marbles, 3 green marbles, and 2 orange marbles. Two
consecutive draw are made from the box without replacement of the first draw. Find the
probability that orange first and second is green.
4. Referred to no. 3 problem. Find the probability if both marbles are purple.
5. Referred to no. 3 problem. Find the probability of the first marble is purple, and the
second is any color except purple.
6. Two cards are selected from a deck of cards numbered 1 to 10. Once a card is selected it
is not replaced. What is the probability in getting two even numbers?
7. Bag A contains 9 red marbles and 3 green marbles. Bag B contains 7 black marbles and 6
orange marbles. Find the probability of selecting one green marble from bag A and 1
black marble from bag B?
8. Two seniors, one from each government class are randomly selected to travel to
Washington is in class of 18 students and a USA is in the class of 20 students. Find the
probability that both Washington and USA will be selected?
9. If you draw two cards from a standard deck of 52 cards without replacement. Find the
probability of getting two aces?
10. If there are 10 girls and 8 boys in a class, two students will be chosen one after another
for debate competition. Find the probability that both are boys?
11. Two out of 5 bulbs bought in a house are defective. If two bulbs are tested, find the
probability that both are defective?
12. Three out of 10 kids used car to come to school in NORSU. If two kids are surveyed, find
the probability that both do not used car?
13. There are 6 black marbles, 10 orange marbles, and 5 blue marbles. What is the
probability of getting a black marble, orange marble and blue marble without
replacement?
14. If you draw two cards from a standard deck of 52 cards without replacement. Find the
probability of getting two queens?
15. If you draw two cards from a standard deck of 52 cards without replacement. Find the
probability of getting two kings?

23 | P a g e
2.6 Conditional Probability
Conditional Probability is a probability of an event or outcomes based on the occurence
of the previous event or outcomes. It is calculated by multiplying the probability of
succeeding events.
P (A and B) = P (A) x P(B)

Example 1: Suppose you are drawing three marbles, red, blue, and green from a bag.
Each marbles has an equal chance of being drawn. What is the conditional probability of
drawing the red marble after already drawing the blue?

Sol.
P(blue) =
P(red) =
P(red after blue) = x =
Thus, the conditional probability of red after blue is .

Example 2: Paing wants to get money to his pocket. In his pocket there are 3 peso coins,
one peso coin, five peso coin, and ten peso coin. Each coin has an equal chance of being
drawn. What is the conditional probability of drawing five peso coin after drawing ten
peso coin?

Sol:
P(ten peso coin) =
P(five peso coin) =
P(five peso coin after drawing peso coin) = x = .

Now that you have a deeper understanding of topic, you are ready to do the tasks in this lesson.

24 | P a g e
 Try it now!
Exercise 2.6
Suppose you are drawing three stones, black, pink, and white from your pocket. Each stones
have an equal chance of being drawn. What is the probability of drawing?
a. P(black stone after already drawing pink)
b. P(pink after already drawing white)
c. P(white after already drawing black)
Box A contains 4 white ball pens and 6 pink ball pens. Box B contains 3 blue and 12 pink. A fair

coin is tossed; if it is Heads, a ball pen is drawn from box A, and if it is Tails, a ball pen is drawn

from box B. Suppose that this experiment is done and you learn that a pink ball pen was selected.

What is the probability that this ball pen was in fact taken from:

d. P(box A)

e. P(box B)

I have 4 neckties with color purple, white, orange, and green inside my cabinet. If I am going to

select one necktie at a time fairly from my cabinet, what is the probability that I‘m going to

select?

f. P(the purple necktie after already selecting the orange)

g. P(the green after selecting the white)

h. P(the white necktie after already selecting the green)

i. P(the orange or the purple after already selecting the white and the green)

j. P(the white or the orange after already selecting the purple)

How were the activities done so far? Were you able to answer all of the exercises? I hope you
just did successfully!

25 | P a g e
 Explore!
Problem Set
1. You roll one 6-sided die, what is the probability of a 3 given you know the number is odd?

2. At P-Town High School, the probability that a student takes Computer Programming and

Spanish is 0.15. The probability that a student takes Computer Programming is 0.4.

What is the probability that a student takes Spanish given that the student is taking Computer

Programming?

3. Here are the results of a survey completed with adult parents with children.

What is the probability a person thinks college is too expensive given they have a child in

college?

4. Two cards are drawn without replacement in succession. What is the probability that the

second card drawn is an ace, given that the first can drawn was an ace?

5. Two cards are drawn without replacement. What is the probability the second card is a red

face card given the first card is a red face card?

6. A machine produces parts that are either good (90%), slightly defective (2%), or obviously

defective (8%). Produced parts get passed through an automatic inspection machine, which is

able to detect any part that is obviously defective and discard it. What is the quality of the parts

that make it through the inspection machine and get shipped?

7. Your neighbor has 2 children. You learn that he has a son, Joe. What is the probability that

Joe‘s sibling is a brother?

8. Your neighbor has 2 children. He picks one of them at random and comes by your house; he

brings a boy named Joe (his son). What is the probability that Joe‘s sibling is a brother?

26 | P a g e
9. Suppose that five good fuses and two defective ones have been mixed up. To find the

defective fuses, we test them one-by-one, at random and without replacement. What is the

probability that we are lucky and find both of the defective fuses in the first two tests?

10. If six cards are selected at random (without replacement) from a standard deck of 52 cards,

what is the probability there will be no pairs? (two cards of the same denomination)

11. Consider the parts problem again, but now assume that a one-year warranty is given for the

parts that are shipped to customers. Suppose that a good part fails within the first year with

probability 0.01, while a slightly defective part fails within the first year with probability 0.10.

What is the probability that a customer receives a part that fails within the first year and therefore

is entitled to a warranty replacement?

12. Two cards from an ordinary deck of 52 cards are missing. What is the probability that a

random card drawn from this deck is a spade?

13. One half percent of the population has a particular disease. A test is developed for the

disease. The test gives a false positive 3% of the time and a false negative 2% of the time. (a).

What is the probability that Joe (a random person) tests positive? (b). Joe just got the bad news

that the test came back positive; what is the probability that Joe has the disease?

14. Consider the game of Let‘s Make a Deal in which there are three doors (numbered 1, 2, 3),

one of which has a car behind it and two of which are empty (have ―booby prizes‖). You initially

select Door 1, then, before it is opened, Monty Hall tells you that Door 3 is empty (has a booby

prize). You are then given the option to switch your selection from Door 1 to the unopened Door

2. What is the probability that you will win the car if you switch your door selection to Door 2?

Also, compute the probability that you will win the car if you do not switch.

27 | P a g e
15. Urn 1 contains 5 white balls and 7 black balls. Urn 2 contains 3 whites and 12 black. A fair

coin is flipped; if it is Heads, a ball is drawn from Urn 1, and if it is Tails, a ball is drawn from

Urn 2. Suppose that this experiment is done and you learn that a white ball was selected. What is

the probability that this ball was in fact taken from Urn 2?

28 | P a g e
 Chapter III
Measures of Position for Ungrouped Data

3.1 Quartile for Ungrouped Data

The quartiles are the score points which divide a distribution into four equal parts. Q1 is called
the lower quartile and Q3 is the upper the quartile. Q1 <Q2 <Q3, where Q2 is nothing but the
median. The difference between Q3 and Q1 is the interquartile range.
a.)25% of the data has a value ≤ Q1
b.)50% of the data has a value ≤ Q2
c.)75% of the data has a value ≤ Q3
Example 1:
The internet café recorded the number of customers who came into his café shop each
day. The results were 25,30,39,24,42,35,28,30,39,17,and 20. Find the lower quartile and upper
quartile of the data.
Solution:
 In ascending order, the data are 17,20,24,25,28,30,30,35,39,39,42
 The least value in the data is 17 and the greatest value in the data is 42.
 The middle value in the data is 30.
 The lower quartile is the value that is between the middle value and the least
value in the data set.
 So, the lower is 24.
 The upper quartile is the value that is between the middle value and the greatest
value in the data set.
 The upper quartile is 39.
Example 2:
The Mendenhall and Sincic Method. Using the Statistics for Engineering and the
Sciences, define a different method of finding quartile values. To apply their method on a data
set with n elements, first calculate:

Lower Quartile (L) = Position of Q1= (n+1)

and round to the nearest integer. If L falls halfway between two integers, round up. The Lth
element is the lower quartile value (Q1).
Next calculate:

29 | P a g e
Upper quartile (U) =Position of Q3= ( n+1)

and round to the nearest integer. If U falls between two integers, round down. The Uth element is
the upper quartile value (Q3).

So for our example data set:

{5, 8, 13,17,19,20,24,25,28} and n= 9.

To find Q1, locate its position using the formula (n+1) and round off to the nearest
integer.

Position of Q1= (n+1)

= (9+1)

= (10)

=2.5
The computed value 2.5 becomes 3 after rounding up. The lower quartile value (Q1) is the 3rd
data element, so Q1= 13. Similarly:

Position of Q3= ( n+1)

= ( 9+1)

= ( 10)

= 7.5
The computed value 7.5 becomes 7 after rounding down. The upper quartile value (Q3) is the 7th
element, Q3= 24.

3.2 The Deciles for Ungrouped Data

The deciles are the nine score points which divide a distribution into ten equal parts. They
are deciles and are denoted as D1, D2, D3…, D9. They are computed in the same way that a
quartiles are calculated.
Example 1:
Find the 4th deciles for D4 of the following test scores of a random sample of 12 students:

30 | P a g e
 36, 41, 40, 29,15,23,34,21,18,29,28 and 42.

Solution:
First, arrange the scores in ascending order.
15,18,21,23, 28,29,29,34,36,40,41,42
Steps to find the decile value on a data with n elements:

Using the formula, (n+1) to find the D3 position, we have

Position D3= (12+1)

= (13)

= 5.2 5
D4 is the 4th element.
Therefore, D4 = 28

Example 2:
What is the 6thdecile of student‘s grades 80,81,85,89,82,90 and 88 in Math, Filipino,
English, Science, T.L.E, Mapeh and Aral-Pan subjects respectively?
Solution:
First, arrange the data in ascending order:
80,81,82,85,88,89,90

Using the Formula, (7+1) to find the D6

Position of D6 = (7+1)

= (8)

= 4.8 5
D6 is the 5th element.

31 | P a g e
Therefore, D6 = 88

3.3 The Percentile for Ungrouped Data

The percentiles are the ninety-nine score points which divide a distribution into one
hundred equal parts, so that each part represents the data set. It is used to characterize values
according to the percentage below them. For example, the first percentile (P1) separates the
lowest 1 % from the other 99%, the second percentile (P2) separates the lowest 2% from the
other 98%, and so on.
The percentiles determine the value for 1%, 2%,…,and 99% of the data. P30 or 30th
percentile of the data means 30 % of the data have values less than or equal to P30.
The 1st decile is the 10th percentile (P10). It means 10% of the data is less than or equal to
the value of P10or D1, and so on.

Example 1:
Find the 40th percentile or P40 of the following test scores of a random sample of eleven students:
38,27,35,38,40,31,32,33,34,33,36,
Solution:
Arrange the scores from the lowest to the highest.
27, 31,32,33,33,34,35,36,38,38,40
Steps to find percentile value on a data with n elements:
( )
Using the formula, to find the P40position and round off to the nearest integer.
( )
Position of P40 =
( )
=

= 4.8 5
P40 is the 5th element.
Therefore, P40= 33.

32 | P a g e
Example 2:
The scores of Miss Q and A candidates from 6 judges were recorded as follows:
95, 98,91,94,89,94. Find the 50th percentile or P50.
Solution:
First, arrange the scores in ascending order.
89, 91, 94,94,95,98

( )
Using the formula, to find the P50 position
( )
Position of P50 =
( )
=

= 3.5 4
The P50 is the 4th element.
Therefore, P50 = 94.

33 | P a g e
 Try it now!
Exercises 3.1

1. The following are the GPA of the BSED-Math Board passers who took the Licensure
Examination for Teachers (LET) in the year 2016: 83,86,81,84,88,81,85,80,86. Find the quartile
1, quartile 2 and quartile 3?
2. In a singing contest competition in Barangay Malinis, the results of 5 contestants were
computed as follows: 84, 91, 93 87, 86. Find the 2nd decile?
3. Mr. Ferrano, an agriculturist, wants to examine the quantity of nitrogen present in the fertilizer
of Coconut tree, Sugarcane, Corn, Rice, Banana, Eggplant, Bitter gourd, Horse radish, Squash,
Papaya, Mango, and Guava. In his experiment, he found out that coconut tree, sugarcane and
corn contain 46%; rice-47%; banana-40%; eggplant-35%; bitter gourd-45%; horse radish and
squash-39%; papaya-33%, mango and guava- 31%. Find the percentile 30 and percentile 40?
4. Find the 3rd quartile of the 50 item test scores 37, 44,40,36,41,32,45,33,38,42?
5. What is the 9th decile of a dance performer who got a score of 7,8,7,9,7,8,10 from the seven
judges in Pilipinas Got Talent competition?
6. There is a newly opened merchandising store in Bayawan which offers discount on their
products. The prized for Tupperware, plate, spoon, glass, pale, fork, tumbler, pitcher, frying pan
and tray are labelled as follows: 35, 20,10,15,36,15,22,26,28 and 31. Find the percentile 80?
7. Find the 2nd quartile of Genelyn‘s grades 85, 84,88,95,94,91,92 and 90 in the eight subjects?
8. The tailor cuts the 60 meters cloth into five different measurements: 12m, 15m, 20m, 13m and
10m. Find the 5th decile?
9. Joel‘s measurement of cloths as follows: 10m, 5m, 6m, 4m, 9m and 3m. Find the percentile
20 of the following measurements?
10. Find the first quartile of the six candidates‘ heights 167 cm, 155cm, 159cm, 154cm, 153m
and 165m in a beauty pageant competition?

34 | P a g e
 Explore!
Problem Set

The data set are: 23, 34, 18, 25, 31, 19, 40, 31, 26
Find the following:
1.) Q2
2.) P60
3.) D6
4.) P75
5.) D4
Some of the students of Mrs. Reyes got the score of: 36, 50, 45, 39, 33, 37, 32, 30
Find the following:
6.) Q3
7.) D7
8.) P40
9.) D9
10.) P70
The data set are: 44, 50, 65, 66, 33, 41, 45, 54, 56
1.) P45
2.) Q3
3.) D8
4.) P70
5.) D5

35 | P a g e
 Chapter IV
Measures of Position for Grouped Data

4.1 Quartile for Grouped Data

In computing the quartiles of Grouped data, the following formula is used:

b
Qk = LB + i
Qk

where:
LB = lower boundary of the Qk class
N = total frequency
Cfb = cumulative frequency of the class before the Qkclass
f = frequency of the Qk class
Qk
i= size of the class interval
k= nth quartile, where n-= 1, 2 and 3

Example 1:

Calculate the Q1, Q2, Q3 of the Mathematics test scores of 50 students.

Scores Frequency
46—50 4
41-45 12
36-40 12
31-35 8
26-30 9
21-25 5

36 | P a g e
Solution:

Class Frequency Lower Less than

Interval (f) Boundaries Cumulatives
Scores (LB) Frequency (<cf)
46-50 4 45.5 50
41-45 12 40.5 46
36-40 12 35.5 34 Q3
31-35 8 30.5 22 Q2
26-30 9 25.5 14 Q1
21-25 5 20.5 5
N=50

Q1 class: = LB = 25.5 Q1 = LB + b i
Qk
= 12.5 N = 50

cf b = 5 Q1 = 25.5 + 5

fQk = 9 Q1 = 29.67
i =5
Therefore, 25% of the students have a score less than or equal to 29.67

( ) b
Q2 class: = LB = 30.5 Q2 = LB + i
Qk
= N = 50

= 25 cfb = 14 Q2 = 30.5 + 5

f =8
Qk
i =5 Q2 = 37.38

Therefore, 50% of the students have a score less than or equal to 37.38.

37 | P a g e
 ( ) b
Q3 class: = LB = 35.5 Q3 = LB + i
Qk
= N = 50

= 37.5 cf b = 22 Q3 = 35.5 + 5

f = 12 Q3 = 41.96
Qk
i =5

Therefore, 75% of the students have a score less than or equal to 41.96.

4.2 Decile for Grouped Data

Deciles are those values that divide the total frequency into 10 equal parts. The kth decile
denoted by Dk is computed as follows:

Dk= LB + b i
Dk
where: LB = lower boundary of the Dk class
N = total frequency
Cfb = cumulative frequency before the Dk class
f = frequency of the Dk class
Dk
i = nth deciles where n = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9

38 | P a g e
Example 1:
Calculate the 6th decile of the Mathematics test scores of 50 students
Class interval Frequency Lower Boundaries Less than
Scores (f) (LB) Cumulative
Frequency
(<cf)
46-50 10 45.5 50
41-45 9 40.5 40
36-40 10 35.5 31
31-35 8 30.5 21
26-30 6 25.5 13
21-25 7 20.5 7
N= 50

( )
b
D6 class: = D6 = LB + i
D6
= D6 = 35.5 + 5

= 30 D6 = 35.5 + 4.5
D6 = 40
Therefore, the 6th decile is equivalent to the 60th percentile. Therefore, 70% of the students got a
score less than or equal to 40.

Example 2:
Calculate the 4th decile of the Mathematics test score of 40 students.
Class Interval Frequency Lower Boundaries Less than
Scores (f) (LB) Cumulative
Frequency
(<cf)
36-40 7 35.5 40
31-35 6 30.5 33
26-30 5 25.5 27
21-25 5 20.5 22
16-20 13 15.5 17
11-15 4 10.5 4
N= 40

39 | P a g e
D4 class: =
( )
D4 = LB + i
D6
=

= 16 D4 = 15.5 + 5

D4 = 15.5 + 4.62
D4 = 20.12

Therefore, the 4th decile is equivalent to the 40th percentile. Therefore. 40% of the students got a
score less than or equal to 20.12.

4.3 Percentile for Grouped Data

Finding the percentile of a grouped data is similar to that finding quartiles and deciles of
a grouped data. The kth percentile, denoted by Pk is computed as follows:

Pk = LB + b i
Pk
where: LB = lower boundary of the kth percentile class
N = total frequency
cfb = cumulative frequency before the percentile class

f P = frequency of the percentile class

k

i = size of class interval

k = nth percentile where n = 1, 2, 3, …, 97, 98, and 99

Example 1:
Calculate the 75th percentile and 56nd percentile of the Mathematics test scores of 55
students.
Scores Frequency
51-55 9
46-50 6

40 | P a g e
 36-40 9
31-35 11
26-30 12
21-25 3

Solution:
Class interval Frequency Lower Boundaries Less than Cumulative
scores (f) (LB) Frequency
(<cf)
45-50 9 44.5 50
41-45 6 40.5 41
36-40 9 35.5 35
31-35 11 30.5 26
26-30 12 25.5 15
21-25 3 20.5 3

P75 class: = LB =35.5 fp75 =9

( )
= N =50 i =5

=37.5 Cfb =26

b
P75 = LB + i
Pk

=35.5+ 5

=35.5+6.39
=41.89
Therefore, 75% of the students got a score less than or equal to 41.89.

Example 2: Same data as example # 1

P56 class: = LB =30.5

( )
= N =50

41 | P a g e
 )
= Cfb =15

=28 f =11
i =5

P56 = LB + b i
Pk

=30.5+ 5

=30.5+ 5.91
=36.41
Therefore, 56% of the students got a score less than or equal to 36.41.

Percentile rank,
A percentile rank is typically defined as the proportion of scores in a distribution that a
specific score is greater than or equal to. For instance, if you received a score of 95 on a
mathematics test and this score was greater than or equal to the score of 88% of the students
taking the test, then your percentile rank would be 88.

( )P
PPR= +⟦ P ⟧
where: PR = percentile rank, the will be a percentage
cfp = cumulative frequency of all values below the critical value
P = raw score or value for which one wants to find a percentile rank
LB = lower boundary of the kth percentile class
N = total frequency
i = size of the class interval
Example 1:
Find how many percent of the scores are greater than the cumulative frequency of 37 in the
table.

42 | P a g e
Solution:
Scores Frequency Cumulative Frequency
46-50 10 50
41-45 5 42
36-40 12 37
31-35 14 25
26-30 6 11
21-25 5 5

35 is within 36-40
( ) P
LB =35.5 PPR = +⟦ ⟧
P
P =37
( )
N =50 PPR = +⟦ ⟧

fp =12 PPR = 34.5

cfp = 25 PPR = 35
i =5
Therefore, 35% of the scores are less than the cumulative frequency of 37, while 65% of
the scores are greater than the cumulative frequency of 37.

Example 2:
Assume that a researcher wanted to know the percentage of consultants who made Php
3200 or more per day.

Consultant Fees Number of consultant Cumulative Frequency

(Php)
4600-5000 17 120
4100-4500 24 103
3600-4000 21 79
3100-3500 17 58
2600-3000 26 41
2100-2500 15 15

Php 3,200 is within 3,100-3,500

P

43 | P a g e
 ( )
LB = 3099.5 PPR = +⟦ P ⟧
( )
N =120 PPR = +⟦ ⟧

P =3200 P =45.25
PR
cfp = 41 PPR = 45
f =17
i =500
Therefore, 45% of consultants make Php 3,200 or less day and 55% of consultants make
Php 3,200 or more per day.

44 | P a g e
 Try it now!
Exercises 4.1

A.
Daily allowance of 70 students
Class Interval Frequency (f) Less than cumulative
frequency
(<cf)
81-90 8 70
71-80 10 62
61-70 16 52
51-60 4 36
41-50 12 32
31-40 9 20
21-30 6 11
11-20 3 5
1-10 2 2
N=70
Based on the frequency distribution, find the following:
1. D7
2. Q1
3. P25
4. Q3
5. D3

B.
The following is a distribution for the number of employees in 60 companies belonging
to a certain industry.
Number of Lower Boundaries Number of Less than cumulative
Employees (LB) Companies frequency
(Class Intervals) (f) (<cf)
46-50 45.5 13 60
41-45 40.5 11 47
36-40 35.5 12 36
31-35 30.5 7 24

45 | P a g e
 26-30 25.5 8 17
21-25 20.5 5 9
16-20 15.5 4 4
N= 60
Based on the given frequency distribution, calculate for the following:
1. Q1
2. P90
3. P70
4. D2
5. Q3

46 | P a g e
 Explore!
Problem Set

Complete the table below. Find Q3, P45, P60, D7, D4.
Number of scores Frequency Lower Bound < cf
61-65 9
56-60 10
51-55 14
46-50 11
41-45 8
36-40 7
31-35 6
26-30 4
21-25 1

Complete the table below. Find Q2, P30, P95, D6, D9.
Number of items Frequency Lower Bound < cf
37-39 8
34-36 7
31-33 4
28-30 2
25-27 9
22-24 11
19-21 13
16-18 2

Complete the table below. Find the Q1, P50, P80, D5 D8.
Number of Sales Frequency Lower Bound < cf
59-65 9
52-58 10
45-51 24
38-44 14
31-37 22
24-30 11
17-23 15
10-16 17

47 | P a g e
 Statistical Mini-Research Paper
This research involves statistical problems which can be solve through different ways of
collecting data namely; types of variables, experiments, observational studies, and surveys.
Problems may involve percentile, quartile, and deciles measures of position. Statistical questions
specify populations and measurements of interest and anticipate answers based on data that vary.
It is quite different from research questions. For example,
1. Research Question:
Does the pesticide Roundup harm ladybugs?
Statistical Question:
What is the mortality rate in Coccinella transversalis on hour after treatment with a
5% solution of Roundup?
2. Research question:
How has the WKCE math scores changed for our school?
Statistical question:
What is the percentage of students who got low scores in WKCE examination?
In making a mini-research, we should follow a guideline. The following are the guidelines in
writing a mini-research paper:
INTRODUCTION
 State the research question you are trying to answer
 State why the question is important
 State the issues involved
 State why we should be concerned with resolving whatever issues were involved
 State how answering the question will help us
 State the implications and consequences of dealing with or resolving the issues involved
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
 Identified who has tried to answer the question before by doing the following:
o Summarize how each of the sources presents and deals with the subject
o Explain how each source presents and deals with its findings or results
o Explain the relevancy of each source to your research question
o State what you learned from each of your source
o State in what way(s) each source contributes to answering your research question
DISCUSSION
 State your answer to your research question

48 | P a g e
  State how and elaborate on how, explain how, illustrate how each of the sources you
previously reviewed help you answer your research question
 State what questions about your topic you still have that your source may not have
answered
CONCLUSIONS
 interpreted, evaluated the literature
 Indicate how each of the sources have contributed to your conclusions (and clearly,
accurately, correctly document those sources within your text)
 State the implications of your conclusions
 State what might be the possible consequences of your conclusions
 State the social significance these implications and consequences might have
DOCUMENTATION
 On a separate page, include a section labeled REFERENCES which provide the full
publication information for the sources you used in your paper
 You should have a MINIMUM of three (3) sources for your paper
 Not meeting this minimum requirement of three (3) sources will lead to a lower
evaluation of your paper for each missing source
 Use APA formant for documenting your sources

49 | P a g e
Let’s try this!

Example of mini research:

Note: The concept of this research is far from reality, it just made as guide
and sample.

Problem: What is the percentage of the students who

have lack of allowances in NORSU-BSC?

INTRODUCTION

NORSU institution aims to meet the needs of the poor but deserving students. They are
looking onward and always preserves to whatever changes we may engage. They
preserve quality and inclusive education beyond the diversity of students. Indeed, they
look even the differences of every economical-status of students. Usually, first and
foremost economical problem of norsunian is lack of allowances. This problem will
affect the learning of students and even to their holistic behavior. NORSU is looking for
some sort of solution with regard to this matter. They must know first the percentage of
the students who have lack of allowances so that their actions will be accurate and
precise.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Eavan Thomas(2017) looks for the effect of childhood allowances on adult financial
capabilities. He used surveying method to collect data. The sample of students in the
Dohlonega and Gainesville campuses of the University of North Georgia was chosen by
collecting a stratified random sample. In analyzing the data, he used the Chi squared
tests. His research helps this study more informative and conclusive as it is related in
concept and way of collecting data.
Greig and Faulkner studied the implications of the changes to student allowance on the
New Zealand. They used surveying method to collect data and find the percentage for
every particular response of the respondents. It helps this study to formulate conclusions
and recommendation.
Lirazan et. al(2017) conducted a survey about the average allowances of norsunians.
They distribute questionnaires to the respondents which were done in every department.
After collecting data, they analyze it using mean for group data until they sum up with

50 | P a g e
 conclusion. Their study means a lot for this study because it provides a lot of information
regarding the problem.

DISCUSSION

Based on Lirazan et. al surveys, the average allowance of norsunian is Php 500.00 per
week through their series of collection of data and presentation. One of their
presentations is the Table 1.
Departments Range of No. of Range of No. of
allowance students Allowance per students
per week week
College of Education Php 100.00 – 565 Php 500.00 – Php 490
Php 500.00 1000.00

College of Art and Php 100.00 – 233 Php 500.00 – Php 312
Sciences Php 500.00 1000.00

College of Business Php 100.00 – 332 Php 500.00 – Php 601

Administration Php 500.00 1000.00

College of Criminal Php 100.00 – 245 Php 500.00 – Php 217

Justice Education Php 500.00 1000.00

College of Industrial Php 100.00 – 127 Php 500.00 – Php 168

Technology Php 500.00 1000.00

College of Agriculture Php 100.00 – 293 Php 500.00 – Php 207

Fisheries and Forestry Php 500.00 1000.00

Total 1795 1995

Table 1
Lizaran et.al present two range of allowances. The comparison is presented by the number of
students who has an allowance Php 100.00 to Php 500.00 and Php 500.00 to Php 1000.00 per
week for every college. Clearly, by Table 2, it appears that the amount of Php 100.00 to Php
500.00 is not enough for one week.
Necessities Expenses
Food Php250.00

51 | P a g e
 Transportation Php150.00
Outputs Php 200.00
Personal Hygiene Php 150.00
Others -----
Total Php 750.00
Table 2
Now, we could say that those students who has the amount of Php 100.00 to Php 500.00 per
week is lack of allowance and those students who has the amount Php 500.00 to Php 1000.00
per week is abundance of allowance.
Departments No. of students who has No. of students with Total
lack of allowances abundance Population
allowances
College of Education 565 490 1055
College of Art and 233 312 545
Sciences
College of Business 332 601 933
Administration
College of Criminal 245 217 462
Justice Education
College of Industrial 127 168 295
Technology
College of Agriculture 293 207 500
Fisheries and Forestry
Total 1795 1995 3790

Table 3
Statistically, the percentage of the students who has lack of allowances is,

= 47.36%.

Conclusion
As the series of table presentation analyzed, we found the answer of our problem. It appears
that the percentage of the students who have lack of allowances is 47.36%. The other 52.64% of
norsunians are abundance of allowances. Thus, the parents of those 47.36% of norsunians are not
well capable in dealing with financials and the parents of those 52.64% are well capable with
financials (Thomas,2017). Also, the 47.36% of norsunians are not well capable in acquiring
learning and the other 52.64% are able to explore and acquire learning more deep (Greig and
Faulkner).

52 | P a g e
 References

1. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1150291.pdf
2. https://www.nzccp.co.nz/assets/PublicFiles/Submissions-and-press-releases/NZCCP-
Student-Allowance-Article.pdf
3. https://digitalcommons.northgeorgia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=hon
ors_theses
4. https://school.quipper.com/en-PH/courses/math-grade-10-1/formulating-statistical-mini-
research.html
5. http://people.tamu.edu/~i-choudhury/guide.htm
6. http://www4.uwm.edu/org/mmp/PPTs-
Yr9/Asking_Stats_Questions_and_Collecting_Data_Poweroint_S3-2_09-20-2011.ppt

53 | P a g e
 Let’s explore!
ACTIVITY
Instruction:
Form a group with 5 members and conduct a statistical mini research. Utilize any means of
collecting data. The topic must be related within your school and your hometown.

54 | P a g e