UPDA Exam

How to Determine the Critical Path in Time Management

You may have heard about the critical path in a project and how the development
of the project schedule is dependent on the critical path. As a project manager the
critical path is essential to determine potential issues in our project schedule.
So what is the critical path and how do we determine it? Well, let’s first take a look
at a network logic diagram for a simple sample project.

Each activity has a duration measured in weeks and the arrows show how each
activity is depending on other activities to finish before they can start themselves.
In the sample activity A must finish before C can start, and D can only start once C
has finished etc. We can also see that activity C can only start once both A and B
have finished.
From the diagram we can determine three separate paths:
Start – A – C – D – Finish: 8 weeks
Start – B – C – D – Finish: 9 weeks
Start – B – E – F – Finish: 7 weeks
The critical path is defined as the longest path in the diagram and in our example it
is path B-C-D that is the critical path of 9 weeks. What’s so critical about it? If one
of the activities on the critical path is delayed the entire project is delayed!
For instance, if activity D is delayed 1 week, the project will be delayed with 1
week.
But if activity E is delayed 1 week, it will not delay the project because the path
activity E is on will just be 8 weeks and still be done one week ahead of the BCD
path.
So the critical path is made up of activities that cannot be delayed without delaying
the finish of the entire project.
What happens if activity E suddenly is delayed 3 weeks? In that case the B-E-F path
becomes the new critical path of 10 weeks and the finish of the project is delayed.
The project manager must now determine how to handle this delay or accept it as
the new critical path.
Will a project only have one critical path? A project can easily have more than one
critical path and in that case the project manager must know all of them.
So now that we know what the critical path is and how we determine it; how do we
use it practically when managing a project?
We use it to determine if the project will be delayed if an activity is delayed. If the
activity is on any critical path the answer is Yes! If not, it depends on if the delay
makes the activity create a new critical path. If not, the answer is No!
A project usually have hundreds of activities and they usually have much more
complex dependencies than our example, so project managers usually use software
to set up the activities and dependencies and let the software calculate the critical
path(s). If an activity is delayed the project manager can enter the delay in the
software and see how it affects the overall finish of the project. If the project is
delayed the project manager can use the software to rearrange activities,
dependencies or suggest additional activities as needed to bring the project back on
track.
The critical path is critical to the Time Management knowledge area. Make sure you
know how to use it correctly next time you manage a project.

Smoke testing refers to physical tests made to closed systems of pipes to detect
cracks/breaks. By metaphorical extension, the term is also used for the first test made after
assembly or repairs to a system, to provide some assurance that the system under test will not
catastrophically fail. After a smoke test proves that "the pipes will not leak, the keys seal
properly, the circuit will not burn, or the software will not crash outright,"[citation needed] the system is
ready for more robust testing.
The term smoke testing is used in several fields, including electronics, software
development, plumbing, woodwind repair, infectious disease control, and the entertainment
industry.

The calorific value of a fuel is the quantity of heat produced by its combustion - at constant
pressure and under "normal" ("standard") conditions (i.e. to 0oC and under a pressure of 1,013
mbar).

The combustion process generates water vapor and certain techniques may be used to recover
the quantity of heat contained in this water vapor by condensing it.

 Higher Calorific Value (or Gross Calorific Value - GCV, or Higher Heating Value - HHV) -
the water of combustion is entirely condensed and that the heat contained in the water
vapor is recovered
  Lower Calorific Value (or Net Calorific Value - NCV, or Lower Heating Value - LHV) - the
products of combustion contains the water vapor and that the heat in the water vapor is
not recovered

What is higher calorific value?

Answer:

Higher Calorific Value

Is the maximum amount of energy that can be obtained from the combustion of a fuel, including
the energy released when the steam produced during combustion is condensed. Also known as
the "Higher heating value"

Strength of Materials

Strength: It is the resistance by which materials oppose the deformation.

Stress: A measure of the average amount of force exerted per unit area.

Where  is the average stress. It is also known as engineering stress or nominal

stress. Fis the force acting on the area A.

Strain: The deformation of materials caused by the action of stress.

where  is strain in measured direction, o is the original length of the material

and  is the current length of the material

Hooke's Law: It states that for the materials loaded within elastic limits the
stress is proportional to strain.

Total Stress: The resultant internal force which changes the size or shape of a
body which acted on by external forces.

Unit Stress: It is the stress per unit area.

Normal Stress: It is on a section. It is the stress which acts in a direction

perpendicular to section considered.

Ultimate Stress: The ratio of the maximum load which a specimen sustains to
its original area of the cross-section.

Elastic Limit: The maximum unit stress to which a material can be subjected
and still is able to return to its original form after removal of stress.

Yield Point: The unit stress at which the deformation first increases noticeably
without any increase in the applied load. It is always above the proportional
limit.

Ultimate Strength: The highest unit stress it can sustain before rupturing.

Breaking Strength: The stress at which the material tested ruptures.

Modulus of Elasticity (E): The constant that expresses the ratio of unit stress
to unit deformation for all values unit stress not exceeding the proportional limit
of material. It is also called as Modulus of Rigidity.

Factor of Safety: The ratio of ultimate strength of the material to the allowable
stress.

Elasticity: The ability of a material to deform and return to its original shape
after removal of the load. The amount of deformation is called Strain.

Ductility: The ability of a material to undergo large permanent deformations in

tension i.e., property which enables a material to be beaten or rolled into thin
sheets.

Malleability: The ability of a material to undergo large permanent deformation

in compression or property which enables a material to be beaten or rolled into
thin sheets. This property is important in metalworking. Gold is the most
malleable metal followed by aluminum.

Toughness: The ability of a material to withstand high unit stress along with
great unit deformation without fracture.

Stiffness: The ability of a material to resist deformation or deflection under

stress.

Hardness: The ability of a material to resist very small indentation abrasion and
plastic deformation. In other words, high resistance of a material to various
kinds of shape changes when force is applied.

Creep (Flow of Metals): The tendency of a solid material to slowly move or

deform permanently under the influence of stresses. It always increases with
temperature. Creep deformation does not occur suddenly upon the application
of stress. It is time-dependent deformation.
 1. What is unit of young's modulus?

Young's modulus is defined as the ration of stress to strain for a given material below the
limit of proportionality (the elastic limit). So Young's modulus is calculated by the formula:
Stress/Strain is equal to young's modulus.

Stress is defined as the force per unit area of cross-section below the limit of
proportionality. So the formula is: Force (in newtons)/ Cross sectional area (in square
metres). This would give the units Newtons per square metre which is written Nm-2 which is
exactly the same as the Pascal (Pa); either can be used.

Strain is defined as the fractional change in length produced when a body is subjected to
stress. It's formula is: Change in length produced (in metres)/ Original legth (in metres).
There are no units as it is a ratio of two values that have the same unit.

So Young's Modulus has the formula: (Force/area)/(change in length/original length). This

can be simplified to Stress/Strain (the amount of stress a body has to undergo to produce a
certain amount of strain. The unit for stress is the Pascal (Pa) and there are no units for
strain so overall, the unit for Young's Modulus is the Pascal (Pa) or Nm-2.

2. afour cylinder engine capacity 2.4 litre swept volume of acylindar ?

What`s meant by 3.0 (3000) liter engine and 2.4 (2… ... 3000 by four to get the
actual capacity in VOLUME (air) in that cylinder and represents ... first we have the swept
volume in a cylinder which is measured by knowing the

3. Purpose of transmission in outomobile ?

A transmission is the part of an engine assembly that connects the engine to the
wheels. It's within this piece of machinery that the power produced by the engine is
transferred into the wheels. A level of precision is needed while doing this because
each engine operates at its own optimum RPM (revolutions per minute) range and
it's the transmission that keeps everything in balance.

The torque converter is the part of an automatic transmission that allows an engine
to keep running even while the car isn't in motion. It's made up of three parts: the
pump, the turbine and the stator. When an engine's in motion, transmission fluid is
forced from the pump to the turbine and then into the stator. If the force of the fluid
entering the turbine slows (as it would when a car has stopped), the stator is locked
until turbine speed picks back up.
 4. What material has the highest ductility?

There may be other substances more ductile but Gold is the most ductile element.

In materials science, ductility is a solid material's ability to deform under tensile

stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire.
Malleability, a similar property, is a material's ability to deform under compressive
stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by
hammering or rolling. Both of these mechanical properties are aspects of plasticity,
the extent to which a solid material can be plastically deformed without fracture.
Also, these material properties are dependent on temperature and pressure

5. What Is Static Friction?

Answer

Static friction is the friction that exists between two or several solid entities that are not
moving relative to one another. For instance, static friction can put off an object from
slipping down a sloped surface.

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, or material
elements sliding against each other

1 Additional Answer

Static friction is the force of resistance between two objects that are touching each other. It
is when an object is not moving and resists sliding.

What is Static Friction?

There are many types of static friction. We have fluid, skin, internal and lubricated
friction. Friction is not a fundamental force, but it comes from electromagnetic
forces, which

how to calculate the coefficient of static friction?

1. Place the block on a scale to determine the object's weight in kilograms if the
mass is unknown. 2. Find the normal force by multiplying the mass of the object in
kilograms by

What are examples of static friction?

putting your hands together.

When is static friction useful?

if you are standing with you're feet together on a steep hill. Static friction is
keeping you feet from slipping.

6. Steel containing up to 0.15% carbon is ?

General Description

Carbon steel, also called plain carbon steel or "mild steel", is a type of steel where
the main alloying constituent is carbon. The AISI definition of carbon steel is:
"Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or
required for chromium, cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium,
tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a
desired alloying effect; when the specified minimum for copper does not exceed
0.40 percent; or when the maximum content specified for any of the following
elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60,
copper 0.60." Steel with a low carbon content has properties similar to iron. As
the carbon content rises, the metal becomes harder and stronger but less ductile
and more difficult to weld. In general, higher carbon content lowers the melting
point and its temperature resistance. 85% of all steel used in the U.S. is carbon
steel.

Low carbon steel contains approximately 0.05% to 0.15% carbon and mild steel
contains 0.16% to 0.29% carbon, therefore it is neither brittle nor ductile. Mild
steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is inexpensive and malleable; and
its surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.

Carbon steels grades that can successfully undergo heat treatment have a carbon
content in the range of 0.30% to 1.70% by weight. High carbon steel has
approximately 0.55% to 0.95% carbon content with 0.30% to 0.90% manganese
content. High carbon is very strong and is commonly used for springs and high-
strength wires. When hardened and tempered, typically the hardness is close to Rc
40. This product is easily formed and heat treated.
 7. silicon carbide is used for ?

Silicon carbide (SiC), also known as carborundum , is

a compound of silicon and carbon with chemical formula SiC. It occurs in nature as
the extremely rare mineralmoissanite. Silicon carbide powder has been mass-
produced since 1893 for use as an abrasive. Grains of silicon carbide can be
bonded together by sintering to form very hard ceramics that are widely used in
applications requiring high endurance, such as car brakes, car clutches
and ceramic plates in bulletproof vests. Electronic applications of silicon carbide
as light emitting diodes (LEDs) and detectors in early radios were first
demonstrated around 1907, and today SiC is widely used in high-
temperature/high-voltage semiconductor electronics. Large single crystals of
silicon carbide can be grown by the Lely method; they can be cut into gems known
as synthetic moissanite. Silicon carbide with high surface area can be produced
from SiO2contained in plant material.

8. Static friction is always ?

Greater than dynamic friction .

9. compressed air may be using in?

Compressed air is air kept under a pressure that is greater than

atmospheric pressure. It serves many domestic and industrial purposes.
In Europe, 10 percent of all industrial electricity consumption is to produce
compressed air—amounting to 80 terawatt hours consumption per year
Uses

In industry, compressed air is so widely used that it is often regarded as the

fourth utility, after electricity, natural gas and water. However, compressed
air is more expensive than the other three utilities when evaluated on a per
unit energy delivered basis.[3]
Compressed air is used for many purposes, including:

 Pneumatics, the use of pressurized gases to do work

 Pneumatic post, using capsules to move paper and small goods
through tubes.
 Air tools
 HVAC control systems
 Vehicle propulsion (see compressed air vehicle)
 Energy storage (see compressed air energy storage)
 Air brakes, including:
 railway braking systems
 road vehicle braking systems
 Scuba diving, for breathing and to inflate buoyancy devices
 Refrigeration using a vortex tube
 Gas dusters for cleaning electronic components that cannot be cleaned
with water
 Air-start systems in engines
 Ammunition propulsion in:
 Air guns
 Airsoft equipment
 Paintball equipment

10. What is the difference between electrical and electronics?

Electrical engineer : study and utilization /application of flow of electrons (High

voltage)

Electronics engineering : study and utilization /application of flow of charge

(Electron Holes) (Low voltage)

11. As per NFPA72,the frequency testing for smoke detector has to be done
QUARTERLY
12. In an air distribution system the following will act upon the heat
detection smoke damper
13. In an air distribution system the following will act upon the smoke
detection smoke damper

14. When a force is acting on a body within the elastic limit then stress is directly
proportional to strain
15. Unit of acceleration
M/S2
Definition

In materials science, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied stress
without failure. The field of strength of materials deals with loads, deformations and the
forces acting on a material. A load applied to a mechanical member will induce internal
forces within the member called stresses. The stresses acting on the material cause
deformation of the material. Deformation of the material is called strain, while the intensity of
the internal forces is called stress. The applied stress may be tensile, compressive,
or shear. The strength of any material relies on three different types of analytical method:
strength, stiffness and stability, where strength refers to the load carrying capacity, stiffness
refers to the deformation or elongation, and stability refers to the ability to maintain its initial
configuration. Material yield strength refers to the point on the engineering stress-strain
curve (as opposed to true stress-strain curve) beyond which the material experiences
deformations that will not be completely reversed upon removal of the loading. The ultimate
strength refers to the point on the engineering stress-strain curve corresponding to the
stress that produces fracture.
Types of loadings

 Transverse loading - Forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a member.

Transverse loading causes the member to bend and deflect from its original position,
with internal tensile and compressive strains accompanying the change in curvature of
the member. Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause shear
deformation of the material and increase the transverse deflection of the member.
 Axial loading - The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the member.
The forces cause the member to either stretch or shorten.
 Torsional loading - Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal and
oppositely directed force couples acting on parallel planes or by a single external couple
applied to a member that has one end fixed against rotation.
Stress terms

A material being loaded in a) compression, b) tension, c) shear.

Uniaxial stress is expressed by

Where F is the force [N] acting on an area A [m2]. The area can be the unreformed area
or the deformed area, depending on whether engineering stress or true stress is of
interest.

 Compressive stress (or compression) is the stress state caused by an applied load
that acts to reduce the length of the material (compression member) in the axis of
the applied load, in other words stress state caused by squeezing the material. A
simple case of compression is the uniaxial compression induced by the action of
opposite, pushing forces. Compressive strength for materials is generally higher
than their tensile strength. However, structures loaded in compression are subject to
additional failure modes dependent on geometry, such as buckling.

 Tensile stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to elongate
the material in the axis of the applied load, in other words the stress caused
by pulling the material. The strength of structures of equal cross sectional area
loaded in tension is independent of shape of the cross section. Materials loaded in
tension are susceptible to stress concentrations such as material defects or abrupt
changes in geometry. However, materials exhibiting ductile behavior (most metals
for example) can tolerate some defects while brittle materials (such as ceramics)
can fail well below their ultimate material strength.

 Shear stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of opposing
forces acting along parallel lines of action through the material, in other words the
stress caused by faces of the material sliding relative to one another. An example is
cutting paper with scissors or stresses due to torsional loading.
Strength terms

 Yield strength is the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation in a

material. In some materials, like aluminum alloys, the point of yielding is difficult to
identify, thus it is usually defined as the stress required to cause 0.2% plastic strain.
This is called a 0.2% proof stress.

 Compressive strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to failure in the
manner of ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle failure (rupture as the
result of crack propagation, or sliding along a weak plane - see shear).

 Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads
to tensile failure in the manner of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of that failure,
some hardening in the second stage and breakage after a possible "neck"
formation) or brittle failure (sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low stress
state). Tensile strength can be quoted as either true stress or engineering stress.

 Fatigue strength is a measure of the strength of a material or a component under

cyclic loading, and is usually more difficult to assess than the static strength
 measures. Fatigue strength is quoted as stress amplitude or stress range (
), usually at zero mean stress, along with the number of
cycles to failure under that condition of stress.

 Impact strength, is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load
and is expressed in terms of energy. Often measured with the Izod impact strength
test or Charpy impact test, both of which measure the impact energy required to
fracture a sample. Volume, modulus of elasticity, distribution of forces, and yield
strength affect the impact strength of a material. In order for a material or object to
have a higher impact strength the stresses must be distributed evenly throughout
the object. It also must have a large volume with a low modulus of elasticity and a
high material yield strength.
Strain (deformation) terms

 Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied
(in the form of force loading, gravitational field, acceleration, thermal expansion,
etc.). Deformation is expressed by the displacement field of the material.
 Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend of the
deformation change among the material field. Strain is the deformation per unit
length. In the case of uniaxial loading - displacements of a specimen (for example a
bar element) strain is expressed as the quotient of the displacement and the length
of the specimen. For 3D displacement fields it is expressed as derivatives of
displacement functions in terms of a second order tensor (with 6 independent
elements).
 Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element bends
under a load.
Stress-strain relations

Basic static response of a specimen under tension

 Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape after stress is
released. In many materials, the relation between applied stress is directly
proportional to the resulting strain (up to a certain limit), and a graph representing
those two quantities is a straight line.
The slope of this line is known as Young's Modulus, or the "Modulus of Elasticity." The
Modulus of Elasticity can be used to determine the stress-strain relationship in the
linear-elastic portion of the stress-strain curve. The linear-elastic region is either below
the yield point, or if a yield point is not easily identified on the stress-strain plot it is
defined to be between 0 and 0.2% strain, and is defined as the region of strain in which
no yielding (permanent deformation) occurs.[11]

 Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of elastic deformation and is defined

as unrecoverable strain. Plastic deformation is retained after the release of the
applied stress. Most materials in the linear-elastic category are usually capable of
plastic deformation. Brittle materials, like ceramics, do not experience any plastic
deformation and will fracture under relatively low stress. Materials such as metals
usually experience a small amount of plastic deformation before failure while ductile
metals such as copper and lead or polymers will plasticly deform much more.
Consider the difference between a carrot and chewed bubble gum. The carrot will
stretch very little before breaking. The chewed bubble gum, on the other hand, will
plastically deform enormously before finally breaking.
.

Boilers can be classified as follows:

1. According to the flow of water and hot gases – fire tube (or smoke tube) and
water tube boilers.

In fire tube boilers, hot gases pass through tubes which are surrounded with water.
Examples: Vertical, Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers. There may be
single tube as in case of Lancashire boiler or there may be a bank of tubes as in a
locomotive boiler.

In water tube boilers, water circulates through a large number of tubes and hot
gases pass around them. Eg., bobcock & Wilcox boiler.

2. According to the axis of the shell – vertical and horizontal boilers.

3. According to location or position of the furnace. Externally and internally fired

boilers.
In internally fired boilers, the furnace forms an integral part of the boilers structure.
The vertical tubular, locomotive and the scotch marine boilers are well known
examples.

Externally fired boilers have a separate furnace built outside the boiler shell and
usually below it. The horizontal return tube (HRT) boiler is probably the most widely
known example of this type.

4. According to the application – stationery and mobile boilers. A stationary boilers is

one of which is installed permanently on a land installation.

A marine boiler is a mobile boiler meant for ocean cargo and passenger ships with
an inherent fast steaming capacity.

5. According to steam pressure – low, medium and high pressure boilers.

Definition of boiler
Steam boiler or simply a boiler is basically a closed vessel into which water is
heated until the water is converted into steam at required pressure. This is
most basic definition of boiler.

Working principle of boiler

The basic working principle of boiler is very very simple and easy to
understand. The boiler is essentially a closed vessel inside which water is
stored. Fuel (generally coal) is bunt in a furnace and hot gasses are produced.
These hot gasses come in contact with water vessel where the heat of these
hot gases transfer to the water and consequently steam is produced in the
boiler. Then this steam is piped to the turbine of thermal power plant. There are
many different types of boiler utilized for different purposes like running a
production unit, sanitizing some area, sterilizing equipment, to warm up the
surroundings etc.

Types of boiler
There are mainly two types of boiler – water tube boiler and fire tube boiler.

In fire tube boiler, there are numbers of tubes through which hot gases are
passed and water surrounds these tubes.
Water tube boiler is reverse of the fire tube boiler. in water tube boiler the
water is heated inside tubes and hot gasses surround these tubes.

These are the main two types of boiler but each of the types can be sub
divided into many which we will discuss later.
Fire Tube Boiler
As is indicated from the name, the fire tube boiler consists of numbers of
tubes through which hot gasses are passed. these hot gas tubes are
immersed into water, in a closed vessel. Actually in fire tube boiler one closed
vessel or shell contains water, through which hot tubes are passed. these fire
tubes or hot gas tubes heated up the water and convert the water into steam
and the steam remains in same vessel. As the water and steam both are in
same vessel a fire tube boiler cannot produce steam at very high pressure.
Generally it can produce maximum 17.5 kg/cm2 and with a capacity of 9 Metric
Ton of steam per hour.
Types of fire tube boiler
There are different types of fire tube boiler likewise, external furnace and
internal furnace fire tube boiler

External furnace boiler can be again categorized into three different types

1) Horizontal return tubular boiler.

2) Short fire box boiler.

3) Compact boiler.

Again, internal furnace fire tube boiler has also two main categories such as
horizontal tubular and vertical tubular fire tube boiler.

Normally horizontal return fire tube boiler is used in thermal power plant of low
capacity. It consists of a horizontal drum into which there are numbers of
horizontal tubes. These tubes are submerged in water. The fuel (normally
coal) burnt below these horizontal drum and the combustible gasses move to
the rear from where they enter into fire tubes and travel towards the front
into the smoke box. during this travel of gasses in tubes, they transfer their
heat into the water and steam bubbles come up. as steam is produced, the
pressure of the boiler developed, in that closed vessel.
The advantage of fire tube boiler
1) it is quite compact in construction.

2) Fluctuation of steam demand can be met easily.

3) it is also quite cheap.

The disadvantage of fire tube boiler

1) As the water required for operation of the boiler is quite large, it requires
long time for rising steam at desired pressure.

2) As the water and steam are in same vessel the very high pressure of steam
is not possible.

3) The steam received from fire tube boiler is not very dry.

Water Tube Boiler

A water tube boiler is such kind of boiler where the water is heated inside
tubes and the hot gasses surround them.
This is the basic definition of water tube boiler. Actually this boiler is just
opposite of fire
tube boiler where hot gasses are passed through tubes which are surrounded
by water

Types of Water Tube Boiler

There are many types of water tube boilers, such as
1) Horizontal Straight Tube Boiler

2) Bent Tube Boiler

3) Cyclone Fired Boiler.

Horizontal Straight Tube Boiler again can be sub – divided into two different
types,
i) Longitudinal Drum Water Tube Boiler
ii) Cross Drum Water Tube Boiler

Bent Tube Boiler also can be sub divided into four different types,
i) Two Drum Bent Tube Boiler
 ii) Three Drum Bent Tube Boiler
iii) Low Head Three Drum Bent Tube Boiler
iv) Four Drum Bent Tube Boiler

Advantages of water tube boiler

There are many advantages of water tube boiler due to which these types of
boiler are essentially used in large thermal power plant.

1) Larger heating surface can be achieved by using more numbers of water

tubes.

2) Due to convectional flow, movement of water is much faster than that of

fire tube boiler; hence rate of heat transfer is high which results into higher
efficiency.

3) Very high pressure in order of 140 kg/cm2 can be obtained smoothly.

Disadvantage of water tube boiler
1) The main disadvantage of water tube boiler is that it is not compact in
construction.

2) Its cost is not cheap.

3) Size is a difficulty for transportation and construction.

What is corrosion?

Answer:

Corrosion is a chemical reaction in which molecules break down due to a chemical

reaction with its surroundings. Most often, corrosion is the electrochemical oxidation of a
metal (such as iron "corroding" to form iron oxide, a.k.a. rust).

Corrosion is deterioration of a substance, usually metal.

Flow principles
Types of flow
Gas and liquid flows (fluid flows) can be described as being in one of three states;
turbulent, transitional, or laminar.

Turbulent flow is by nature chaotic. The fluid mixes irregularly

during turbulent flow. Constant changes in the flow’s behavior (wakes, vortexes, eddies)
make flow rates difficult, if not impossible, to accurately measure. Turbulent flow usually
occurs at high flow rates and/or in larger diameter pipes. Turbulent flow is usually
desirable when solids must remain suspended in the fluid to prevent settling or
blockages.

Transitional flow exhibits characteristics of both laminar and

turbulent flow. The edges of the fluid flow in a laminar state, while the center of the flow
remains turbulent. Like turbulent flows, transitional flows are difficult, if not impossible,
to accurately measure.

Laminar or Smooth flow tends to occur at lower flow rates through

smaller pipes. In essence, the fluid particles flow in cylinders. The outermost cylinder,
touching the pipe wall, does not move due to viscosity. The next cylinder flows against
the unmoving fluid cylinder, which exhibits less frictional “pull” than the pipe wall. This
cylinder will move the slowest. This continues, with the centermost cylinder having the
greatest velocity.

Concepts in Flow
Reynolds Number
How do we know if a flow is turbulent, transitional or laminar? In the late 1800′s,
Osbourne Reynolds discovered that the type of a fluid flow is related to the fluid’s
density, mean velocity, diameter and viscosity. This dimensionless (no units) number
helps predict changes in flow type. In simple terms, the Reynolds Number can be
written as:

density x mean velocity x diameter / viscosity

It is generally accepted that flow is laminar if the Reynolds Number is less than 2000.
Transitional flows have a Reynolds Number between 2000 and 4000. Flows are
considered turbulent when the Reynolds Number is greater than 4000. Using the
Reynolds equation, we can see that reducing the density, mean velocity and/or
diameter of a turbulent fluid flow (unchanging viscosity) will make it “more” laminar. This
could also be accomplished by increasing the fluid viscosity (keeping density, mean
velocity and diameter the same). The inverse is true to make a flow more turbulent.

Pressure Drop
Pressure drop describes the loss of pressure as a fluid travels through a pipe or
channel. If you blew into a mile long pipe, it’s unlikely that anything would come out the
other end. This is due to pressure drop. As the fluid flows through the pipe, friction with
the pipe walls and between the fluid particles causes a loss of pressure. Pressure drop
is approximately proportional to the distance the fluid travels.

Mass Flow vs. Volumetric Flow

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter that makes up an object. The mass of an
object is considered constant. Volume refers to the amount of space an object takes up.
The volume of an object can change depending on pressure, temperature and other
factors. In terms of flow, at room temperature and low pressures the volumetric and
mass flow rate will be nearly identical, however, these rates can vary drastically with
changes in temperature and/or pressure because the temperature and pressure of the
gas directly affects the volume. For example, assume a volumetric flow reading was
used to fill balloons with 250 mL of helium, but the incoming line ran near a furnace that
cycled on and off, intermittently heating the incoming helium. Because the volumetric
meter simply measures the volume of gas flow, all of the balloons would initially be the
same size. However, if all the balloons are placed in a room and allowed to come to an
equilibrium temperature, they would generally all come out to be different sizes. If, on
the other hand, a mass flow reading were used to fill the balloons with 250 standard mL
 of helium, the resulting balloons would initially be different sizes, but when allowed to
come to an equilibrium temperature, they would all turn out to be the same size.

Pressure Influence on Volumetric Flow

Alicat V and VC Series Volumetric flow devices are intended for use in low-pressure
applications. This is because an accurate measurement of the volumetric flow rate by
means of differential pressure requires the flow at the differential pressure sensor to be
in a laminar state. The state of the flow is quantified by what is known as the Reynolds
Number. If the Reynolds Number gets above a certain quantifiable point the flow will
become non-laminar. Most Alicat volumetric flow devices are sized to make valid full-
scale measurements with line pressures up to 10 – 15PSIG when using air.

As a general rule, if your line pressures will be above 15PSIG, an Alicat mass flow
device will be more appropriate due to the additional sensors required to compensate
for the increased densities.

What Affect Does Viscosity Have on Surface Tension?

Surface tension occurs at the interface of two immiscible fluids,

which can either be in the same or different phases. Examples of this
include the apparent film or surface of a glass of water, or the skin or
membrane formed between a layer of oil floating on top of a layer of
water. The viscosity and the surface tension of a liquid are both the
result of forces between its molecules.

What Causes Surface Tension.

 Liquids exist because of attractive forces between molecules. The forces in
liquids are not as strong as in solids, in which molecules, atoms or ions are
held rigidly in place, but they are much stronger than in gases because gas
molecules experience little or no intermolecular attraction. Molecules in the
center of a liquid are pulled from all sides by their neighbors. However, at
the surface these molecules are only pulled inwards or laterally. There is
nothing to pull them outwards. This lateral force is surface tension.
The Definition of Viscosity.
 Viscosity is due the same intermolecular forces as surface tension and it is
essentially the measure of the internal friction of a liquid, that is, how easily
the layers of a liquid drag against one another. In a very viscous liquid this
frictional force is strong, making it hard to pour or stir. The viscosity of a
liquid decreases with heat. The molecules in the liquid become more
excited, meaning the attractive forces between then decrease. (This leads to
a liquid boiling when the molecules become so excited that they no longer
exert any force over each other.) This is why it is easier to stir a hot liquid
than a cold liquid.

The Intermolecular Forces in Liquids.

 The intermolecular forces in liquids are Van der Waals forces or hydrogen
bonding. Van der Waals forces are the result of the weak electrostatic
interaction between the positively charged nucleus of one atom in a
molecule and the negatively charged electrons of an adjacent molecule.
Hydrogen bonding is a stronger electrostatic force than Van der Waals
forces and occurs between free electron pairs on one molecule and
hydrogen atoms of another.
Surface Tension and Viscosity in Action.
 Consider three jugs containing three different liquids. The first jug contains
water, the second contains single cream and the third contains thick
custard. The water is easier to stir with a spoon than the cream, which is
easier to stir than the custard. The water has lowest viscosity and the
custard the highest viscosity. Tilting each of the jugs shows the water is the
easiest to pour of the three. It is possible to form a meniscus over the spout
of each jug which breaks to allow the liquid to pour from the jug. This
meniscus is strongest with the custard and weakest with the water. It would
also be possible to heat the custard and the cream to make it as easy to pour
as the water. This confirms that viscosity decreases with temperature.
However, the meniscus formed at the top of the slightly tilted jugs would be
weaker, implying that surface tension is directly related to viscosity and
also decreases with temperature.
VISCOSITY.........
Viscosity is characteristic property of liquid, viscosity describes the flow of a
liquid.
Definition:
Viscosity is defined as the resistance in the flow of a liquid Or
Internal friction present between two layers of a liquid
which resists the flow of liquid is commonly known as Viscosity.
· A liquid with high viscosity is thick and flows slowly.

· A liquid with low viscosity is thin and flows quickly.

· Different liquids have different viscosities.

FACTORS AFFECTING VISCOSITY
Size of molecules
Viscosity of a liquid having large molecules is high whereas the viscosity of those
liquids that have small molecules is low.
Shape of molecules
Spherical molecules provide resistance but oval shaped or disc like molecules
provide greater resistance in the flow of liquid. That’s why viscosity of liquids
having spherical molecules is low.
Inter molecular forces
Liquids having large inter molecular forces have greater viscosity.
Temperature
Viscosity of liquid decreases with increase in temperature. Because an increase in
temperature, reduces the forces of attraction between molecules.
Units:
· Most common unit is "POISE"

· Small unit is "CENTI POISE"

· In S.I system unit is N.S/m2

Conversion factors
1Centipoise = 10-3 NS/m2 or 0.001 NS/m2
SURFACE TENSION

Surface tension is a characteristic property of a liquid.

Definition:

"Perpendicular force acting on the unit length of the surface of a liquid is called
SURFACE TENSION".

Surface tension = force/length

 = F/L

2nd definition:

"Energy per unit area on the surface of a liquid is called SURFACE TENSION"

 = energy /area

Unit of surface tension

· N/m (in S.I system)

· Dyne/cm (in C.G.S system)

· Joule/m2 (in S.I system)

· Erg/cm2 (in C.G.S system)

FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE TENSION

Inter molecular forces

If force of attraction between molecules is high then surface tension will also be
high.

Hydrogen bonding

Liquids that have H-bond such as water, have high values of surface tension.

Temperature

Surface tension of a liquid decreases with the increase in temperature because an

increase in temperature, reduces force of attraction between molecules.