READING MEASURING SCALES

The following chapter is designed to provide a basic understanding of how to read scales, dials,
and gages. It will not provide any information on the actual use of the tools. Reference to this chapter
will be made throughout the remainder of the manual.

READING THE SCALE OF A RULE OR TAPE

The more common type rules and tapes are divided into fractions, inches, and feet. Explained
here are the scales on a 12-inch steel
machinist’s rule. The rule is divided into
twelve inches. The inches are further
divided into eighths, sixteenths,
thirty-seconds, and sixty-fourths.

Look at the rule. There is a small numeral

marked on the end of the rule nearest the l-inch mark.
This numeral indicates the number of divisions per
inch. When referring to fractions, always use the
reduced name. This is the smallest numerator (top
number) and denominator (bottom number). For
example, 3/6 can be reduced to 1/2 by dividing both the top and bottom by 3.Generally, fractions may
be reduced to their lowest forms by repeated division by 2 or

Look at the section between the “2” “and the

3” on the edge marked with an “8” for eighths. There
are eight equally spaced lines. The lengths of these
lines differ and indicate different fractions or
parts of an inch.
The longest line is in the center and is equal to 4/8 or 1/2inch.
Each half-inch is divided in half by a
slightly shorter line indicating 2/8 or 1/4 on the left
and 6/8 or 3/4 on the right.

Each 1/4 inch is divided in half by the shortest

line which indicates 1/8 inch, and will indicate 1/8,
3/8, 5/8 and 7/8.

Now turn the rule and look at the edge with a

16 marked on it.
There are now 16 equal divisions between
each inch. Since 2/16 reduces to 1/8, divide each 1/8
into two equal parts producing 1/16, 3/16, 5/16,
7/16, 9/16, 11/16,13/16, and 15/16.

Common tapes and rules usually are not graduated smaller than sixteenths. However, precision
measurements require smaller graduations.
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 Look at the back of the machinist’s rule. Find the edge marked 32 and once again look between
the numbers“2” and “3.”

To read this rule, remember:

1. Sixteen divisions (16/32) are
equal to 1/2 inch.
2. Eight divisions (8/32) are equal
to 1/4 inch.
3. Four divisions (4/32) are equal
to 1/8 inch.
4. Two divisions (2/32) are equal to 1/16 inch.

To read 2-5/8 inches on the scale, first find the two inch mark, then determine the number of
32nds in 5/8.

To determine the number

of 32nds in 5/8, remember four
divisions or 4/32 are equal to 1/8
inch. If 1/8 is equal to 4/32, then
5/8 is equal to 20/32 as shown: If 1/8 = 4/32, then 5/8 = 20/32(4 x 5 = 20).

1. Find the 20/32 reading on the scale as shown above.

2. Write the new fraction 2-20/32 inches.

Finally, look at the edge marked

64. Each inch is now divided into 64
equal parts.

To read this rule, remember:

1. Thirty-two divisions (32/64) are equal to 1/2 inch.
2. Sixteen divisions (16/64) are equal to 1/4 inch.
3. Eight divisions (8/64) are equal to 1/8 inch.
4. Four divisions (4/64) are equal to 1/16 inch.
5. Two divisions (2/64) are equal to 1/32 inch.

To read 2-3/4 inches on this scale, first find the two inch mark. Next, determine the number of
64ths in 3/4.

To determine the number of

64ths in 3/4, remember every sixteen
divisions or 16/64 are equal to 1/4
inch. If 1/4 is equal to 16/64, then 3/4 is
equal to 48/64 as shown:

If 1/4 = 16/64, then 3/4 = 48/64(16x3=48).

1. Locate the number 48 between the 2 and 3 inch marks on the scale.
2. Write the new fraction 2-48/64.

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READING A METRIC RULE

The metric system is based upon multiples of ten. For

example, there are 10 millimeters in a centimeter and100
centimeters in a meter. The example provided will deal only
with millimeters (mm)

The meter will become the starting point and from-

this, two additional scales can be developed for measuring.
A meter divided by 100 equals a centimeter (cm), 1/100or
0.01 meter. Next divide a centimeter (cm) by 10. This will
equal a millimeter (mm), 1/1000 or 0.001 meter.

Now let’s look at a section of the rule between 2 cm and 3 cm. There are 10 equal divisions
which are equal to 1/10 cm or 1 mm. measure 26 mm, first locate the longest line designated 2 cm or 20 mm.
Next count 6 additional lines to find 26 mm.

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 Metric Conversion Worksheet

1. Convert the following: 5 meters = __________ km

2. Convert the following: 7 meters = __________ cm
3. Convert the following: 60 milligrams = __________ km
4. Convert the following: 2.5 meters = __________ mm
5. Convert the following: 4.5 centimeters = __________ km
6. Convert the following: 77 meters = __________ dm
7. Convert the following: 37 decimeters = __________mm
8. Convert the following: .002 centimeters = __________ mm
9. Convert the following: 44 millimeters = __________ m
10. Convert the following: 25 kilometers = __________ m

English/Metric Conversion Worksheet

Directions: Complete the following English conversions. Write all steps. Round the final answer using
significant digits and label with the correct units.

1. A desk measures 42 inches long. How many meters is that?

2. A newborn baby weighs 7.5 lbs. How many grams is that?
3. I bought 4 quarts of milk at the store. How many mL is that?
4. We have 3.0 liters of hydrochloric acid in stock. How many quarts do we have?
5. There are 100 yards on a football field. How many meters is that?
6. What mass in kg does a 50 pound bag of dog food have?
7. How many grams does a 122 lb person weigh?
8. How many inches is 35 meters?
9. How many ounces are in a bottle of 950mL of bleach?
10. How many inches in 56.9cm?
11. How many meters is 89 ft?
12. The football was thrown 46 yards for the touchdown. How many meters is that?
13. The tennis ball was hit 12 feet over the net. How many inches is that?
14. A tractor trailer weighs 2.5 tons. How many kg is that?
15. On the Autobahn the average speed is about 160 km/hr. How many miles per hour is that?

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 TECHNICAL SKETCHING

When you have read and understood this chapter, you should be able to answer the following learning
objectives:
Describe the instruments used in technical sketching.
Describe the types of lines used in technical sketching.
Explain basic computer-aided drafting (CAD).
Explain computer numerical control (CNC) design techniques used in machining.

The ability to make quick, accurate sketches is a valuable advantage that helps you convey technical
information or ideas to others. A sketch may be of an object, an idea of something you are thinking about, or a
combination of both. Most of us think of a sketch as a freehand drawing, which is not always the case. You may
sketch on graph paper to take advantage of the lined squares, or you may sketch on plain paper with or without
the help of drawing instruments.
There is no MIL-STD for technical sketching. You may draw pictorial sketches that look like the object,
or you may make an orthographic sketch showing different views, which we will cover in following
chapters.
In this chapter, we will discuss the basics of freehand sketching and lettering, drafting, and
computer aided drafting (CAD). We will also explain how CAD works with the newer computer numerical
control (CNC) systems used in machining.

SKETCHING INSTRUMENTS

Freehand sketching requires few tools. If you have pencil and a scrap piece of paper handy, you are
ready to begin. However, technical sketching usually calls for instruments that are a little more specialized, and
we will discuss some of the more common ones in the following paragraphs.

PENCILS AND LEADS

There are two types of pencils (fig. 2-1), those with conventional wood bonded cases known as wooden
pencils and those with metal or plastic cases known as mechanical pencils. With the mechanical pencil, the lead
is ejected to the desired length of projection from the clamping chuck.
There are a number of different drawing media and types of reproduction and they require different
kinds of pencil leads. Pencil manufacturers market three types that are used to prepare engineering drawings;
graphite, plastic, and plastic-graphite.
Graphite lead is the conventional type we have used for years. It is made of graphite, clay, and resin and
it is available in a variety of grades or hardness. The harder grades are 9H, 8H, 7H and 6H. The medium grades
are5H, 4H, 3H, and 2H. The medium soft grades are H and F. The soft grades are HB, B, and 2B; and the very
soft grades are 6B, 5B, 4B, and 3B. The latter grade is not recommended for drafting. The selection of the grade
of lead is important. A harder lead might penetrate the drawing, while a softer lead may smear.
Plastic and graphite-plastic leads were developed as a result of the introduction of film as a drawing
medium, and they should be used only on film. Plastic lead has good microform reproduction characteristics,
but it is seldom used since plastic-graphite lead was developed. A limited number of grades are available in
these leads, and they do not correspond to the grades used for graphite lead. Plastic-graphite lead erases well,
does not smear readily, and produces a good opaque line suitable for microform reproduction. There are two
types: fired and extruded. They are similar in material content to plastic fired lead, but they are produced
differently. The main drawback with this type of lead is that it does not hold a point well.

PENS
Two types of pens are used to produce ink lines: the ruling pen with adjustable blade and the
needle-in-tube type of pen. We include the ruling pen here only for information; it has been almost totally
5
replaced by the needle-in-tube type. The second type and the one in common use today is a technical fountain
pen, or needle-in-tube type of pen. It is suitable for drawing both lines and letters.
The draftsman uses different interchangeable needlepoints to produce different line widths. Several
types of these pens now offer compass attachments that allow them to be clamped to, or inserted on, a standard
compass leg.

DRAWING AIDS
Some of the most common drawing aids
are protractors, triangles, and French curves. A
protractor, is used to measure or lay out angles
other than those laid out with common triangles.
The common triangles may be used to measure or
lay out the angles they represent, or they may be
used in combination to form angles in multiples of 15°. However, you
may lay out any angle with an adjustable triangle (fig. 2-5), which
replaces the protractor and common triangles. The French curve is
usually used to draw irregular curves with unlike circular areas where the curvature is not constant.

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 TYPES OF LINES

The lines used for engineering drawings must be clear and dense to ensure good reproduction. When
making additions or revisions to existing drawings, be sure the line widths and density match the original work.
Common types of straight lines will be explain in the following paragraphs. In addition, we will explain the use
of circles and curved lines at the end of this section.

CENTER LINES consist of alternating long and short dashes. Use them to represent the axis of symmetrical
parts and features, bolt circles, and paths of motion. You may vary the long dashes of the center lines in length,
depending upon the size of the drawing. Start and end center lines with long dashes and do not let them intersect
at the spaces between dashes. Extend them uniformly and distinctly a short distance beyond the object or feature
of the drawing unless a longer extension line is required for dimensioning or for some other purpose.
Do not terminate them at other lines of the drawing, nor extend them through the space between views. Very
short center lines may be unbroken if there is no confusion with other lines.

VISIBLE LINES represent visible edges or contours of objects. Draw visible lines so that the views
they outline stand out clearly on the drawing with a definite contrast between these lines and secondary
lines.

HIDDEN LINES consist of short, evenly-spaced dashes and are used to show the hidden features of an object.
You may vary the lengths of the dashes slightly in relation to the size of the drawing. Always begin and end
hidden lines with a dash, in contrast with the visible lines from which they start, except when a dash would form
a continuation of a visible line. Join dashes at comers, and start arcs with dashes at tangent points. Omit hidden
lines when they are not required for the clarity of the drawing.

Although features located behind transparent materials may be visible, you should treat them as concealed
features and show them with hidden lines.

SYMMETRY LINES are center lines used as axes of symmetry for partial views. To identify the line of
symmetry, draw two thick, short parallel lines at right angles to the center line. Use symmetry lines to represent
partially drawn views and partial sections of symmetrical parts. You may extend symmetrical view visible and
hidden lines past the symmetrical line if it will improve clarity.

EXTENSION and DIMENSION LINES show the dimensions of a drawing. We will discuss them later in this
chapter.

LEADER LINES show the part of a drawing to which a note refers.

BREAK LINES shorten the view of long uniform sections or when you need only a partial view. You may use
these lines on both detail and assembly drawings. Use the straight, thin line with freehand zigzags for long
breaks, the thick freehand line for short breaks, and the jagged line for wood parts. You may use the special
breaks shown in figure2-10 for cylindrical and tubular parts and when an end view is not shown; otherwise, use
the thick break line.

PHANTOM LINES consist of long dashes separated by pairs of short dashes (fig. 2-11). The long
dashes may vary in length, depending on the size of the drawing. Phantom lines show alternate positions of
related parts, adjacent positions of related parts, and repeated detail. They also may show features such as
bosses and lugs to delineate machining stock and blanking developments, piece parts in jigs and fixtures, and
mold lines on drawings or formed metal parts. Phantom lines always start and end with long dashes.

7
8
9
STITCH LINES show a sewing and stitching process. Two forms of stitch lines are approved for general use.
The first is made of short thin dashes and spaces of equal lengths of approximately 0.016, and the second is
made of dots spaced 0.12 inch apart.

CUTTING PLANE LINES show the location of cutting planes for sectional views.

VIEWING-PLANE LINES locate the viewing position for removed partial views.

SECTION LINES show surface in the section view imagined to be cut along the cutting plane.

CHAIN LINES consist of thick, alternating long and short dashes. These lines show that a surface or surface
zone is to receive additional treatment or considerations within limits specified on a drawing.

An ELLIPSE is a plane curve generated by a point moving so that the sum of the distance from any
point on the curve to two fixed points, called foci, is a constant. Ellipses represent holes on oblique and inclined
surfaces.

CIRCLES on drawings most often represent holes or a circular part of an object.

An IRREGULAR CURVE is an unlike circular arc where the radius of curvature is not constant. This curve is
usually made with a French curve.

An OGEE, or reverse curve, connects two parallel lines or planes of position (fig. 2-13).
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 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING

A designer, such as an architect, can use

perspective to quickly present an idea. The
quick sketch of the single storey house has
been drawn in estimated perspective and took
minutes to complete. However, it provides
enough basic detail to allow an architect to
explain an initial idea to a customer/client. The
idea can be discussed and altered to suit the
customer requirements.

A complex design such as the interior of a room

can be presented through the use of perspective
drawing. The interior design opposite, is drawn in
single point perspective and has been colour
rendered to give a realistic finish.

A designer, such as an architect, can use

perspective to quickly present an idea. The quick
sketch of the single storey house has been
drawn in estimated perspective and took minutes
to complete. However, it provides enough basic
detail to allow an architect to explain an initial
idea to a customer/client. The idea can be
discussed and altered to suit the customer requirements.

If a more detailed version is required, a colour

rendered estimated perspective drawing can be
shown to the customer/client.

Perspective is a versatile drawing technique

that designers use in a variety of ways. It is
probably the most realistic way of drawing a 3D
product / object.

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 SINGLE POINT PERSPECTIVE

Perspective drawing is a good style to use when drawing in 3D. There are different styles including
single point and two point perspective. The basic example below shows how to construct a simple
single point perspective drawing of a cube. Using the same skills more complex drawings/designs
can be drawn, after a little practice.

1. Draw one side of the cube and select a

vanishing point (marked with an 'X').

2. Draw very faint lines from each corner to the

vanishing point.

3. Draw horizontal and vertical lines for the 'back

of the cube.

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 4. Go over the faint perspective of the cube so that
the lines that make up the cube are dark and
sharp.

Try completing the drawings of L-shapes and T-shapes in single point perspective:

Try completing the drawings of H-shapes and J-shapes in single point perspective:

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 SINGLE POINT PERSPECTIVE - VANISHING POINTS 1

Altering the position of the VP changes the view of the object being drawn. For example, to look down
at the top of the object the vanishing point must be
above. However, to look up at the object the vanishing
point must be below.

Moving the VP to the left or right of the object will allow

the sides to be seen. If the VP is placed directly behind
the object then only the front will be seen.

The animation of the chair

displayed below emphasizes the
importance of positioning the
vanishing point carefully. This
chair is drawn with two vanishing
points (this is called two point
perspective). When the VPs are
above the chair the view is also from above, looking downwards. However, when the VPs are moved
below the chair the view also changes so that we are known looking from underneath.

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 TWO POINT PERSPECTIVE (1)

Perspective is a realistic way of drawing objects in 3D. We have already looked at single point
perspective, two point perspective using two vanishing points and when an object is drawn in this way
it is even more realistic than if it were to be drawn with a single vanishing point.

The cube apposite is drawn with two vanishing points and as a result the
sides look as if they are slowly fading away into the distance. Two vanishing
points gives this 'feel' to a drawing.

STAGE ONE: Mark two vanishing points on the paper and faintly draw a line between them - this is
called the horizon line. Then draw one side/edge of the cube beneath the horizon line and in the
centre between the vanishing points.

15
STAGE TWO: Draw faint lines from the ends of the edge of the cube to the vanishing points

STAGE THREE: Draw two more edges of the cube so that two sides of the cube can be clearly seen.

STAGE FOUR: Draw faint guidelines from the ends of these lines to either vanishing point.

STAGE FIVE: Use a fine black pen to draw over the outline of the cube. Add shade - look at the
colouring techniques discussed earlier.

16
Complete the following two perspective drawing of the 'L' shape.

TWO POINT PERSPECTIVE (2)

In this example a simple kitchen table is drawn in two point

perspective. This is much more difficult compared to the
single point perspective shown earlier. This time it is very
important to project guidelines towards both vanishing points.
The stages are outlined below.

STAGE ONE: Mark both vanishing points and start drawing faintly - the table top.

17
STAGE TWO: Add thickness to the table top remembering to project all lines to the vanishing points.
Add the front legs.

STAGE THREE: Add one of the back legs.

STAGE FOUR: Add the final leg and any other detail such as shade/colour.

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 ISOMETRIC DRAWING AND DESIGNERS

Isometric drawing is another way of

presenting designs/drawings in three
dimensions. The example opposite has been
drawn with a 30 degree set square. Designs
are always drawn at 30 degrees in isometric
projection.

1. Draw two basic 30 degree guidelines, one

to the left and one to the right, plus a vertical
guideline in the centre of the drawing. In this
example three edges of the cube have been
drawn over the guidelines (they are slightly
darker)

2. Draw guidelines to help you start

constructing the left and right sides of the
cube. Remember to use a 30 degree set
square for the 'angled' lines.

19
 3. Draw the two sides in place. They should
be darker than the faint guidelines.

4. Complete the top of the cube by projecting

lines with the 30 degree set square as shown
opposite.

`
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Orthographic Projection is a way of drawing an object from different directions. Usually a front, side and plan
view are drawn so that a person looking at the drawing can see all the important sides. Orthographic drawings
are useful especially when a design has been developed to a stage whereby it is almost ready to manufacture.

IMPORTANT: There are two ways of drawing in orthographic - First Angle and Third Angle. They differ only
in the position of the plan, front and side views. Below is an example of third angle projection.

20
 An L-shaped object.

The Plan View of the L-shape is drawn as a 'birds eye' view, a view from above.
The Front View is drawn as if stood in front of the L-shape.
The Side View is drawn as if stood at the side.

The correct position of each view is shown below. They have been drawn very accurately, using T-Squares and
set squares.

21
22
The final arrangement of the views are shown in the drawing below. Notice how the symbol for third angle
orthographic projection has been added and the paper has a title block and borderline.

23
Carefully study the symbols shown below. Normally when drawing in first or third angle projection a symbol is
drawn which clearly shows which angle of projection has been used.

24