INFORMATION SHEET 3.

1-2
ORGANIC RAW MATERIALS
Learning Objectives:
After reading this Information Sheet, you must be able to:
Prepare composting area and raw materials
1. Materials are gather based on production requirements and PNS for organic
fertilizer
2. Prepare raw materials following enterprise procedure and PNS for organic
fertilizer

CONSTITUENTS OF ORGANIC MATTER IN SOIL

Soil organic matter can be defined as the sum of living soil organisms and dead
organic matter which is integrated into soils. The equilibrium between the building up
and the degradation of the SOM can be observed over a long period of time.
The organic C content is the only reliable parameter to determine the soil organic
matter content. It is common to calculate SOM by multiplying % organic C by the factor
1.724 or 2, others reported that the conversion factor ranges between 1.4 and 3.3. Due
to the uncertainty, it is more precise to use % organic C determined by analysis.
DECOMPOSING RESIDUES OF PLANTS
The most important input to SOM is in the form of plant residues. Plant residues
can provide input to soil organic matter ranging from 11tC/ha per year for tropical rain
forests, to 6t for temperate forests, 3t for temperate grasslands, and down to 0.05t for
deserts (Bolin et al. 1979).
CARBOHYDRATES. Dead vegetative material contributes the major part of
carbohydrates to SOM in the form of different polymer saccharides, especially cellulose
and hemicellulose.
CELLULOSE is the most abundant constituent of plant residues. Ruminants create
an environment in their rumen, which encourages the conversion of the cellulose to
volatile fatty acids, and microbial biomass that the ruminant can digest and use.
Microorganisms decompose cellulose by releasing a hydrolytic enzyme called
cellulase which breaks the polysaccharide molecule into simple sugar units which their
cells can assimilate.
HEMICELLULOSE can often constitute up to one third of plant residue C. It binds
bundles of cellulose fibrils to form microfibrils, which enhance the stability of the plant
cell wall. Fungi are the primary decomposers of cellulose in humid soils, whereas
bacteria are the main decomposers of cellulose in semi-arid forests.
LIGNIN. Lignin’s are the most resistant component of plant residues entering the
soil, and are the third most abundant component of plant residues after cellulose and
hemicellulose. The more mature the plant, the higher is its lignin content. Young plants
have comparatively little lignin. Lignin in rice straw ranged from 2.4% to 5.1%.
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS. There are a variety of forms in which phenolic
compounds occur in soil. Simple phenols and phenolic acids may be present in soil
solution or leachates. It may also be present in humus or plant residues, which together
make up a large proportion of SOM (Lowe 1993).

11 | PRACTICE PERSONAL HYGIENE PROTOCOLS AT ALL TIMES

 TANNINS are naturally occurring plant polyphenols. Their main characteristic is
that they bind and precipitate proteins. The occurrence of tannin in forage legumes may
affect ruminant performance and it has been associated with improved protein-use
efficiency and milk production but reduced palatability and digestibility of the forage.
Moderate to high amount of tannins in organic materials may have slow decomposition
rate.
NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS. The organic bound-N in the soil (20 – 50%), which
is in the form of amino acids, is degraded. The addition of decomposable plant material
to soils increases the amount of these amino acids, which are then synthesized by
microorganisms. Their build up in the soil can be attributed to their being a component
of a relatively stable microbial biomass, their interaction with other organic matter, and
with soil clays.
The collective effect of the various carbonaceous constituents on decomposition
of organic matter is shown below.

THE RELATIVE COMPOSITION AND THE RELATIVE COMPOSITION AND RATE OF MASS LOSS
OF PLANT TISSUE DURING DECOMPOSITION (ADAPTED FROM COUTEAUXET AL. 1995).
ORGANIC PHOSPHATES. Soil organic matter contains a small portion of organic
phosphates. These come into the soil by plant materials and by microbial synthesis.
ALIPHATIC ACIDS. The conditions for the formation of aliphatic acids by
microorganisms are more favorable in poorly drained soils than in aerobic soils. It is
reported that the accumulation was in the order of: acetic> butyric> formic > fumaric,
propionic, valeric, succinic, and lactic acids. Another possible source of aliphatic acids in
soils is in the exudation by plant roots.
HUMIC SUBSTANCES IN SOIL
The most unmanageable components of SOM are highly polymerized humic
substances, resulting from decomposition of plant debris or condensation of soluble
organic compounds released through the decomposition of sugars, amino acids,
polyphenols, and lignin. These materials consist of three major classes of chemicals,
generally categorized as fulvic acids, humic acids, and humin.

12 | FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY – NOT FOR SALE

 FULVIC ACIDS. Fulvic acid refers to the mixture of organic substances remaining
in solution upon acidification of a dilute alkali extract from the soil. Fulvic acid contains
less C and more N and O than humic acid and has a smaller proportion of aromatic units
and greater peripheral aliphatic chains.
HUMIC ACIDS. Humic acid refers to the mixture of variable or indefinite
composition of dark organic substances, precipitated upon acidification of a dilute alkali
extract from soil. It represents a significant part of this humic substance as a recalcitrant
end product of microbial activities transformed from plant and animal debris.
HUMIN. The structure of humin appears to be similar to that of humic acid,
although it contains less N, about one third of that found in humic acid.
SOIL ORGANIC MATTER AND DECOMPOSITION
Decomposition can be divided into three processes: fragmentation of organic
matter, leaching, and microbe-mediated chemical degradation, with the latter process
producing CO2, water, and the energy used by the microorganisms. The organic matter
of the soil is derived from plant and animal remains and it exists in all stages of
decomposition. A simplified model that depicts the flow of C and nutrients is presented
below. Some of the C and nutrients are mineralized readily (1a) or are immobilized in the
soil microbial pool (2a), and later transformed into other soil organic pools by microbial
products (3a). Recalcitrant plant material may enter the pools directly (3b). There is a
subsequent decomposition of C and nutrients that were held in SOM pools and then
assimilated by soil biomass (1c), yielding in additional mineralization (1b). Immobilization
occurs when the inorganic nutrients, which are released by mineralization, are
assimilated by soil biota (2). The inorganic nutrients may be used by the plants (3), lost
as a result of leaching or volatilization (4), or remain in the soil.

CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF NUTRIENT PATHWAYS (ADAPTED FROM MYERS ET AL.)

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 TYPES OF ORGANIC RAW MATERIALS
A. PLANT RESIDUES
Plant residues are chemically complex organic materials that enter the soil and
play an important role in maintaining soil productivity by providing source of nutrients
and inputs to organic matter. They are known to affect soil physical properties,
availability of soil nutrients, and soil faunal populations.
Decomposition may signify the mechanical disintegration of dead plant structure
from the stage where it is still attached to the living plant, to the humus stage where the
gross cell structure is no longer recognizable. Decomposition of crop residues releases
about 55–70% of the C to the atmosphere as CO2, 5–15% is incorporated into microbial
biomass, and the remaining C (15–40%) is partially stabilized in soil as new humus.
FACTORS INFLUENCING DECOMPOSITION PROCESS OF PLANT RESIDUES
a. INFLUENCE OF RESOURCE QUALITY
Resource quality is a composite definition of the value of a resource as food to an
organism and embodies both physical and chemical criteria. The food must satisfy the
physical (surface properties, texture, etc.) and chemical (growth factors and nutrients)
requirements for ingestion and colonization to occur.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The initial chemical composition of plant residues will
affect its decomposition. The energy yield of these tissues varies considerably. If the
chemical bonds are difficult for microbes to break, then the net energy gain from their
decomposition by microorganisms is small. Figure below shows the main components of
plant residues with their approximate relative proportions.

APPROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF PLANT RESIDUES

(ADAPTED FROM CRESSER ET AL. 1993).
PLANT PHYSICAL QUALITY. As the chemical composition of a plant influences the
rate at which it decomposes, so does its physical character. Some of the physical
features of resources are: TOUGHNESS, SURFACE PROPERTIES, and PARTICLE SIZE.
Thin soft leaves are more readily attacked by animals and decompose more rapidly than
the tough, heavily-cuticularized leaves. Decreasing particle size (increasing surface to
volume ratio) determines the patterns of colonization by microorganisms.

14 | FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY – NOT FOR SALE

 PLANT AGE. The younger and less mature the plant is, the more rapid will be the
rate of its decomposition. The plant’s digestibility generally declines as it matures due to
a change in leaf-to-stem ratio and a change in chemical composition.
b. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Environmental conditions at which decomposition is carried out (proper aeration,
moisture supply, temperature, and soil reaction) modify the rapidity and nature of plant
material decomposition.
TEMPERATURE. Decomposition rates are faster in warm, humid areas, however,
rates decrease as water availability and temperatures decrease. Soil microorganisms
function at temperatures from 0o to 60oC, with maximum growth and activity occurring
between 25oC and 35oC (Paul and Clark 1989).
MOISTURE and AERATION. Moisture availability may limit the catabolic capacity
of microorganisms in the soil. Optimum water potential for residue decomposition occurs
between soil water potentials of - 0.03 and - 0.10 MPa. Bacterial respiration declines
rapidly as potentials decline below - 0.30 MPa, while fungal activity may continue down
to potentials of - 4 to - 5 MPa.

SOIL pH. The difficulty in the role of pH lies partly in the complex interaction of
other factors that determine environmental pH. Although decomposition of plant
residues may not be influenced by pH values 4.5–9.6, other processes can be affected.
The residue influence on soil pH appears small, but method of residue management may
greatly influence the soil reaction.
c. MICRO- AND MACRO-ORGANISMS
Nature of microorganisms (such as nature of microflora and microfauna) active in
the decomposition processes is one of the important factors limiting residue
decomposition. During the decomposition process, microorganisms can act as sinks
(immobilization) or sources (mineralization) of C and other nutrients, and therefore
control the availability of nutrients to crops. Fungi dominate in well-aerated soils,
whereas bacteria are common in anaerobic soils. Fungi also tend to be more prevalent
than bacteria in acidic soils because the latter are less tolerant of low pH.
TYPES OF PLANT RESIDUES
CROP RESIDUE. Most of the crop residues are not collected for composting and
nutrient recycling, but are used as animal feed (straws/stovers), burnt or left in the field
for natural decomposition, shown below

BURNT RICE RESIDUES CORN RESIDUES

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 AZOLLA AND BLUE GREEN ALGAE. Azolla is an aquatic fern that lives in symbiotic
association with the N-fixing blue-green alga Anabaena azollae. The biomass of azolla is
a good source of organic fertilizer after decomposition. They are confined to fresh water,
where they float freely. Azolla can be used for green manuring, which could contribute
from 20 kg to 60 kg N/ha per season. It is considered an efficient scavenger for K and
serves as a source of K for rice crops.
Some blue-green algae (Gloeotrichia, Euglena, Phacus, Trachelomonas, and
Nitzchia) have been known for their N-fixing property, particularly their role as N sources
in rice paddies.
INDIGENOUS PLANTS/MULTI-PURPOSE TREE SPECIES. The potential of organic
fertilizers using indigenous plants/multi-purpose tree species in reducing mineral fertilizer
inputs in lowland- and upland-based farming systems was observed to be effective.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SELECTED MULTI-PURPOSE TREE AND HERBACEOUS
SPECIES
SPECIES TOTAL Poly- Lignin Cellu- Hemice-
N C P K phenols lose llulose
------------------------ (%) ------------------------
Gliricidia sepium 4.1 47.0 0.29 2.88 2.1 8.6 13.6 11.5
‘KAKAWATE’
Macaranga tanarius 2.8 — 0.09 2.11 — 6.7 19.6 7.1
‘BINUNGA’
Cicer arietinum 3.3 43.8 0.21 1.45 9.8 — — —
‘CHICKPEA’
Leucaena leucocephala 5.8 45.5 0.20 1.82 4.9 7.1 10.3 5.6
‘IPIL-IPIL’
Cajanus cajan 3.5 0.18 1.35 3.3 10.2 — —
Acioa barteri 1.5 45.1 0.10 0.77 3.9 24.5 28.9 9.3
Centrosema pubescens 5.5 44.1 0.38 1.89 1.50 10.1 40.2 5.
Cassia siamea 2.6 44.0 0.14 1.11 1.57 6.5 18.0 21.6
CALLIANDRA 4.0 — 0.23 0.74 — — — —
ACACIA 2.7 — 0.30 1.80 — — — —
Cassia siamea
------------------------ (% as litterfall*) ------------------------
Trema orientalis 1.4 34.1 0.10 0.52 — 10.2 —
‘HANADYONG’
Macaranga tanarius 1.2 55.6 0.13 0.92 — 9.2 — —
‘BINUNGA’
Streblus asper 1.6 28.4 0.08 0.82 — 9.4 — —
‘KALYOS’
SOURCES: Tian et al. 1992a, Pangga 2001b; * Calub 2000.

GREEN MANURES. Green manures are crops that are incorporated into the soil
while they are still green and succulent in order to improve the soil and to supply N to
the associated cash crop. If the primary reason for growing a green manure is to provide
N, then some types of legumes should be planted. For other reasons, green manures are
good materials for compost production. The SESBANIA species (Sesbania sesban,
Sesbania rostrata, and Sesbania aculeate), N-fixing shrubs used to improve soil organic
matter and fodders, are widely promoted in the humid tropics, see below. They have the
advantage over other green manures in the lowland rice-based cropping system because
they can be grown under upland or flooded soil conditions.

16 | FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY – NOT FOR SALE

 SESBANIA WITH ITS HIGH N CONTENT CAN HASTEN
COMPOSTING IF MIXED WITH RICE STRAW AT 1:1 RATIO
B. FARMYARD MANURE
Storage of these animal manures is in heaps exposed to sun, rain, and wind,
which result in substantial nutrient losses. Farmyard manure can be an economical
source of plant nutrients and a valuable soil amendment to improve soil quality.
TYPES OF FARMYARD MANURE
The amount and composition of farm animal manures will vary depending on the
type of animal, size and weight of the animal, diet, moisture content, percentages and
type of litter or bedding, age of manure and storage conditions. All manures can become
problems for the environment if allowed to accumulate.
POULTRY. The most important manures in the country are broiler litter and egg
layer manure. Because poultry excrete liquid and solid waste together, poultry manure is
higher in N than manure of other farm animals.
COMMERCIAL BROILERS are reared in houses with rice hulls or wood shavings as
litter. EGG LAYERS are reared in layered or low-rise houses. Manure drops to the ground
and scraped out more often. In some operations, poultry manure contains feathers,
uneaten feed, and broken eggs. A stack of manure cleaned out of these poultry houses
may contain materials varying in age from a few weeks to month. Good quality compost
is produced in 30–45 days.
CATTLE and CARABAO. In general, cattle dung consists of 70–88% moisture,
20% OM, 3% mineral matter, and both macro- and micronutrients.
Cows are kept in dirt-floor corrals where manure and accumulated urine is
periodically scraped and stacked. In some dairy farms, cows are kept in barns that are
cleaned daily. The wastewater flows into a settling basin and lodged into lagoons. When
it is necessary to dredge the lagoon, the wastewater is dumped in the nearest waterway
and the sludge is used as soil amendment.
HORSE. Since there is only a small number of horse in the country, very little of
horse manure is available. Horse manure is often mixed with high proportion of crop
residues such as straw, rice hulls, and coir dust.
SWINE. In commercial swine farm, manures are swept and collected before
flushing them with water that flows into lagoons, river, or nearby vacant lots. The
collected manure is either dried on a drying bed or placed into the pit. This drying bed is
exposed to all types of weather. However, another way of cleaning the farm is to flush
the pigpen with high volume of water that flows into a lagoon.
17 | PRACTICE PERSONAL HYGIENE PROTOCOLS AT ALL TIMES
 GOAT and SHEEP. The manure from sheep and goat is particularly helpful in quick
decomposition of organic residues because of their small size and large surface area.
The microbial activity is enhanced resulting in quick breakdown of residues into energy-
rich nutrients. The nitrogen content is almost 2.8%.
C. ANIMAL RESIDUES
Some animal residues can also be good sources of nutrients. Animal blood, horn,
feet, and feathers are high in nitrogen. Oyster shells and egg crust have high calcium.
Compared with bulk organic material like farmyard manure and crop residues,
concentrated animal residues have high concentration of nutrients. Because they contain
only a small amount of organic C. These residues behave similarly with synthetic
fertilizers when incorporated into the soil, particularly in terms of nutrient release rates.
Unlike synthetic fertilizers, however, they contain at least trace amounts of most of the
plant nutrients in addition to N, P, and K.
D. AGRI-INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Many commodities in the country are associated with processing industries that
generate waste products with potential as soil amendments. Most Agri-industrial waste
materials are valuable resources and should be properly managed and utilized.
E. MUNICIPAL BIODEGRADABLE WASTES
Currently, about 50% of urban trashes are biodegradable organic materials which
can be degraded and processed appropriately as bioorganic fertilizers.
TYPES OF BIODEGRADABLE WASTES
As landfills close and other traditional options for disposal of wastes decrease,
wastes from municipal and household are viewed as possible resources for agricultural
uses. With the escalating costs of fertilizers, utilization of these wastes offers economic
and environmental advantages to the community. Biodegradable municipal waste
comprises food waste, garden waste, paper and cardboard, textiles, wood, and other
miscellaneous biodegradable wastes.
IMPORTANT THINGS TO CONSIDER IN THE UTILIZATION OF ORGANIC RAW
MATERIALS
The composition and quality of organic materials are highly variable.
Therefore, if organic materials will be used as fertilizer, it is important to get accurate
information about its nutrient composition. To have accurate records on nutrient inputs,
each load of material applied to the soil should be analyzed separately in analytical soil
testing laboratories.
Utilization of raw organic materials are usually more expensive per unit nutrient
(to collect, purchase, transport, store, and apply) than inorganic fertilizers. When
evaluating the costs and benefits of various materials, however, consider the two
additional benefits in utilizing organic materials. First, organic materials can supply
organic matter, which improves soil physical and chemical properties. Second, organic
materials provide 'energy' for microorganisms, thereby promoting nutrient cycling within
the production system, and in some cases, suppressing harmful pathogens. It is,
therefore, difficult to assign a peso value to these non-nutrient benefits.

18 | FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY – NOT FOR SALE

 SELF – CHECK 3.1-2

COMPOSTING FROM AGRICULTURAL SOLID WASTE

DIRECTION: Let us determine what you already know. Take this test.
1. It is reported that the accumulation Aliphatic acids was in the order of:
i. Acetic> Butyric> Formic > Fumaric > Propionic > Valeric, Succinic > Lactic Acids
ii. Lactic > Acetic> Butyric> Formic > Fumaric > Propionic > Valeric > Succinic Acids
iii. Succinic > Lactic > Acetic> Butyric> Formic > Fumaric > Propionic > Valeric Acids
iv. Valeric> Succinic > Lactic > Acetic> Butyric> Formic > Fumaric > Propionic Acids
a. i-ii-iii-iv b. ii-iii-iv-i c. iii-iv-i-ii d. iv-i-ii-iii
2. Decomposition of organic raw materials that transform into a substances that the
plants can absorbed.
a. Assimilation B. Immobilization C. Mineralization D. Humification
3. A black humic substance that is not soluble in water and it contains less N, about one
third of that found in humic acid.
a. Fulvic acids b. Aliphatic acids. c. Humin d. Humic acids
4. An essential structural component of living cells and source of energy for animals;
includes simple sugars with small molecules as well as macromolecular substances;
are classified according to the number of monosaccharide groups they contain.
a. Nitrogen b. Phosphorus c. Potassium d. Carbohydrate
5. These animal residues are high in calcium.
a. Blood Meal & Bone Meal c. Oyster Shell & Egg Crust
b. Egg Crust & Horn Meal d. Feather Meal & Egg Crust
6. Plant material incorporated into the soil while green or fresh for improving soil usually
to enrich nitrogen content.
a. Green manure c. Indigenous plants
b. Blue green algae d. Herbaceous species
7. The dried stalks and leaves of a field crop used as animal fodder after the grain has
been harvested.
a. Straw b. Stover c. Hay d. Crop residue
8. A complex polymer; the chief constituent of wood other than carbohydrates; binds to
cellulose fibers to harden and strengthen cell walls of plants.
a. Cellulose b. Phenolic compounds c. Lignin d. Hemicellulose
9. The process of the formation of humus from plant remains.
a. Assimilation B. Immobilization c. Mineralization d. Humification
10. These animal residues are high in nitrogen.
a. Blood Meal & Bone Meal c. Oyster Shell & Egg Crust
b. Egg Crust & Horn Meal d. Feather Meal & Egg Crust

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 ACTIVITY SHEET 3.1-2
ACTIVITY 3.1-2a: AGRI-INDUSTRIAL WASTES
DIRECTION: from the box below, select a word or group of words to match with each
statement.

CARBONIZED RICE CASTOR BEAN MONOSODIUM

SUGARCANE SLOP
HULL (CRH) MEAL GLUTAMATE

SLUDGE CAKES COIR DUST BAGASSE LUMBANG MEAL

COCO PEAT RICE HULL

1. This is spent-wash in the production of alcohol from sugar.

The residues after oil extraction from castor plants, and its
2.
materials contain 6–7% N.
The residues after oil extraction from ‘lumbang’ plants, and its
3.
materials contain 6–7% N.
It is a solid waste produced after extracting the juice from the
4.
sugarcane stalks.
The production of this food seasoning produces a liquid waste
5. with high N (5%), considerable concentration of P (0.4%) and K
(1.7%).
It has very high silica content (up to 14.5%) but the other
6. nutrients are less than 1%. The C/N ratio is 91, thus very slow
to decompose.
A better material than ordinary rice hull. It provides a bacteria-
7. and fungus-free material and has a consistency that can hold
onto water and supply nutrients to crops.
In Japan, the beer producer Sapporo, generates this with the
8. following composition: total N, 6.93%; total P2O5, 3.50%; total
K2O, 0.37%; CaO, 1.88%; MgO, 0.41%; and Fe, 2.81%.
This material is dark brown to black; and is composed of varying
proportions of sand, soil, bagacillo, sugars, flocculants, and
9.
coagulated colloids and sediments which include phosphate,
lime, and albuminoids.
ACTIVITY 3.1-2b: TYPES OF BIODEGRADABLE WASTES
DIRECTION: List down the waste that you can see in the community, useful for
composting.
HOUSEHOLD WASTE MUNICIPAL WASTE
WET GARBAGE DRY GARBAGE WET GARBAGE DRY GARBAGE

20 | FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY – NOT FOR SALE