fibers

Article
Shrinkage Cracking of Concrete Slabs-On-Grade: A
Numerical Parametric Study
Giuseppe Tiberti 1, * ID
, Antonio Mudadu 1 , Bryan Barragan 2 and Giovanni Plizzari 1
1 Department of Civil, Environmental, Architectural Engineering and Mathematics, University of Brescia,
25123 Brescia, Italy; a.mudadu@unibs.it (A.M.); giovanni.plizzari@unibs.it (G.P.)
2 Concrete Solutions, Owens Corning, 73000 Chambéry, France; bryan.barragan@owenscorning.com
* Correspondence: giuseppe.tiberti@unibs.it; Tel.: +39-030-371-1221




Received: 18 August 2018; Accepted: 3 September 2018; Published: 5 September 2018


Abstract: Industrial pavements are thin slabs on a continuous support subjected to restrained
shrinkage and loads. The use of fibers as an alternative reinforcement to steel welded wire mesh and
rebars is today an extensive practice for the reinforcement of concrete slabs-on-grade. Despite the
widespread use of fiber reinforcement, the corresponding benefits in controlling cracking phenomena
due to shrinkage are generally not considered in the design process of Fiber Reinforced Concrete
(FRC) slabs-on-grade. The post-cracking performance provided by glass macro-fibers at low crack
openings is particularly convenient in structures with a high degree of redundancy. Referring to
service conditions, it is well known that concrete shrinkage as well as thermal effects tend to be the
principal reasons for the initial crack formation in slabs-on-grade. A numerical study on the risk
of cracking due to shrinkage in ground-supported slabs is presented herein. Special attention is
devoted to the evaluation of the beneficial effects of glass fibers in controlling cracking phenomena
due to shrinkage. The numerical analyses are carried out on jointless pavements of different sizes.
Since shrinkage stresses in slabs-on-grade are considerably influenced by external constraints which
limit the contractions, different subgrade conditions have been also considered.

Keywords: pavements; glass fibers; shrinkage phenomena; subgrade conditions; non-linear

analyses; curling

1. Introduction
Industrial pavements and floors are thin slabs on a continuous support and they are wrongly
considered non-structural or secondary structures. Although international design guidelines for
slabs-on-grade are now available [1–4], in many countries there are not mandatory rules for industrial
pavements. As a consequence, the industrial floors often evidence several pathologies that take place
during construction and service conditions that brings owners, construction companies, and designers
to legal disputes [5].
The main problems found in industrial floors are related to extensive crack phenomena that often
occurs before applying the service loads on the pavement. These cracks are generally due to shrinkage
effects (and, in some cases, the thermal effects) that mainly develop during the first few weeks after
concrete pouring (due to the large size and exposed surface, low thickness, and high degree of restraint).
To the contrary, if shrinkage cracks do not early appear, shrinkage stresses will represent an additional
contribution to the load effect and may favor cracking phenomena when loads are applied.
Moreover, the differential shrinkage along the thickness of the slab leads to upward curling
on the edges of the slab [6–9]. Curling of concrete slabs-on-grade remains a major concern and
its mitigation is critical for crack control, durability, and mechanical performance [10–13]. In fact,
cracks due to shrinkage phenomena need to be repaired by means of typical measures such as the

Fibers 2018, 6, 64; doi:10.3390/fib6030064 www.mdpi.com/journal/fibers

Fibers 2018, 6, 64 2 of 18

replacement of the cracked portion with epoxy grouting, besides cutting more joints [14], leading to
high maintenance costs.
Industrial slabs-on-grade could be designed with contraction joints or joints-free (e.g., jointless,
reducing the construction and maintenance costs). In the latter case the ground-supported slabs are
more exposed to shrinkage phenomena, which can be limited by means of post tensioning [15,16] or
shrinkage-compensating concrete. In addition, enhanced materials, such as Fiber Reinforced Concretes
(FRCs) can be adopted, since they enable the formation of a large number of micro-cracks instead
of few macro-cracks as a result of their noticeable post-cracking residual strengths. Nevertheless,
the benefits for shrinkage cracking due to FRC are generally not considered in the design process
of FRC ground-supported slabs since the attention is mainly devoted to the replacement of
conventional reinforcement.
Short, randomly and homogeneously distributed fibers allow elimination of critical phases of
the floor construction process [5,17–20]. Fibers guarantee a homogeneous and three-dimensional
reinforcement, improving crack control during the whole lifespan of the concrete floor [21,22].
In addition, fibers significantly enhance fatigue resistance of concrete [23–25], which is particularly
important for these structures.
The relatively high post-cracking performance provided by glass macro-fibers at low crack
openings is particularly convenient for highly statically redundant structures such as slabs on grade [5],
both at Serviceability Limit State (SLS, due to shrinkage phenomena) and Ultimate Limit State (ULS),
when the ultimate capacity still involves very low crack openings (usually below 0.3 mm).
Within this framework, in order to evaluate the effect of glass macro-fibers in slabs-on-grade with
shrinkage phenomena, a parametric study based on non-linear numerical analyses was carried out
by considering different slab geometries and distributions of shrinkage deformations along the slab
thickness; subgrade friction was investigated as well. Jointless pavements without contraction joints
were considered in order to evaluate if glass fiber reinforcement can mitigate cracking phenomena
even when rather large distances between construction joints are used. In this regard, the relatively
simple numerical model and results obtained represent reliable and useful tools for designers and
practitioners, since they provide the main information for evaluating the risk of cracking in jointless
pavements reinforced by glass fibers under shrinkage phenomena.

2. Slab Geometry and Investigated Parameters

Jointless pavements are, by definition, pavements without contraction joints. The latter consist of
sawed, formed, or tooled grooves in a concrete slab, which create weakened vertical planes, expected to
localize cracking phenomena caused by general dimensional changes in the slab (e.g., shrinkage or
thermal effects). Therefore, in jointless pavements only construction joints are present.
The growing interest in jointless pavement is related to the noticeable reduction of damage produced
by wheels crossing contraction joints, reduced construction time and cost, as well as maintenance
expenses. Nevertheless, the risk of cracking due to shrinkage phenomena as well as the main parameters
affecting this phenomenon are still matters of discussion within the scientific community. In this regard,
the main factors under investigation in the numerical parametric study presented herein are

1. Slab dimensions;
2. Subgrade properties;
3. Material properties;
4. Shrinkage development.

2.1. Slab Dimensions

A typical square-shaped portion of jointless ground-supported slab having a thickness of 180 mm
was adopted as reference. By assuming a maximum concrete casting volume per day of about 200 cubic
meters, the following two slab dimensions were considered:
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 3 of 18

Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

• 20 × 20 m;
• •30 ×2030× m.
20 m;
• 30 × 30 m.
The mutual interaction of the pavement portion under investigation and those neighboring
depends,Themostmutual interaction
of all, on the typeof ofthe pavement joints
construction portion under (e.g.,
adopted investigation anddowel
joints with those bars
neighboring
of different
depends,
forms) but alsomost
on of
theall, on the type
sequence of construction
in time jointsday-by-day
used for casting adopted (e.g.,
thejoints
wholewith dowel pavement.
concrete bars of
different forms) but also on the sequence in time used for casting day-by-day the whole
Hence, for the sake of simplicity, the aforementioned interaction has been neglected by considering the concrete
four pavement.
sides of theHence,
square forslab
the as
sake
freeofedges.
simplicity, the aforementioned interaction has been neglected by
considering the four sides of the square slab as free edges.
2.2. Subgrade Properties
2.2. Subgrade Properties
The slabs-on-grade performance under static loads strictly depends on the flexural slab stiffness
The slabs-on-grade performance under static loads strictly depends on the flexural slab stiffness
(e.g., slab thickness) and on the mechanical properties of the ground. The latter, in practice,
(e.g., slab thickness) and on the mechanical properties of the ground. The latter, in practice, are
are considered
considered by by designers
designers by by means
meansofofsimplified
simplifiedmethods.
methods. TheThe most
most commonly
commonly usedused is the
is the Winkler
Winkler
model, which
model, only only
which takestakes
into account the equivalent
into account elasticelastic
the equivalent stiffness exhibited
stiffness by thebyground
exhibited in presence
the ground in
presence of vertical displacements perpendicular to the middle-slab-plane (Winkler soil stiffness,
of vertical displacements perpendicular to the middle-slab-plane (Winkler soil stiffness, K Winkler ).
KThe ).
slab-on-grade
Winkler behavior under shrinkage is principally related to the interfacial friction
between The slabslab-on-grade
and supporting behavior
base under
[10]. shrinkage is principally
It is noteworthy related
that this localto frictional
the interfacial friction
behavior must
between slab
be described and supporting
by means of a proper baseresistance
[10]. It is noteworthy
criteria (e.g., that this local
Mohr Coulombfrictional behavior must be but
or Drucker-Prager)
described
especially by means
through of a proper
an adequate resistance criteria
stress–slippage friction(e.g., Mohr Coulomb
relationship, which ordefines
Drucker-Prager)
the phenomenabut
especially through an adequate
from a kinematic point of view [10,11]. stress–slippage friction relationship, which defines the phenomena
from a kinematic
A number point of view
of experimental [10,11].[26–28] have stated that the development of interfacial friction
studies
A number of experimental studies [26–28] have stated that the development of interfacial friction
stresses and slippage at the base of the slab can be described by a bilinear function (as shown in
stresses and slippage at the base of the slab can be described by a bilinear function (as shown in Figure
Figure 1). In fact, the shear friction stresses almost linearly increase to a certain value (δ0 , τ0 ) with
1). In fact, the shear friction stresses almost linearly increase to a certain value (δ0, τ0) with the increase
the increase of slab slippage; afterwards, the stresses develop according to an ideal-perfect-plastic
of slab slippage; afterwards, the stresses develop according to an ideal-perfect-plastic constant
constant branch.
branch. The main The subgrade
main subgrade parameters
parameters considered
considered are listedare listed1.in
in Table It Table
can be1. It canthat,
noticed be noticed
in orderthat,
to simplify the comparison of results, a unique reference value of Winkler soil stiffness was usedwas
in order to simplify the comparison of results, a unique reference value of Winkler soil stiffness
used(K 3 ), which was obtained by averaging the typically K
(KWinkler
Winkler= 0.08 N/mm
= 0.08 3), which
N/mm was obtained by averaging the typically KWinkler values Winklerused for loose
values used for
loosesand
sand (0.04
(0.04N/mm
N/mm 3) and
3
clayed
) and soil (0.12
clayed soil N/mm 3).
(0.12 N/mm 3 ).

0.030
Flex Granular, High friction
0.025 Natural Clay, Low friction
Shear resistant stress, τ [MPa]

(δ0, τ0)HF
0.020

0.015

0.010 (δ0, τ0)LF

0.005

0.000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Slab slippage, δ [mm]

Figure 1. Bilinear friction stress vs. slab slippage relationship, Wimsatt et al. [27].
Figure 1. Bilinear friction stress vs. slab slippage relationship, Wimsatt et al. [27].

Table 1. Main subgrade parameters concerning its stiffness and its frictional behavior.
Table 1. Main subgrade parameters concerning its stiffness and its frictional behavior.
Frictional Behavior
KWinkler
Subgrade τFrictional
0 Behaviorδ0
KWinkler
(N/mm 3) (MPa) (mm)
Subgrade τ0 δ0
Low friction, LF 0.08 3 0.008 1.3
(N/mm ) (MPa) (mm)
High friction, HF 0.08 0.023 0.5
Low friction, LF 0.08 0.008 1.3
High friction, HF 0.08 0.023 0.5
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 4 of 18

2.3. Material Properties

Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18
Concrete reinforced with glass macro-fibers (Glass-FRC) with a strength class C35/45 (according
2.3. Material
to Eurocode Properties
2 [29]) was considered. Glass fibers having a length (Lf ) of 36 mm, a diameter (ϕf )
of 0.54 mm,Concrete
and anreinforced
aspect ratio with(Lglassf /ϕfmacro-fibers
) equal to 67 (Glass-FRC)
were used. with a strength
These fibersclass
areC35/45 (according
high-performance
to Eurocode
alkali-resistant 2 [29])
glass was considered.
macro-fibers with Glass fibers tensile
a filament having astrength
length (L(ff)ufof) 36 mm, athan
higher diameter
1700 (φ f) of and
MPa 0.54 an
mm, and of
elastic modulus an 72
aspect
GPa.ratioTwo(Lfiber
f/φf) contents
equal to were
67 were used. These
selected: 5 kg/m fibers
3 and are10high-performance
kg/m3 , corresponding alkali- to
a volume resistant
fractionglass
(Vmacro-fibers with a filament tensile strength (fuf) higher than 1700 MPa and an elastic
f ) of 0.19% and 0.38%, respectively. The mixture proportion (by weight) of both
modulus of 72 GPa. Two fiber
Glass-FRC05 and Glass-FRC10 was 1:2.88:3.44:0.58:0.01 contents were selected: for5 300
kg/m 3 and310 kg/m3, corresponding to a
kg/m of CEM I 52.5R cement: sand
volume fraction (Vf) of 0.19% and 0.38%, respectively. The mixture proportion (by weight) of both
(0–4 mm): gravel (4–20 mm): water: super-plasticizer. Both mixtures exhibited a good and comparable
Glass-FRC05 and Glass-FRC10 was 1:2.88:3.44:0.58:0.01 for 300 kg/m3 of CEM I 52.5R cement: sand
workability. Six cube specimens (150 mm side) were cast for measuring the compressive strength
(0–4 mm): gravel (4–20 mm): water: super-plasticizer. Both mixtures exhibited a good and
and sixcomparable
small beams (150 × Six
workability. 150cube × 550 mm3 ) (150
specimens weremm prepared
side) wereforcast
theforevaluation
measuring theof the Glass-FRC
compressive
flexuralstrength
performance
and sixaccording
small beams to (150
EN 14651
× 150 × [30].
550 mm)Table 2 reports
were prepared thefor
mechanical
the evaluationproperties of concrete:
of the Glass-FRC
28-daysflexural
cubic (fperformance
cm,cube ) and according
cylindricalto(fEN 14651 compressive
cm ) mean [30]. Table 2 reports
strength. theThemechanical propertiestensile
mean cylindrical of
strength concrete:
(fctm ) is28-days
reported cubic as(fwell.
cm,cube) The
and cylindrical
latter was(festimated
cm) mean compressive strength. The
from the equation mean cylindrical
reported in Eurocode
2 [29]: ftensile
ctm = 0.3strength
·fck 2/3(f ctm) ischaracteristic
. The reported as well. The latter strength
compressive was estimated from the
of concrete was equation
evaluated reported in
according
Eurocode 2 [29]: f ctm = 0.3·f ck 2/3. The characteristic compressive strength of concrete was evaluated
to: fck = fcm – 8 MPa [29]. Similarly, the concrete elastic modulus (Ec ) was evaluated by means of
according to:
the relationship: 22fck
·(f=cm
fcm/10)
– 8 MPa [29]. The
0.3 [29]. Similarly, the concrete
cylindrical elastic modulus
compressive strength, (Ec) was
as aevaluated by means
first approximation,
of the relationship: 22·(fcm/10) [29]. The cylindrical compressive strength, as a first approximation,
0.3
was estimated as fcm = 0.83·fcm,cube .
was estimated as fcm = 0.83·fcm,cube.
Figure 2 exhibits the mean experimental nominal stress vs. CMOD (Crack Mouth Opening
Figure 2 exhibits the mean experimental nominal stress vs. CMOD (Crack Mouth Opening
Displacement) of Glass-FRC05
Displacement) of Glass-FRC05 and and Glass-FRC10
Glass-FRC10 [30]. The
[30]. Thelimit
limitofofproportionality
proportionality (f(fLm Lm ) and
) and thethe values
values
of the average
of the average residual flexure tensile strengths (fR1m, fR3m, corresponding to CMOD values of 0.5 mmmm
residual flexure tensile strengths (f R1m , fR3m , corresponding to CMOD values of 0.5
and 2.5andmm, 2.5respectively),
mm, respectively), are listed
are listed in Table
in Table 2. 2.

5.0
Mean experimental Glass-FRC05
Mean experimental Glass-FRC10
Nominal Stress σN [MPa]

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
CMOD [mm]

Figure 2. Nominal stress–CMOD mean experimental curves according to EN14651 [30].

Figure 2. Nominal stress–CMOD mean experimental curves according to EN14651 [30].
Table 2. Mean mechanical properties of Glass-FRCs.
Table 2. Mean mechanical properties of Glass-FRCs.
Ec 1 fcm,cube fcm 1 fctm 1 fLm fR1m fR3m
Batch ID
Ec 1 (MPa)
fcm,cube (MPa)fcm 1 (MPa) fctm(MPa)
1 (MPa)
fLm (MPa)
fR1m (MPa)
fR3m
Batch IDGlass-FRC05 33.9 50.6 42.0 3.16 3.93 1.11 0.34
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Glass-FRC10 33.9 50.8 42.2 3.16 4.27 2.04 0.78
Glass-FRC05 33.9 50.6 42.0
1 Estimated from 3.16
fcm,cube. 3.93 1.11 0.34
Glass-FRC10 33.9 50.8 42.2 3.16 4.27 2.04 0.78
2.4. Shrinkage Development 1 Estimated from fcm,cube .

Shrinkage of concrete is a physical property caused by a loss in volume. The main factors
2.4. Shrinkage Development
affecting this phenomenon are the ambient temperature and humidity, the dimensions of the
element, and
Shrinkage the composition
of concrete of theproperty
is a physical concrete caused
and its curing procedure.
by a loss in volume. The main factors affecting
Several shrinkage laws are proposed in literature [29,31–34]. Among them, in Eurocode 2 [29] a
this phenomenon are the ambient temperature and humidity, the dimensions of the element, and the
simple free-shrinkage model is reported, where the total deformation corresponds to the addition of
composition of the concrete and its curing procedure.
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 5 of 18

Several shrinkage laws are proposed in literature [29,31–34]. Among them, in Eurocode 2 [29] a
simple free-shrinkage model is reported, where the total deformation corresponds to the addition of
two components: autogenous and drying shrinkage (εa (t) and εd (t), respectively). In order to better
compare the results a unique reference free-shrinkage-law has been adopted; therefore the Eurocode 2
Fibers 2018, 6, model
free-shrinkage x FOR PEER REVIEW
[29] was applied according to the following parameters: 5 of 18

• conventional
two components: notional sizes and
autogenous (h0 ) drying
equal to 100 mm;
shrinkage (εa(t) and εd(t), respectively). In order to better
• compare the
ambient results
relative a unique reference
humidity of 65%; free-shrinkage-law has been adopted; therefore the Eurocode
• 2 free-shrinkage
curing model
time equal to 7[29] was applied according to the following parameters:
days;
• conventional notional sizes (h0) equal to 100 mm;
• cement class R [29].
• ambient relative humidity of 65%;
• a curing
As time equal to 7 a
first approximation, days;
unique h0 was considered herein, independently of the slab dimensions
• cement class R [29].
investigated. In this regard, the most conservative value for h0 suggested by Eurocode 2 [29] has been
used. TheAs development of shrinkage
a first approximation, strain ish0depicted
a unique in Figureherein,
was considered 3a. independently of the slab
dimensions investigated. In this regard, the most conservative value for h0of
Shrinkage of concrete characterizes the entire structural behavior suggested
the slab,byinducing
Eurocodetypical
2
[29]phenomena.
curling has been used. The The development of shrinkage
latter is principally strainby
caused is depicted in Figuredistribution
a non-uniform 3a. of shrinkage
deformationsShrinkage
alongoftheconcrete characterizes
slab thickness. the entire
In fact, structural
the drying behavior
shrinkage ofof the slab, inducing
a concrete typical
slab is non-uniform
curling phenomena. The latter is principally caused by a non-uniform
because of the different moisture and evaporation conditions at the surface and base of the slab. distribution of shrinkage
deformations
Regarding along the slab
the distribution thickness. In
of shrinkage fact, the drying
deformation shrinkage
along the slabof athickness,
concrete slabonlyis non-uniform
few experiences
because of the different moisture and evaporation conditions at the surface and base of the slab.
are reported in literature. In an early study, Rasmussen & McCullough [35] assumed that the full
Regarding the distribution of shrinkage deformation along the slab thickness, only few experiences
shrinkage appears at the surface of a concrete pavement and no shrinkage occurs below the mid-depth
are reported in literature. In an early study, Rasmussen & McCullough [35] assumed that the full
of theshrinkage
slab. Theappears
shrinkage was
at the assumed
surface to decrease
of a concrete in a linear
pavement and nomanner between
shrinkage occursthe top and
below center of
the mid-
depth of the slab. The shrinkage was assumed to decrease in a linear manner between the top and
the slab. Heath & Roesler [36] assessed the distribution of drying shrinkage by using strain gauges
centeratofvarious
installed the slab.locations
Heath & Roesler [36] assessed
on full-scale the distribution
slabs-on-grade. Theofgauges
drying shrinkage by using
were installed strain
near the top
gaugesofinstalled
or bottom the slabsat various locationsedge,
at the corner, on full-scale
or center.slabs-on-grade. The gauges were
All the instrumented slabsinstalled
were 200 near
mmthethick.
top or bottom
The Authors of the slabs
[36] stated at the corner,
a considerable edge,in
scatter or the
center.
dataAll the as
and, instrumented
a result, noslabs were 200difference
noticeable mm
thick. The Authors [36] stated a considerable scatter in the data and, as a result,
in data for the center, edge, or corner of the slabs, or for the long or short slabs, could be identified. no noticeable
difference in data for the center, edge, or corner of the slabs, or for the long or short slabs, could be
On the other hand, the only identifiable difference was that between the top and bottom of the slab,
identified. On the other hand, the only identifiable difference was that between the top and bottom
as shown in Figure 3b.
of the slab, as shown in Figure 3b.
It can be noticed that drying shrinkage deformations are not negligible at the bottom surface of
It can be noticed that drying shrinkage deformations are not negligible at the bottom surface of
the slab. The percentage
the slab. The percentage ratios between
ratios betweenshrinkage strainsexhibited
shrinkage strains exhibited atat bottom
bottom andand
top top surface
surface are also
are also
reported
reported (Figure
(Figure 3b);3b);
thethe average
average valueofofthis
value thisratio
ratio (equal
(equal toto60%)
60%)isisevidenced
evidenced as well.
as well.

600 -500 100

Total shrinkage
Drying shrinkage
500 Autogenous shrinkage
-400 80
Drying shrinkage [µm/m]

bottom/top slab-surface [%]

Deformation [µm/m]

Drying shrinkage ratio:

400 Average value

-300 60

300
-200 40
200

-100 Bottom slab-surface 20

100
Top slab-surface
Bottom/Top slab-surface
0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time [days] Time [days]

(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Shrinkage strain vs time according to Eurocode2 [29]; (b) average distribution of drying
Figure 3. (a) Shrinkage strain vs time according to Eurocode2 [29]; (b) average distribution of drying
shrinkage along the slab thickness according to Heath&Roesler [36].
shrinkage along the slab thickness according to Heath&Roesler [36].
The autogenous shrinkage depends principally on the cement hydration and occurs during
hardening
The phase ofshrinkage
autogenous concrete. Hence, it canprincipally
depends be probably onconsidered uniform
the cement along theand
hydration slab occurs
thickness,
during
with limited
hardening phase ofeffects on curling
concrete. Hence,phenomenon in spiteconsidered
it can be probably of a considerable
uniforminfluence
along the onslab
the thickness,
slab
with shortening. Three
limited effects onpossible
curlingscenarios of shrinkage
phenomenon in spitedistribution along slab
of a considerable thickness
influence onwere considered
the slab shortening.
in the present work, as schematically depicted in Figure 4. Each distribution assumes full-shrinkage
of the top-slab surface and induces a different imposed curvature to the slab together with a specific
axial shortening.
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 6 of 18

Three possible scenarios of shrinkage distribution along slab thickness were considered in the present
work, as 6,
Fibers 2018, schematically depicted in Figure 4. Each distribution assumes full-shrinkage of the top-slab
x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18
surface and induces a different imposed curvature to the slab together with a specific axial shortening.
The
Thescenario
scenariodefined
definedasas Linear
Linear 01 01
(abbreviated
(abbreviated as Lnr01)
as Lnr01)waswas based on the
based ondrying shrinkage
the drying data
shrinkage
reported in [36]in
data reported and it will
[36] and be considered
it will as the reference
be considered one; a ratio
as the reference one;between
a ratio bottom
betweenand top slab-
bottom and
surface deformation
top slab-surface εd,bottom(t)/εεd,top
deformation (t) equal
d,bottom to 50%
(t)/εd,top was assumed
(t) equal to 50% was according
assumed to aaccording
linear distribution.
to a linear
Besides configuration
distribution. Lnr01, the uniform
Besides configuration Lnr01, case (definedcase
the uniform as Unifr)
(defined aims at an ideal
as Unifr) aimsfavorable
at an idealcondition
favorable
where no curling-effects are considered, while Linear 02 (Lnr02) results in a
condition where no curling-effects are considered, while Linear 02 (Lnr02) results in a severe situation severe situation with a
considerable imposed
with a considerable curvature
imposed to slab-sections
curvature (εd,bottom(ε
to slab-sections (t)/εd,top(t)
d,bottom equal
(t)/ε to(t)25%).
d,top equal to 25%).

Uniform, Unifr Linear 01, Lnr01 Linear 02, Lnr02

Figure
Figure4.4.Autogenous
Autogenousand
anddrying
dryingshrinkage
shrinkagedistributions
distributionsunder
underinvestigation.
investigation.

3.3.Numerical
NumericalModeling
Modeling
The determinationofof
The determination stress
stress andand
strainstrain
fields fields in concrete
in concrete slabs-on-grade
slabs-on-grade with phenomena
with shrinkage shrinkage
phenomena can be performed
can be performed by using simplified
by using simplified analytical analytical
methods methods [10,11],generally
[10,11], which which generally
refer to refer
ideal
to ideal slab configurations (e.g., rectangular slab, uniform shrinkage distribution
slab configurations (e.g., rectangular slab, uniform shrinkage distribution along the thickness or along the thickness
or concreteassumed
concrete assumedas as linear-elastic
linear-elasticmaterial).
material).Even if these
Even analytical
if these models
analytical are valuable
models for getting
are valuable for
basic information,
getting they cannot
basic information, completely
they describe the describe
cannot completely behavior the of a behavior
square concrete slab-on-grade,
of a square concrete
especially in theespecially
slab-on-grade, cracked stage. Nowadays,
in the cracked stage.in Nowadays,
spite of thein several available
spite of the severalnumerical
availableapproaches
numerical
[13,37–39],
approachesthere is still there
[13,37–39], a lackisofstill
relatively
a lack simple numerical
of relatively simple models aiming
numerical at taking
models intoat
aiming account
taking
both
into the concrete
account bothpost-cracking behavior and behavior
the concrete post-cracking the frictional
and effects at the contact
the frictional effects at surface between
the contact the
surface
slab and the
between thesubgrade.
slab and the subgrade.
The
Theresearch
researchwork workpresented
presented herein
hereinis focused
is focusedon the
on behavior of Glass-FRC
the behavior of Glass-FRCslabs-on-grade after
slabs-on-grade
cracking, during shrinkage development. To this aim, opportune numerical
after cracking, during shrinkage development. To this aim, opportune numerical models of concrete models of concrete
cracking
crackinghave
haveto tobebeused
usedin inorder
orderto toproperly
properlyinclude
includethe theresidual
residualstrength
strengthprovided
providedby byfibers
fibersafter
after
cracking
crackingand
andtotoevaluate
evaluatethe consequent
the consequent improvement
improvement of crack control,
of crack which
control, whichplays a key
plays role role
a key for the
for
durability of theofstructure.
the durability the structure.Moreover, particular
Moreover, attention
particular was devoted
attention was devotedto thetosimulation of the of
the simulation slab-
the
to-subgrade frictional
slab-to-subgrade behavior.
frictional behavior.

3.1.
3.1.Numerical
NumericalModeling
ModelingofofMaterials
Materials

The
Thenumerical
numericalanalyses
analyseswere wereperformed
performedby bymeans
meansof ofthe
thefinite
finiteelement
elementprogram
programDIANADIANA(9.4.4,
(9.4.4,
DIANA FEA BV, Delft, The Netherlands) [40]. A smeared crack approach has been used to describe
DIANA FEA BV, Delft, The Netherlands) [40]. A smeared crack approach has been used to describe
aacrack
crackpattern
patternhaving
havingcrackscrackson onan
an arbitrary
arbitrary location
location[41]. [41]. The
Themulti
multidirectional
directionalfixed
fixedcrack
crackmodel
model
was
wasadopted,
adopted,which
whichis is based
based onon
thethedecomposition
decomposition of the of total strainstrain
the total into anintoelastic and a crack
an elastic and astrain
crack
[40]. The latter is introduced since the crack is considered to be spread over an area that belongsthat
strain [40]. The latter is introduced since the crack is considered to be spread over an area to
an integration
belongs point of thepoint
to an integration mesh.ofConcrete
the mesh.inConcrete
tension was assumed
in tension wastoassumed
be lineartoup betolinear
fctm. The post-
up to fctm .
cracking uni-axial tensile
The post-cracking uni-axial lawtensile
for FRCs lawproposed
for FRCsby Model Code
proposed 2010 [34],
by Model Codewas 2010adopted
[34], was (Figure 5),
adopted
which is defined through the flexural residual strength values, determined from bending tests on
(Figure 5), which is defined through the flexural residual strength values, determined from bending
notched
tests on prisms
notchedaccording to EN 14651
prisms according to EN[30]. Based
14651 [30].on Based
the meanon thevalues
mean of values
post-cracking residual
of post-cracking
strengths listed in Table 2, the main parameters of the Glass-FRCs tensile law were calculated, as
residual strengths listed in Table 2, the main parameters of the Glass-FRCs tensile law were calculated,
reported in Figure
as reported 5. It5.isItworth
in Figure noticing
is worth noticing that, when
that, when referring
referring totofinite
finiteelement
element(FE)(FE)models
modelsbasedbasedonon
smeared
smearedcrack
crackapproach,
approach,aaproper proper internal
internal length
length (L (Li)i )should
shouldbe be evaluated
evaluated[42]. [42]. The
Thelatter
latterdepends
depends
on the cracking model implemented in the program; hence, Li is not a property of the structure but it
represents a “numerical parameter”, which enables, as a first approximation, to easily connect
continuum mechanics, governed by a stress–strain constitutive relationship, and fracture mechanics,
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 7 of 18

on the cracking model implemented in the program; hence, Li is not a property of the structure but
it represents a “numerical parameter”, which enables, as a first approximation, to easily connect
continuum mechanics, governed by a stress–strain constitutive relationship, and fracture mechanics,
governed by a stress-crack opening law, initially proposed by Hillerborg et al. [43]. According
Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18
to
Rots [41], Li corresponds to the average element dimension.
governed
The uni-axialby a compressive
stress-crack opening
response law,ofinitially
concreteproposed by Hillerborg
was considered et al. [43].
as linear According
elastic up to fcm to(based
Rots on
[41], Li corresponds
data reported in Table 2,to the average
a unique fcm waselement dimension.
assumed equal to 42.1 MPa) and subsequently as ideal-plastic.
More detailedThe uni-axial
compressivecompressive
laws wereresponseuseless of concrete
since, aswas considered
expected, as numerical
in all linear elasticsimulations
up to fcm (based
concrete
on data reported in Table 2, a unique
compressive stresses remained within the elastic limit. f cm was assumed equal to 42.1 MPa) and subsequently as ideal-

plastic. More detailed compressive laws were useless since, as expected, in all numerical simulations
The three shrinkage distributions along the slab thickness previously described (Figure 4) were
concrete compressive stresses remained within the elastic limit.
numerically simulated by considering fictitious temperature distributions along the slab thickness.
The three shrinkage distributions along the slab thickness previously described (Figure 4) were
Basednumerically
on the thermal simulatedexpansion coefficient,
by considering a specific
fictitious time-history
temperature of temperatures
distributions along the slab is imposed in
thickness.
orderBased
to apply a time-history of shrinkage deformations. By using this
on the thermal expansion coefficient, a specific time-history of temperatures is imposed approach, the shrinkage
in
order toas
distribution apply
wellaastime-history of shrinkage
its development deformations.
(in-time) By using
can be easily this approach,
customized with a the shrinkage
relatively simple
distribution
method. Creep and as well as its development
relaxation were not considered(in-time) can be easily
in the customized
numerical model, with a relatively
since simple tend
they generally
to reduce the magnitude of the tensile stresses and, consequently, the probability of cracking; tend
method. Creep and relaxation were not considered in the numerical model, since they generally similarly,
to reduce
the possible the magnitude
additional stresses of due
the to tensile stressescreep
restrained and, and
consequently,
relaxationthe probability ofascracking;
deformations, result of the
similarly,
existence the possible
of fibers, additional
were assumed stresses due
negligible to restrained
within creep and
the framework of therelaxation
relativelydeformations, as
simple numerical
result of the existence of fibers, were assumed negligible within the framework of the relatively
model proposed herein.
simple numerical model proposed herein.
It should be noticed that, as a first approximation, the concrete mechanical properties as well as
It should be noticed that, as a first approximation, the concrete mechanical properties as well as
the post-cracking
the post-cracking strengths were
strengths werenotnottime-dependent.
time-dependent. This Thissimplified
simplified assumption
assumption is acceptable
is acceptable since,since,
as it be
as it will willdiscussed
be discussed in Section
in Section 4, 4,ininmost
mostof ofthe
the analyses
analyses carried
carriedout out cracks
cracksdo do
notnot
appear at early
appear at early
age.
age. In In addition,
addition, a curing
a curing time
time equaltotoseven
equal sevendays
days was
wasassumed
assumedfor allall
for thetheanalyses,
analyses,leading to rather
leading to rather
limited
limited shrinkage
shrinkage effects
effects during
during this
this initialperiod.
initial period. Moreover,
Moreover,ititisiswell
well known
known thatthat
in the
in initial sevenseven
the initial
curingcuring
days,days, the concrete
the concrete mechanicalproperties
mechanical properties rapidly
rapidly increase
increasereaching
reaching almost
almosteighty percent
eighty of of
percent
28-days
28-days strengths.
strengths.

fctm Batch ID Ec fctm 1 w1 wu

[GPa] [MPa] [MPa] [mm] [mm]
Glass-FRC05 33.9 3.16 0.625 0.045 2.320
Glass-FRC10 33.9 3.16 1.135 0.037 2.502

σ1 fFtsm

fFtu

w1 Plain concrete wu
tensile law

Figure
Figure 5. Scheme
5. Scheme of uni-axial
of uni-axial post-cracking behavior
post-cracking behavior of
ofGlass-FRC
Glass-FRCevidencing parameters.
evidencing parameters.

3.2. Slab-On-Grade Numerical Model

3.2. Slab-On-Grade Numerical Model
The square shaped portion of a jointless slab of 180 mm thickness was simulated as a slab on
The squaresupport.
continuum shapedOnlyportion of a jointless
one quarter slab of 180portion
of the investigated mm thickness
of pavement was simulated
was as a the
analyzed with slab on
continuum support.
FE program, Only one
by taking quarter
advantage ofof
thethe investigated
symmetry portion
(Figure 6a). In of pavement
fact, was analyzed
it was assumed to apply with
the the
dead weight
FE program, of theadvantage
by taking pavement and,of theafterwards,
symmetrythe shrinkage
(Figure deformations
6a). In fact, it waswere progressively
assumed to apply the
dead imposed
weight ofbythe
means of a time-steps
pavement analysis.the
and, afterwards, In other words,
shrinkage the applied dead-load
deformations and shrinkage
were progressively imposed
deformations
by means are spatially
of a time-steps uniform
analysis. In along
other the slab. the
words, On the other hand,
applied as mentioned
dead-load before, shrinkage
and shrinkage deformations
deformation
are spatially variesalong
uniform alongthe
the slab.
slab thickness (Figure
On the other 4). as mentioned before, shrinkage deformation
hand,
The pavement was modelled by
varies along the slab thickness (Figure 4). means of eight-nodes quadrilateral isoparametric shell elements
[44], able to properly take into account the concrete post-cracking non-linear behavior. The definition
of the size of the finite elements is an important point regarding the model. In this regard, preliminary
non-linear numerical analyses (taking into account the post-cracking behavior) with different mesh-
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 8 of 18

The pavement was modelled by means of eight-nodes quadrilateral isoparametric shell

elements [44], able to properly take into account the concrete post-cracking non-linear behavior.
The definition of the size of the finite elements is an important point regarding the model. In this
regard, preliminary non-linear numerical analyses (taking into account the post-cracking 8behavior)
Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 18
with different mesh-refinements were carried out. It should be noticed that, in this preliminary stage,
refinements
the analyses were were carried
also out. It should
developed be noticed
by using modelsthat,
basedin this preliminary stage,
on continuum brick the analysesEventually,
elements. were
also developed
for achieving by using
a balance models
between based on continuum
computational brickreliability
time and elements. of
Eventually,
results, afor achieving
regular mesh a was
balance between computational time and reliability of results, a regular mesh was chosen
chosen with shell elements having a side of 200 mm. Hence, based on Rots [40,41], Li was considered with shell
equalelements
to 200 mm. having a side of 200 mm. Hence, based on Rots [40,41], Li was considered equal to 200 mm.

d Z

d X X
Y

Y Shell
Tying σ
Interface τ

(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) Top view of the mesh adopted; (b) simplified scheme of the model adopted.
Figure 6. (a) Top view of the mesh adopted; (b) simplified scheme of the model adopted.
In order to properly model the stiffness of the subgrade as well as its frictional interaction with
the above to
In order pavement,
properlyeight nodes
model thequadrilateral
stiffness of interface elements
the subgrade were as
as well used. The interface
its frictional elements with
interaction
principally consist of two parallel planes which can exhibit relative in-plane
the above pavement, eight nodes quadrilateral interface elements were used. The interface elements displacement (slippage)
or relative
principally out-plane
consist of twodisplacement
parallel planes (perpendicular to the planes).
which can exhibit relative The nodaldisplacement
in-plane displacements(slippage)
of one or
plane were fixed to the ground and those of the other plane were rigidly linked to the mid-plane slab
relative out-plane displacement (perpendicular to the planes). The nodal displacements of one plane
by means of suitable tying-elements [44]. Therefore, it was likely to concentrate the frictional behavior
were fixed to the ground and those of the other plane were rigidly linked to the mid-plane slab by
between pavement and subbase in the interface elements (Figure 6b). The behavior is governed, in
means of suitable tying-elements [44]. Therefore, it was likely to concentrate the frictional behavior
kinematic terms, by the bi-linear slippage law previously described in Section 2.2, which connects the
between pavement
in-plane interfaceand subbase
relative in the interface
displacements with theelements
corresponding(Figure 6b). The
frictional shearbehavior is governed,
stresses. Under a
static point
in kinematic of view,
terms, by thethebi-linear
Mohr-Coulomb
slippagecriteria was used for
law previously relating in
described interface
Sectionshear stressesconnects
2.2, which to
normal. interface
the in-plane A rather relative
small influence of friction
displacements withangle on slab behavior
the corresponding was stated
frictional shearby means Under
stresses. of a
staticpreliminary
point of view,numerical
the analyses,
Mohr-Coulombsince the criteria
slab is only
wasloaded
used by foritsrelating
dead weight. Hence,
interface a reference
shear stresses to
friction
normal. angle of
A rather thirty
small degrees was
influence adoptedangle
of friction together withbehavior
on slab a dilatancy angle
was of zero
stated by degrees;
means of thepreliminary
latter
was adopted
numerical in order
analyses, since to the
simulate
slab an ideal perfect
is only loadedsliding
by itscondition.
dead weight. More in details,aa reference
Hence, gap criterion friction
was also applied for describing gaps arising between slab and subbase as a result of a demand of
angle of thirty degrees was adopted together with a dilatancy angle of zero degrees; the latter was
tensile stresses normal to the subgrade. It was possible to easily take into account the stiffness of the
adopted in order to simulate an ideal perfect sliding condition. More in details, a gap criterion
subgrade (KWinkler = 0.08 N/mm3), which is basically the elastic stiffness of the interface with respect to
was also applied for describing gaps arising between slab and subbase as a result of a demand of
out-of-plane relative displacement (Figure 6b). A simplified scheme of the model adopted evidencing
tensile stresses normal between
the rigid connection to the subgrade. It was possible
plate and interface elements is toshown
easilyintakeFigureinto6b.account the stiffness of
3 ), which is basically the elastic stiffness of the interface with
the subgradeEach portion
(K of jointless pavement investigated in the parametric study is identified by the
Winkler = 0.08 N/mm
notation,
respect X-Y-Z-W, where:
to out-of-plane relative X displacement
represents the slab geometry
(Figure 6b). A(20 = 20 × 20 m
simplified or 30 =of
scheme 30the
× 30model
m); Y adopted
the
Glass-FRC
evidencing the(G05
rigid= connection
Glass-FRC05between
or G10 = plate
Glass-FRC10); Z the subgrade
and interface elementsconditions
is shown (LF = low friction;
in Figure 6b.
HF
Each = high friction);
portion W the shrinkage
of jointless pavement distribution along slab
investigated in thethickness (Unifr, study
parametric Lnr01 orisLnr02).
identified by the
notation, X-Y-Z-W, where: X represents the slab geometry (20 = 20 × 20 m or 30 = 30 × 30 m); Y the
Glass-FRC (G05 = Glass-FRC05 or G10 = Glass-FRC10); Z the subgrade conditions (LF = low friction;
HF = high friction); W the shrinkage distribution along slab thickness (Unifr, Lnr01 or Lnr02).
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 9 of 18

3.3. Validation of the Proposed Numerical Model

Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18

The numerical model adopted was verified by means of the analytical approach proposed by
3.3. Validation of the Proposed Numerical Model
Zhang et al. [10,11], which refers to a simplified ideal beam element on continuum subbase in presence
The shrinkage
of a uniform numerical model adopted
distribution was its
along verified by means depth.
cross-sectional of the analytical approach
The frictional proposed
behavior by the
between
Zhang et al. [10,11], which refers to a simplified ideal beam element on
beam and subbase is described by means of bi-linear laws. The model assumes a linear elastic behavior continuum subbase in
presence of a uniform shrinkage distribution along its cross-sectional depth. The frictional behavior
of concrete, both in compression and tension. In order to simulate the simplified beam geometry
between the beam and subbase is described by means of bi-linear laws. The model assumes a linear
assumed by Zhang et al. [10,11], a slab 50 m long, 3 m wide, and 180 mm thick was considered.
elastic behavior of concrete, both in compression and tension. In order to simulate the simplified
Basically, a long slab behaving like a beam element was considered; only one quarter was analyzed
beam geometry assumed by Zhang et al. [10,11], a slab 50 m long, 3 m wide, and 180 mm thick was
by taking advantage
considered. of the
Basically, double
a long symmetry,
slab behaving likeas schematically
a beam element was depicted in Figure
considered; only one7a.quarter
The same was basic
analyzed
hypotheses by taking
were appliedadvantage of thetodouble
with regard concretesymmetry,
behavior, as frictional
schematically depicted
subgrade in Figure (low
properties 7a. The
friction)
same basic hypotheses
and shrinkage scenario. The were applied
latter waswith regard uniform
assumed to concrete behavior,
and equal tofrictional subgrade properties
110 µm/m.
(low friction)
In Figure 7aandthe shrinkage
displacementsscenario. The latter was
distribution assumed
(along uniform and slab
the longitudinal equalaxis)
to 110 μm/m. from the
resulting
In Figure 7a the displacements distribution (along the longitudinal
numerical model was reported and compared with the corresponding analytical predictions slab axis) resulting from the [10,11].
numerical model was reported and compared with the corresponding
Similarly, in Figure 7b the distribution of shear stresses exchanged between slab and analytical predictions [10,11].
subgrade
and Similarly,
axial slabinstresses
Figure 7b the distribution of shear stresses exchanged between slab and subgrade and
are compared to those stemming from the simplified approaches previously
axial slab stresses are compared to those stemming from the simplified approaches previously
mentioned [10,11]. In this regard, suitable use of interface elements is fundamental for capturing
mentioned [10,11]. In this regard, suitable use of interface elements is fundamental for capturing the
the frictional effects at the contact surface between slab and subbase. A very good agreement
frictional effects at the contact surface between slab and subbase. A very good agreement between
between the numerical
the numerical model
model and and analytical
analytical method can method can be
be noticed, noticed,
which confirmswhich confirms even
the reliability, the reliability,
in a
evensimple ideal condition, of the relatively simple model proposed herein. It is worthwhile underlining
in a simple ideal condition, of the relatively simple model proposed herein. It is worthwhile
that analytical
underlining models able
that analytical to takeable
models intotoaccount
take intoa possible
account non-uniform
a possible distribution
non-uniform of distribution
shrinkage of
strainsstrains
shrinkage along the slabthe
along thickness are not available
slab thickness in literature.
are not available Moreover, Moreover,
in literature. only in few only
research works
in few research
works[12,45] slabs-on-grade
[12,45] slabs-on-grade samples werewere
samples deeply studied
deeply for studying
studied shrinkage
for studying effects. Nevertheless,
shrinkage the
effects. Nevertheless,
aforementioned studies [12,45] were not considered for validating the numerical
the aforementioned studies [12,45] were not considered for validating the numerical model because model because of of
the lack of information regarding the shrinkage strain distribution along the slab thickness, which is
the lack of information regarding the shrinkage strain distribution along the slab thickness, which is a
a parameter of paramount importance.
parameter of paramount importance.

3.00 0.010 1.00

Distance along slab [mm] NLFEA shear stress NLFEA axial stress
Analytical shear stress Analytical axial stress
Axial slab displacement [mm]

[MPa]

2.50
stress [MPa]

0.008 0.80
50000 Width

2.00 Axial slab stress [MPa]

frictional stress

25000
0.006 0.60
Shear frictional

1.50 0
0.004 0.40
1.00
Shear

0.002 0.20
0.50
NLFEA displacement
Analytical displacement
0.00 0.000 0.00
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
Distance along slab measured from free edge [mm] Distance along slab measured from free edge [mm]
(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) Displacements along slab longitudinal axis; (b) axial slab stresses and shear stresses
Figure 7. (a) Displacements along slab longitudinal axis; (b) axial slab stresses and shear stresses
exchanged between slab and subbase.
exchanged between slab and subbase.
4. Numerical Results
4. Numerical Results
Numerical analyses were carried out by progressively increasing time steps for simulating the
progressive
Numerical development
analyses were of shrinkage
carried outphenomena in the slab.increasing
by progressively The analyses were
time stopped
steps when
for simulating
the progressive development of shrinkage phenomena in the slab. The analyses werecrack
reaching almost the asymptotic value of imposed shrinkage strain (Figure 3) or when stopped
whendeformations tend tothe
reaching almost localize in specific
asymptotic regions
value of of the slab and
imposed cannot be
shrinkage further
strain controlled
(Figure 3) orby glass crack
when
fiber reinforcement. In the latter case, it means that in slab region where crack deformations tend to
deformations tend to localize in specific regions of the slab and cannot be further controlled by glass
localize, the Glass-FRC post-cracking fracture energy (Figure 5) is almost completely exploited.
fiber reinforcement. In the latter case, it means that in slab region where crack deformations tend
Numerical results from 20-G10-LF-Lnr01 slab are extensively presented in this section. It should be
to localize, the Glass-FRC post-cracking fracture energy (Figure 5) is almost completely exploited.
Numerical results from 20-G10-LF-Lnr01 slab are extensively presented in this section. It should be
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 10 of 18
Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

underlined thatthat
underlined thethe
shrinkage
shrinkagescenario
scenarioLnr01, basedon
Lnr01, based onthetheavailable
available literature
literature [36],[36], can
can be be considered
considered
the most reliable. In the initial time steps, due to the free-shrinkage law adopted (Figure 3a),
the most reliable. In the initial time steps, due to the free-shrinkage law adopted the 3a),
(Figure
autogenous shrinkage
the autogenous shrinkage deformations are prevalent,
deformations mainly leading
are prevalent, mainlyto leading
a slab shortening
to a slab andshortening
negligible and
curlingcurling
negligible effects effects
(Figure(Figure
8a). The distribution
8a). of maximum
The distribution principal
of maximum stresses stresses
principal in slab mid-plane is
in slab mid-plane
reportedininFigure
is reported Figure8b.8b. It
It must
must bebe underlined
underlinedthat the
that stresses
the along
stresses the the
along slabslab
thickness do not
thickness dovary
not vary
because
because initially
initially a small
a small imposedcurvature
imposed curvature is
is introduced
introducedininslab-sections.
slab-sections. Moreover,
Moreover,the degree of
the degree of
constraints due to the frictional effects at the slab-to-subgrade contact surface induces tensile axial
constraints due to the frictional effects at the slab-to-subgrade contact surface induces tensile axial
stresses. The latter are maximum in the center region of the slab (Figure 8b) even though, in the early
stresses. The latter are maximum in the center region of the slab (Figure 8b) even though, in the early
days, they are almost negligible stresses.
days, they are almost negligible stresses.

σI

0.12 0.17 0.22 0.27 0.33 0.38 0.43 0.48 0.53 0.58 0.64 0.69 0.0092 0.019 0.028 0.038 0.048 0.057 0.067 0.076 0.086
[mm] [MPa]

(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) Slab 20-G10-LF-Lnr01: displacements of slab mid-plane at 10 days; (b) maximum
Figure 8. (a) Slab 20-G10-LF-Lnr01: displacements of slab mid-plane at 10 days; (b) maximum principal
principal stresses of slab mid-plane at 10 days.
stresses of slab mid-plane at 10 days.
By increasing the time, the drying shrinkage distribution (Lnr01) strongly affects the slab
behavior by inducing
By increasing clearthe
the time, upward
drying curling effects.
shrinkage The slab edges
distribution lift upstrongly
(Lnr01) and gapsaffects
arise between
the slabslab
behavior
and subbase
by inducing (Figure
clear upward 9a). curling
Even if the slab edges
effects. present
The slab an upward
edges lift up curvature,
and gaps they
arisetend to behave
between slab and
like a(Figure
subbase cantilever system
9a). Evenbecause of their
if the slab deadpresent
edges weight. an
Hence, tensile
upward stresses result
curvature, theyattend
the top
to surface
behave like
of the slab in the center region of the pavement investigated (Figure 9a, maximum
a cantilever system because of their dead weight. Hence, tensile stresses result at the top surface ofprincipal stresses
at incipient cracking evidencing the slab upward curling). Accordingly, very small initial crack
the slab in the center region of the pavement investigated (Figure 9a, maximum principal stresses at
strains tend to arise in the central slab region.
incipient cracking evidencing the slab upward curling). Accordingly, very small initial crack strains
By further studying the in-time crack development, the crack deformations tend to localize in a
tendspecific
to ariseregion,
in the as
central slab region.
evidenced in Figure 9b. By integrating the crack deformations exhibited in this
region an estimation of the
By further studying the expected
in-time crack
crack width can bethe
development, achieved. The in-time development
crack deformations of in a
tend to localize
maximum
specific region,tensile stresses and
as evidenced estimated
in Figure crack
9b. By width arethe
integrating plotted
crackindeformations
Figure 10a,b, respectively.
exhibited in this region
an estimation of the expected crack width can be achieved. The in-time development of maximum
tensile stresses and estimated crack width are plotted in Figure 10a,b, respectively.
By referring to the shrinkage scenario Lnr01, all the other slab configurations have exhibited a
similar trend. Table 3 summarizes the age of all the slabs when first cracking occurs; the latter can
be considered a representative parameter of the risk of cracking (the earlier the crack appears the
higher the risk of cracking). It is worthwhile noticing that, by considering the reference shrinkage
scenario Lnr01, first cracking appears, as previously mentioned, in almost all the cases after 28 days.
Based on the approach previously mentioned, the estimated final crack width is reported as well
(Table 3), in order to quantify the ability of glass fiber reinforcement in controlling cracking phenomena.
The time-step analyses were developed until the crack width does not further increase (over time).
The latter condition can occur when the maximum constraint due to subgrade is reached or when
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 11 of 18

the applied free-shrinkage law approaches the asymptote. The results evidence the considerable
influence of subgrade properties (Lnr01 scenario). In case of low friction conditions, the post-cracking
residual strengths of Glass-FRC05 and Glass-FRC10 are able to limit the cracks to very low values,
independently of the dimensions of the jointless pavement investigated (Table 3). On the other hand,
in presence of high friction subgrade configuration, it is recommended to limit slab dimensions to
portion having a side of 20 m and to use Glass-FRC with adequate toughness such as Glass-FRC10.
In fact, slab 20-G10-HF-Lnr01 exhibits a final crack width rather small (0.2 mm). Nevertheless,
Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18
the higher amount of fiber considered (Glass-FRC10) is also able to mitigate crack development in slab
Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18
30-G10-HF-Lnr01 (Table 3).

σI
σI

εcr
εcr

-0.06 0.26 0.58 0.90 1.22 1.53 1.85 2.17 2.49 2.81 3.12
-0.06 0.26 0.58 0.90 1.22 1.53
[MPa]1.85 2.17 2.49 2.81 3.12 1.50 1.53 1.56 1.59 1.62 1.65 1.68 1.71 1.74
[MPa] 1.50 1.53 1.56 1.59 1.62 [x10-51.65
] 1.68 1.71 1.74
[x10-5]

(a)
(a) (b)(b)
Figure 9. Slab
Figure 9. Slab 20-G10-LF-Lnr01:
20-G10-LF-Lnr01:(a)
(a)deflected
deflectedshape
shape
of of slab
slab mid-plane
mid-plane at days
at 49 49 days
withwith evidenced
evidenced
9. Slab 20-G10-LF-Lnr01:
Figuremaximum principalstresses (a) deflected shape
stressesatattop-slab-surface;
top-slab-surface; of slab mid-plane at 49 days 66with
days.evidenced
maximum principal (b)(b) crack
crack strain
strain at top-slab-surface
at top-slab-surface at 66atdays.
maximum principal stresses at top-slab-surface; (b) crack strain at top-slab-surface at 66 days.

Slab20-G10-LF-Lnr01
Slab 20-G10-LF-Lnr01 Slab
Slab 20-G10-LF-Lnr01
20-G10-LF-Lnr01
4.00
4.00 0.05
0.05
stress [MPa]

Estimated crack width [mm]

Estimated crack width [mm]

fctm=3.16
=3.16 MPa
MPa
0.04
0.04
3.00
3.00
tensile stress

0.03
0.03
Maximumtensile

2.00
2.00
0.02
0.02
Maximum

1.00
1.00
0.01
0.01

0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time [days] Time [days]
Time [days] Time [days]
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Slab 20-G10-LF-Lnr01: (a) maximum tensile stress in-time development; (b) estimated crack
Figure 10. Slab 20-G10-LF-Lnr01: (a) maximum tensile stress in-time development; (b) estimated crack
Figurewidth in-time
10. Slab development. (a) maximum tensile stress in-time development; (b) estimated crack
20-G10-LF-Lnr01:
width in-time development.
width in-time development.
By referring to the shrinkage scenario Lnr01, all the other slab configurations have exhibited a
By trend.
similar referring
Tableto3the shrinkagethe
summarizes scenario Lnr01,
age of all all the
the slabs other
when firstslab configurations
cracking occurs; thehave
latterexhibited
can be a
similar
Byconsideredtrend. Table 3
referringa representative summarizes
to the same parameter the
age of the age of
of slab, all
the risk the slabs
of cracking
besides when
the(the first cracking
earlier the of
evaluation crackoccurs;
appears
crack the latter
thecan
the higher
width, be
upward
considered
the risk
deflections a representative
of cracking).
of the free cornerIt is (T parameter
worthwhile of the
noticing risk of
that, bycracking
inconsidering(the
Table 3. Tzthe earlier the
is reference crack appears
shrinkage the higher
scenariosince in
z ) have been reported a meaningful parameter
the riskfirst
Lnr01, of cracking).
cracking It is worthwhile
appears, as previouslynoticing that, by
mentioned, inconsidering
almost all the the reference
cases after 28shrinkage
days. Basedscenario
on
Lnr01 condition, curling upward deflections occurred. All the slabs present similar upward deflections,
Lnr01,
the approach previously mentioned, the estimated final crack width is reported as well (Table 3), in on
first cracking appears, as previously mentioned, in almost all the cases after 28 days. Based
with the exception of slab 30-G05-HF-Lnr01, which was not completely investigated due to difficulties
the approach
order previously
to quantify the ability mentioned,
of glass fiberthe estimated final
reinforcement crack width
in controlling is reported
cracking as wellThe
phenomena. (Table
time-3), in
in controlling
order crackwere
to quantify
step analyses
development
thedeveloped
in such
ability of until
glass fiber
the
unfavorable
reinforcement
crack
conditions.
width doesin controlling
not cracking
further increase phenomena.
(over time). The The time-
latter
step analyses
condition can were
occur developed until the crack
when the maximum width
constraint duedoes not further
to subgrade increaseor(over
is reached whentime). The latter
the applied
free-shrinkage
condition law approaches
can occur the asymptote.
when the maximum The results
constraint due toevidence
subgradethe considerable
is reached influence
or when of
the applied
subgrade properties
free-shrinkage (Lnr01 scenario).
law approaches In case of low
the asymptote. Thefriction
resultsconditions,
evidence the the considerable
post-cracking influence
residual of
strengths properties
subgrade of Glass-FRC05(Lnr01and Glass-FRC10
scenario). In caseare ablefriction
of low to limitconditions,
the cracksthe topost-cracking
very low values,
residual
strengths of Glass-FRC05 and Glass-FRC10 are able to limit the cracks to very low values,
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 12 of 18

The shrinkage scenario Unifr and Lnr02 represents two kinds of lower and upper limits of the
reference scenario Lnr01, respectively. In fact, in case of Unifr condition the slab behavior is completely
governed by slab shortening, while in Lnr02 condition, upward curling effects arise earlier in the slab.
The latter are noticeable as a result of the high imposed curvature and they are completely governing
the slab behavior, leading to a much more severe localization of the cracking phenomena. In Figure 11,
the effects of the different shrinkage scenarios investigated are presented for slabs 20-G10-LF. It can be
noticed that, in case of Unifr slab, the tensile stresses are much lower than Lnr01 condition, resulting in
the absence of cracks (Figure 11a). On the other hand, for Lnr02 configuration the stresses develop
earlier determining a higher risk of cracking (Figure 11a). Similar tendencies can be found with
reference to crack development (Figure 11b). Slab 20-G10-LF-Lnr02 presents much higher crack widths
that those occurring in 20-G10-LF-Lnr01.

Table 3. Summary of main results exhibited by slabs in the post-cracking stage: scenarios Lnr01
and Lnr02.

Estimated Crack Upward Deflection of

First Cracking Age
Slab ID Age Width Free Corner, Tz
(days) (days) (mm) (mm)
20-G05-HF-Lnr01 35 294 0.592 8.2
20-G10-HF-Lnr01 35 294 0.200 8.3
30-G05-HF-Lnr01 25 78 1 0.626 5.3
30-G10-HF-Lnr01 25 294 0.906 8.7
20-G05-LF-Lnr01 49 244 0.014 9.3
20-G10-LF-Lnr01 49 253 0.016 9.4
30-G05-LF-Lnr01 43 223 0.020 9.0
30-G10-LF-Lnr01 43 194 0.017 8.7
20-G05-HF-Lnr02 22 303 0.850 9.2
20-G10-HF-Lnr02 22 324 0.767 13.5
30-G05-HF-Lnr02 18 39 1 0.661 5.8
30-G10-HF-Lnr02 18 46 1 0.488 7.0
20-G05-LF-Lnr02 28 324 0.918 10.8
20-G10-LF-Lnr02 28 294 0.560 13.0
30-G05-LF-Lnr02 26 251 1.080 12.4
30-G10-LF-Lnr02 26 331 0.570 13.5
1 Not possible to study further time steps.
Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Slabs 20-G10-LF Slabs 20-G10-LF

4.00 0.70
Lnr02 Lnr02
Maximum tensile stress [MPa]

Estimated crack width [mm]

Lnr01 0.60 Lnr01

fctm=3.16 MPa Unifr
3.00 0.50

0.40
2.00
0.30

0.20
1.00
0.10

0.00 0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time [days] Time [days]
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Effect of different shrinkage scenarios: (a) maximum tensile stress in-time development;
Figure 11. Effect of different shrinkage scenarios: (a) maximum tensile stress in-time development;
(b) estimated crack width in-time development.
(b) estimated crack width in-time development.

In all the slabs investigated with a uniform shrinkage distribution along the slab thickness, the
risk of cracking was considerably limited. The corresponding maximum axial tensile stresses
obtained from the time-step numerical analyses, are reported in Table 4. The stresses are indicated
according to the global x and y in-plane slab directions (σX,max = σY,max, since the maximum stresses
were detected along the diagonal direction of the slab). In all slabs, the latter always remained below
the concrete tensile strength (fctm) and no-cracks occurred. Moreover, in all cases σX,max is almost
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 13 of 18

In all the slabs investigated with a uniform shrinkage distribution along the slab thickness, the risk
of cracking was considerably limited. The corresponding maximum axial tensile stresses obtained
from the time-step numerical analyses, are reported in Table 4. The stresses are indicated according to
the global x and y in-plane slab directions (σX,max = σY,max , since the maximum stresses were detected
along the diagonal direction of the slab). In all slabs, the latter always remained below the concrete
tensile strength (fctm ) and no-cracks occurred. Moreover, in all cases σX,max is almost constant after
approximately 80 days. In fact, at a given imposed uniform shrinkage deformation, a noticeable axial
slab shortening is imposed; hence, the global frictional constraint due to the subbase could not further
increase and the slab tends to freely shrink. In this regard, the total in-plane axial displacement of
the slab free corner (Td ) exhibited after one year, have been summarized in Table 4, for the uniform
shrinkage. Td is a meaningful parameter for describing the slab kinematic behavior in these cases.
By considering the same slab dimensions, approximately the same values of Td can be estimated, since,
after about 80 days, all the slabs started to freely shrink, as mentioned before.
Eventually, even if the Unifr case is probably an ideal condition, it proves that, in the case of
very low shrinkage gradient along the slab thickness, the risk of cracking considerably decreases.
Nevertheless, the jointless pavement behavior, in terms of maximum tensile stresses, is governed by
the axial slab shortening, leading to a great influence of the frictional subgrade properties. In fact,
in the presence of a high friction subbase configuration, σX,max are generally almost three times of
those occurring in the presence of low friction (Table 4). These results underline the importance of the
planarity of the subgrade as well as the need of a proper sliding plane under the concrete slab.
In case of shrinkage distribution Lnr02, as previously mentioned, a much higher tendency
to localize cracking phenomena was observed in all the slabs investigated, generally leading to
higher final crack widths, as summarized in Table 3. As an example, the corresponding crack strains
distribution at top-slab-surface of slab 20-G10-LF-Lnr02 are reported in Figure 12a. Cracks tend to
clearly localize along specific regions, which are almost delimiting the perimeter of the uplifted slab
regions (Figure 12a). The higher is the tendency to localize crack strains in certain regions, the higher
the estimated crack width, which can also present a sudden increase in its in-time development,
as shown in Figure 11b for slab 20-G10-LF-Lnr02.
The higher demand in terms of crack control related to condition Lnr02 confirms that it is
probably an upper-bound limit (based on data available in literature). Nevertheless, in this case,
the different performances achievable by Glass-FRC10 slabs with respect to Glass-FRC05 ones, can be
better appreciated. By comparing the crack development exhibited by slabs 20-G10-Lnr02 with
20-G05-Lnr02 (low and high friction, Figure 12b), it can be noticed an average decrease of about 40% of
the final crack width when the higher fiber dosage is used. These results underline the need of a FRC
material with a higher toughness when critical conditions in terms of friction at the subgrade interface
are present.

Table 4. Summary of main results exhibited by slabs in the Unifr scenario: all slabs are un-cracked and
the maximum stresses reached in-time constant values after about 80 days.

Maximum Tensile Stress Axial Displacement of Free

Slab ID σX,max = σY,max Corner, Tx = Ty (Td )
(MPa) (mm)
20-G05-HF-Unifr
1.10 5.3 (7.5)
20-G10-HF-Unifr
30-G05-HF-Unifr
1.63 7.9 (11.2)
30-G10-HF-Unifr
20-G05-LF-Unifr
0.37 5.4 (7.6)
20-G10-LF-Unifr
30-G05-LF-Unifr
0.57 8.1 (11.5)
30-G10-LF-Unifr
 30-G10-HF-Unifr
20-G05-LF-Unifr
0.37 5.4 (7.6)
20-G10-LF-Unifr
30-G05-LF-Unifr
0.57 8.1 (11.5)
30-G10-LF-Unifr
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 14 of 18

Slabs 20-Lnr02
1.50
Glass-FRC05-LF

Estimated crack width [mm]

Glass-FRC10-LF
1.25 Glass-FRC05-HF
Glass-FRC10-HF
1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time [days]
(a) (b)
Figure 12. Slab 20-Lnr02 (a) crack strain at top-slab-surface at 66 days, low friction configuration; (b)
Figure 12. Slab 20-Lnr02 (a) crack strain at top-slab-surface at 66 days, low friction configuration;
effect
(b) of glass
effect fiber
of glass reinforcement
fiber dosage
reinforcement on on
dosage crack development.
crack development.

Furthermore, diagrams in Figure 12b also evidence the influence of the frictional properties of
Furthermore, diagrams in Figure 12b also evidence the influence of the frictional properties
the subgrade in case of high imposed curvature due to shrinkage (Lnr02). By comparing slabs 20-
of the subgrade in case of high imposed curvature due to shrinkage (Lnr02). By comparing slabs
G10-HF-Lnr02 with 20-G10-LF-Lnr02 (or 20-G05-HF-Lnr02 with 20-G05-LF-Lnr02), an average
20-G10-HF-Lnr02
increment of aboutwith 20-G10-LF-Lnr02
1.4 times of the final (orcrack20-G05-HF-Lnr02
width is evidenced within20-G05-LF-Lnr02),
case of high frictionan subbase
average
increment of about 1.4 times of the final crack width is evidenced in case of
conditions. Nevertheless, the effects of subgrade conditions were much less than those evidenced in high friction subbase
conditions.
case of Lnr01Nevertheless, the effects ofInsubgrade
shrinkage configuration. conditionsslabs
fact, by comparing were20-G10-HF-Lnr01
much less than those evidenced
with 20-G10-LF-
in case of Lnr01 shrinkage configuration. In fact, by comparing slabs
Lnr01, the final crack width is more than 10 times higher, when the unfavorable HF condition 20-G10-HF-Lnr01 with
is
20-G10-LF-Lnr01, the final crack width is more than 10 times higher, when
considered. The latter phenomena is due to the noticeable curling effects introduced with Lnr02, that the unfavorable HF
condition
lead to a is considered.
lifting of the slabThe inlatter phenomena
larger is due to
regions; hence, thethe noticeable
effects curlingsubgrade
of different effects introduced
frictional
with Lnr02, that lead to a lifting of the slab in larger
properties tend to diminish with respect to Lnr01 or Unifr cases. regions; hence, the effects of different subgrade
frictional properties
By further tend tothe
analyzing diminish with respect
data summarized intoTable
Lnr013, or Unifr
slabs cases. have generally presented
30-Lnr02
much higher final crack widths. Moreover, slabs 30-HF-Lnr02 have have
By further analyzing the data summarized in Table 3, slabs 30-Lnr02 generally
exemplified presented
particularly
much higher final crack widths. Moreover, slabs 30-HF-Lnr02 have
unfavorable conditions; the first cracking have occurred earlier and cracks have widened rapidly,exemplified particularly
unfavorable
leading conditions;
to difficulties inthe first cracking
controlling crackhave occurred earlier
development by means and of
cracks
FRCs, have widened rapidly,
as demonstrated by
leading to difficulties in controlling crack development by means of FRCs,
impossibility to complete the corresponding time-steps numerical analyses. Consequently, referring as demonstrated by
impossibility
to to complete
slab conditions, with a thehighcorresponding time-steps
shrinkage gradient numerical
through analyses.
the thickness ofConsequently, referring to
the jointless pavement, it
slab conditions, with a high shrinkage gradient through the thickness
is recommended to limit as much as possible the distance between construction joints. Moreover,of the jointless pavement, is
it is recommended to limit as much as possible the distance between construction joints. Moreover,
is should be better prepared the subgrade in order to reduce friction (low friction) together with the
adoption of FRCs having a higher post-cracking resistance.
In slabs under Lnr02 shrinkage configuration, the upward deflections (Tz ) are generally higher
than those exhibited by slabs under Lnr01 conditions (Table 3), as expected. As result to the great
imposed curvature (Lnr02), rather discrete differences in Tz can be noticed when comparing the two
amount of fiber reinforcement considered. By referring to the same slab dimensions and subgrade
conditions, it can be noticed that the higher the toughness exhibited by Glass-FRC, the higher Tz is.
In fact, Glass-FRC10 enables a better crack control than Glass-FRC05 and lower crack widths; thus,
the corresponding slab planes where cracks localize (Figure 12a) tend to have smaller relative rotations
when the free uplifted slab-edges are loaded by their dead weight. Consequently in Glass-FRC10 slabs,
the free-edges show higher upward deflections. To the contrary, in Glass-FRC05 slabs, the onset of
crack localization determines considerable rotations of the cracked planes. The latter phenomena is
the main responsible of a kind of local rotational sag of the slab uplifted edge-regions, which tend to
become more flat under their dead-weights, giving the impression of reduced curling. Similar trend
was found by Banthia et al. [12] in experimental tests carried out on small scale slab specimens.
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 15 of 18

5. Conclusions
The present paper reports the main results from a non-linear numerical study of jointless
industrial pavements reinforced with glass fibers, during shrinkage development before applying the
external loads.
The floor is assumed as a slab on a Winkler soil; the numerical model is able to capture the
concrete post-cracking behavior as well as frictional effects at the slab-to-subgrade contact-surface.
The main parameters studied for evaluating the risk of cracking phenomena are the following: the
slab size (e.g., distance between construction joints), the friction at the subgrade interface, the shrinkage
gradient through the slab thickness, and the FRC toughness.
Based on the results and the discussion presented, the main findings are the following:

1. The proposed relatively simple numerical model is able to provide a reliable prediction about the
effects of shrinkage phenomena on jointless pavement, since it is based on a suitable application
of interface elements for taking into account friction stresses arising between slab and subbase;
2. The slabs-on-grade behavior under shrinkage development is mainly governed by the interfacial
friction between the slab and the supporting base. If the subgrade surface is not adequately
prepared and a high friction is expected, it is recommended to limit the distance between
construction joints and to use FRC with adequate toughness;
3. With a very high shrinkage gradient along the slab thickness, a higher risk of cracking was
observed in all the slabs investigated, leading to generally higher final crack widths as well as
higher curling upward deflections;
4. In case of very low variation of moisture demand through the thickness of the jointless pavement
the risk of cracking considerably decreases. Nevertheless, since the behavior of the slab is
governed by its axial shortening, a strong influence of the frictional properties of the subgrade on
the maximum tensile stresses, was evidenced;
5. This parametric numerical study represents a useful tool that can be adopted for preliminary
estimating cracking behavior of jointless pavements under shrinkage phenomena. This is
important since in practice the latter is generally not directly considered in the design process,
which is mainly focused only on the effects on pavements of the applied external loads.

Author Contributions: G.T., G.P. and B.B. designed the parametric study; G.T. and A.M. performed all the
numerical analyses; G.T., A.M., G.P. analyzed the numerical results; G.T. and A.M. wrote the paper; G.P. reviewed
the paper; G.T. and A.M. edited the final paper.
Funding: This study was funded by Owens Corning (Chambéry, France, grant number: 4508755118).
Acknowledgments: The Authors are thankful to Maria Novella Masotti for the assistance in performing non-linear
FE analyses.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders contributed in the design of the
study but they had no role in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript,
and in the decision to publish the results.

Notation List
Ec concrete elastic modulus;
fcm mean cylindrical compressive concrete strength;
fcm,cube mean cubic compressive concrete strength;
fck characteristic cylindrical compressive concrete strength;
fctm mean cylindrical tensile concrete strength;
fLm mean value of limit of proportionality;
fFtsm mean value of post-crack strength for serviceability crack opening;
fFtum ultimate residual strength (post-cracking strength for ultimate crack opening);
fRjm mean residual flexural tensile strength of fiber reinforced concrete corresponding to CMOD=CMODj;
fuf ultimate tensile strength of fiber’s filament;
Fibers 2018, 6, 64 16 of 18

h0 notional size of structural element;

KWinkler Winkler soil stiffness;
Lf fiber length;
Lf /ϕf fiber aspect ratio;
Li internal length adopted in numerical analyses;
Td total in-plane axial displacement of slab free corner;
TX axial displacement in global x in-plane direction of slab free corner;
TY axial displacement in global y in-plane direction of slab free corner;
TZ upward deflection of slab free corner;
Vf volume fraction of fibers;
w1 crack width at breakpoint (bi-linear post-cracking law);
wc ultimate crack width (bi-linear post-cracking law);
δ0 relative displacement between subgrade and slab (end of elastic branch of bilinear function adopted);
εa (t) autogenous shrinkage deformation at a given time (free shrinkage law);
εd (t) drying shrinkage deformation at a given time (free shrinkage law);
σ1 post-cracking tensile strength at breakpoint (bi-linear post-cracking law);
σX,max maximum axial slab stress in global x in-plane direction;
σY,max maximum axial slab stress in global y in-plane direction;
τ0 shear frictional stresses between subgrade and slab (end of elastic branch of bilinear function adopted);
ϕf fiber diameter.

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