05-08-2019

PHYSICS
• What we have learned in the last class
Special theory of relativity – Contradiction between Newtonian Mechanics and
PH-1101 electromagnetic theory
Unit -5 – Contradiction between experimental results and
Newtonian predictions
Lecture-2
• What we are going to learn today
– Michelson Morley’s Experiment
– To check the existence of ether frame
– Postulates of special relativity
– Lorentz transformation

Michelson Morley Experiment A 10+2 level problem

• Boat sailing through a river
• To locate the preferred frame ether
• The interferometer 𝑣⃗

D D 𝑉
𝑉 / = 𝑉 +𝑣 𝑣⃗

For up/down stream motion, Time taken for a round trip: 𝑡 = + =

2𝐷
For cross stream motion ,Time taken for a round trip: (𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑣 ) 𝑡 =
𝑉 −𝑣
2𝐷 2𝐷
2𝐷𝑉 2𝐷 𝑉 − 𝑉 2𝐷 𝑣 𝑣
𝑡 −𝑡 = − = = 1− − 1−
𝑉 −𝑣 𝑉 −𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
1− 1−
𝑉 𝑉

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Analogy with Michelson-Morley’s The experiment

Experiment Path difference= L

𝑉 ≅ 𝑐, ~3X10 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣 → 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ with respect to ether
~3𝑋10 𝑚/𝑠

2𝐷 𝑣 𝑣
∆𝑡 = 1− − 1− 2𝐿 𝐷𝑣
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑛= =2
Rotation by 45 degree 𝜆 𝜆𝑐
𝑣 =𝑉=𝑐 Note: ≪ 1

2𝐷 𝑣 𝑣 𝐷𝑣 2𝐿 = 𝑛𝜆
∆𝑡 = 1+ −1− =
𝑐 𝑐 2𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝑣 =𝑣 Number of fringes shifted=n
𝑣
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿 = 𝑐∆𝑡 = D Change in Path
𝑐
difference=L-( -L)=2L
Between the parallel and perpendicular rays
Path difference= -L
Path difference =0 Rotation by 90 degree

Results of Michelson Morley’s

Implications of the null result
experiment
• How much fringe shift is expected?
• Ether frame does not exist
𝑛=
2𝐿
=2
𝐷𝑣 𝐷 = 10𝑚
𝜆 = 500 𝑛𝑚 = 5𝑋10 𝑚
𝑣
=
3𝑋10
= 10 • No preferred frame exists
𝜆 𝜆𝑐 𝑐 3𝑋10
• Speed of light does not change on changing
𝑛=2
10
5
𝑋10 𝑋10 = 0.4 =
4
10
(Expected) the speed of the frame of reference with
Four out of ten fringes are respect to the source
expected to be shifted upon
rotating the setup by 90
degree

Experimental fringe shift=0

( within the error limit of the instrument)

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How to resolve the contradiction?

• What we have learned from the previous
• There are some experimental results for high discussions?
speed particle where the predictions of – Something is wrong with Newtonian classical Mechanics
Newton’s law does not hold. – There is no preferred frame of reference , ether does not
• Till date there is no experiment performed exist
where Electromagnetic theory fails.
• What are we going to learn now?
– Einstein’s postulates of special theory of relativity
• Newton’s laws of motion needs to be
– Lorentz transformation and it’s consequences
checked/modified

Einstein's Postulates of Special

Relativity (1905) Problems in Galilean transformation
• Laws of Physics are same in • Please recollect : Newton’s laws are based on
all inertial frames. Galilean transformations Rely on two
No preferred frame of reference assumptions i) time is invariant For all inertial
observer
exists. ii) mass is invariant
– Principle of relativity Assumed due to common sense  general
• Speed of light in free space is perceptions
Common sense is the collection of prejudices
same for all inertial frames.
Albert Einstein: 1879-1955 acquired by age eighteen - Einstein
– Constancy of speed of light
Need to develop new transformation relations free from common sense based
assumptions and based on the postulates of special relativity

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Lorentz transformation Using 1st postulate

Homogeneity of space
Laws of physics are same in inertial frames
P(x,y,z,t)
One event in one frame will remain S S’
one event in all other frames Inverse transformation of (1) can be found by
P’(x’,y’,z’,t’) P(x,y,z,t)
v interchanging 𝑣 by −𝑣 to get S S’
The transformation must be linear 𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 …(1) P’(x’,y’,z’,t’)
-v
𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 …(1) There is a possibility that this relation can be reduced 𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡 …(2)
to Galilean transformation under certain conditions
• Substituting 𝑥 in (2) from (1) we get
Isotropy of Space All the three spatial directions are identical
𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑘𝑣𝑡 …(3)

𝑦 =𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑡 …(4)
Velocity has no component along y or z directions hence,
𝑧 =𝑧

Use of 2nd postulate LT continued..

• Comparing (5) and (7)
• S and S’ frames were coincident at 𝑡 = 𝑡 = 0
• At the common origin 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 0 a flare is set off ( )
• 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡 and 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡
• 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡, … (5) 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝑡 but 𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 …(1)
• 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡 …(6) using (1) and (4) ( )
• =𝟏⇒1−𝑐 =1+
𝑡 = 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑡 …(4)
• 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑘𝑡
𝒌𝟐 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟏
• = ⇒ =𝟏− ⇒𝒌=±
• 𝑘−𝑐 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑘𝑡 + 𝑣𝑘𝑡 𝒌𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒌𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝟏
𝒗𝟐
𝒄𝟐

• We drop the –ve solution as it produces an extra reflection

( ) 𝟏
• 𝑥= = 𝑐𝑡 …(7) for 𝑣 = 0 ⇒ 𝑘 = 𝟐
…(8)
𝒗
𝟏
𝒄𝟐

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Lorentz Transformation Inverse LT

• Interchanging primed and un-primed coordinates
• 𝑥 = (using eqn. 1) • Replacing 𝑣 by −𝑣 we get,

• 𝑥=
• 𝑦 =𝑦 (using isotropy of space)
• 𝑧 =𝑧 • 𝑦 = 𝑦′
• 𝑧 = 𝑧′
• 𝑡 = (using eqn. 4 and 8)

• 𝑡=
What happens for 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐?