v- O~~J.:2.

1. INTERNATIONALER STUTTGARTER SEILTAG '2...3. . a~

21. Februar 2002

2,3.0 4
Problems of Torque and Rotation in
Wire Ropes

Prof. Eur. Ing. C. Richard Chaplin

University of Reading , England

Institut für Fördertechnik und Logistik - Universität Stuttgart

Prof. Eur. Ing. C. Richard Chaplin 1. INTERNATIONALER
University of Reading, England STUTTGARTER SEILTAG 2002

Problems of Torque and Rotation in Wire Ropes

Summary

The construction of rope involves the twisting of different elements together to ensure
integrity and the essential qualities ofaxial strength and stiffness in combination with
bending flexibility. A consequence of the twisted construction of ropes is a tendency
to develop axial torque in response to applied tension. If the ends of a rope are not
restrained rotation will result; accordingly partial restraint will result in partial rotation .
The position is further complicated when the suspended mass of a rope generates
tension differences along the length of the rope whieh are significant in relation to
applied tension . Under such conditions any rope, unless perfectly torque balanced,
will undergo counter rotations to develop a torque which is constant along the full
length . Situations of this kind are experienced in deep mine hoisting systems and in
offshore operations in deep water. Safe operation of ropes under these conditions
requires a proper understanding of the problems , and quantified rope characteristies
from whieh predietions ean be made.

This brief paper will describe so me of the applieations where these issues are
important, the experimental teehniques appropriate to measuring the torque / tension
characteristies of rope, and analytieal methods for prediction . Reeent developments
in this field at The University of Reading will be deseribed.

Rope behaviour

The properties required of rope are high axial strength and stiffness combined with
high bending flexibility. These properties are obtained by manufaeturing rope from an
assembly of elongated elements (typically high tensile, drawn, earbon steel wire, or
high tenacity polymerie fibre). An inevitable consequence of this divided, parallel-
component eonstruetion is a low torsional stiffness. In addition to strength and
stiffness, enduranee is required in relation to repeated flexure and tensile loading ,
adding further eomplexity to rope geometry.

To achieve an acceptable flexibility in bending, rope is manufaetured with helieal

geometry wh ich enables the wires to slide along their axial positions so evading the
major components of rope bending strain , In its simplest form this helical geometry is
implemented as a spiral strand but if all layers of wires have the same helical sense,
the circumferentially resolved component of tension sums to a signifieant axial torque
and furthermore the construction is extremely unstable readily unlaying if not
rotationally restrained. However by incorporating different layers having different
helical sense and piteh, the torques generated by the right-handed layers are
compensated by the left hand layers, and the eonstruetion is far more stable. A
stranded rope has a eore (fibre or wire rope) with an outer layer of strands twisted
around the core, and the wires in the strands themselves twisted either in the

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Prof. Eur. Ing . C. Richard Chapli n 1. INTERNATIONALER
University of Reading, England STUTTGARTER SEILTAG 2002

opposite direction or the same direction as the strands around the co re , and thus
called ordinary lay and Lang's lay respectively. More comp lex multi-strand
constru ctio ns have more than one layer of strands over the core. Stranded ropes ca n
also be twisted together to achieve a further level of helica l complexi ty ca lled a cable-
laid rope, usually only made to ach ieve ve ry large ropes with high strength but with
additional flexibility.

All of th ese construction s have a tendency to untwist when suspending an

unrestrain ed vertica l load, or co nversely to generate areaction torqu e if th e ends are
torsionally co nstrained . Different rope constructions generate different torsional
reactions under load. Some multi-stranded co nstructions are almost tarsionally
balanced, as also are spiral strand s. Simple six or eight strand ropes always
generate a torsional response, but the opposite helica l senses in ordinary lay
constru ctions result in lower torq ues than in Lang's lay ropes. Th ese responses are
difficult to pred ict, affected by inter-wire friction, and highly non-linear. Therefore
while analytica l predictions of torsional response can be made far those
constructions which ca n easil y be modelled, such predictions are not sufficiently
accurate for many purposes, and do req uire checking experim enta lly.

Experimental measurement of torque-tension response

The methods used for measuring torsional response must of necessity rely upon
available technology. As a result the simplest approach has traditionally been to
restrain th e ends of a sampie of rope which is placed in a tensile testing machi ne
mod ified to allow the measurement of torq ue as we il as tensile load. Th e simplest
approach thu s involves applying tension and monitoring torqu e, starting from astate
of zero torqu e at zero tension. Linearisation of th e resulting response provides a so-
ca lled "torque factor" , which multiplied by rope tension and diameter approximates to
torqu e, but on ly under th e condition relati ng to having th e ends of th e rope restrained
from rotation and starting from zero torque. In practice ropes are almost inva riably
delivered with some residual twist im posed by the manufacturing process . Twist is
freq uently indu ced in th e rope during installation and the ends are not always full y
constrained. This simplistic model is also compounded in applications involving ve ry
long suspended lengths where tension changes appreciably along the rope,
necessitating cou nter rotation to achieve a uniform equ ilibrium torque.

In practice th e only real merit in the simple "torqu e factor" is to give a comparative
indication of th e re lative torque balance of different constru ctions .

An alternative to the "fixed-end" test described is a "free-end" test in wh ich there is no

torsional restraint and th e rope allowed to rotate, with a zero reaction . In such a test
the rotation is measured as a function of tension, but in practice the achievement of a
tensile test with genuinely unrestrained torsional reaction is very difficult. Even th e
best type of thrust bearings still invo lve some reaction and what is required is an
active swivel, which is drive n to achieve a zero torqu e, such as described by Gibson
(1998).

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Prof. Eur. Ing. C. Richard Chaplin 1. INTERNATIONALER
University of Reading , England STUTTGARTER SEILTAG 2002

A more pragmatic approach to experimental characterisation is to perform the "fixed-

end" type of test but with different levels of initial twist. Such tests generate families
of torque/tension responses, each relating to a different state of twist, as shown in
Figure 1. The modelling approach adopted by Kollros (1976) and later adapted by
Feyrer and Schiffner (1987/8) involves linearising the data from such experiments,
and by regression analysis, characterising ropes of the same construction but a
range of sizes in terms of sets of three coefficients.
Thus rope torque M is given by:

(1 ),

where C1, C2 and C3 are constants, wh ich have been experimentally determined for a
specific rope construction; dis rope diameter; G is wire shear modulus; F is tension;
rjJ is twist; and z rope length.

Rebel (1997), to model the behaviour of triangular strand rope used for drum winders
in South African gold mines, used a similar experimental approach but rep resen ted
the curves by means of second order polynomials. This approach gave an adequate
representation of twist distribution in suspended ropes, taking into account rope
weight and the lay-Iength of the rope as manufactured and delivered. However in
order to model the change in twist distribution caused by loading the skip before
hoisting , it was necessary to take account of the higher torsional stiffness observed
for small amplitude movements. This higher stiffness, ca lied the "no-slip" stiffness by
Raoof and Hobbs (1989), is observed in the initial stages of torsional deformation in a
rope under tension prior to the commencement of wire slippage at inter-wire
contacts.

250r---,----.----r---,---~----r_--,_--_,
Twist
('Im)
857
714
571
429
286
143
o
-143
-286
-429
-572
-715
-857
o

-50 '-----'----'-----'----:':----::':- ---::':----:':----'

o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Wire rope load (% of BL)

Figure 1: Torque-tension test results for a 19 mm diameter 6x19 IWRC ordinary lay
rope, from Chaplin, Rebel & Ridg e (2000).

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Prof. Eur. Ing. C. Richard Chaplin 1. INTERNATIONALER
University of Reading, England STUTTGARTER SEILTAG 2002

Rope twist in mine hoists

In the ultra-deep shafts of South African gold mines, where two shafts are currently
under construction to around 3000 m deep, it is essential to ensure reliable and safe
operations. These requirements have prompted the selection of triangular strand
ropes far reasons of:

• low spinning loss;

• very high confidence in reliability of NOT;
• many years experience in operating such ropes on drum winders.

However the main problem with such ropes, being Lang's lay, is their high torque
reaction. As a consequence due to the tension difference caused by rope weight,
these ropes exhibit very high lay length differences between the lower, conveyance
end and the upper, sheave end . In existing shafts up to 2500 m deep, after
installation lay length at the conveyance may be 20% below nominal , whilst after a
period of operation lay length at the sheave may become 80% greater than the
nominal va lue. The progressive change during lifetime is due to twist being released
from the rope whenever the rope is detached from the conveyance. Modelling the
rope characteristics has enables prediction of these changes which are a critical
function of the length relaxed and the induced torque. Given maintenance
procedures which carefully control the release of twist from the rope , it has been
predicted by Rebel, Chaplin and Borello (2000) that rotations can be contained within
acceptable levels even to 4000 m depth, but an important observation resulting from
this analysis is the need to know the actual manufactured lay length , the lay length at
zero tarque, and the nominal or reference lay length.

Figure 2 shows the predicted changes in rotation distribution along the length of a
triangular strand Lang's lay rope suspended in a 3185 m deep shaft. It is assumed in
these predictions that every time the conveyance is detached for maintenance or
rope sampling, a length of 80 m is relaxed and a new rotation distribution established
after renewal of operations. This progressively changes the lay length distribution
until an upper val ue of 68% above the nominal is reached after 20 relaxations in this
example, but note that for this rope construction an 80% increase is considered an
acceptable limit.

Seite 4
Prof. Eur. Ing . C. Richard Chaplin 1. INTERNATIONALE R
University of Read ing , England STUTTGARTER SEILTAG 2002

Numbo r of fro nl
end operatio ns
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o 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Distance from splice (m)
(1- 42 mm q = 7A66 kgfm, MEL = 1278 kN

Figure 2: Calculated lay-Iength distribution of 42 mm triangular strand rope in 3185

m shaft, at installation and after maintenance operations involving
relaxation of 80 m of rope detached from the conveyance, at the bank ,

The introduction of twist to mooring lines during installation

The mooring systems for floating deepwater oil production systems generally involve
coupling different components in series. The types of components which can be used
include chain , spiral strand, fibre rope (typically in a torque balanced construction)
and six-strand rope. Six-strand rope is also invariably used as a "work wire" to raise
and lower components during installation, and its torsional response is an increasing
source of problems.

An example has been analysed (Chaplin (1998)) in wh ich each leg of an FPSO
mooring system for 1000 m water depth consisted of 1100 m of chain in se ries with
approximately 1500 m of spiral strand. Both components are torque balanced but
have very different torsional stiffness characteristics , notably the chain which has
negligible stiffness when slack but is much stiffer than the spiral strand when taught.
However the spiral strand is very vulnerable to torsion damage, especially when
slack, while the chain is characteristically rugg ed.

The chain and anchor are pre-installed and the end of the chain left connected via
1000 m of slx-strand rope to a surface buoy. To install the spiral strand , th e end of
the chain is lifted 10 an anchor handling vessel (AHV), the spiral strand connected
and paid out from a second AHV. After tensioning the system is buoyed off again.
However the process of raising the chain wh ich remains slack on the sea bed, allows
rotation to be introduced to the chain as the rope takes up an increasing tension, with
no torsional restrainl provided by the slack chain and untwisted rope stored on the
winch drum of the AHV. The twist in the chain is subsequently transferred to the

Seite 5
Prof. Eur, Ing, C, Richard Chaplin 1 , INTERNATIONALER
University of Reading , England STUTTGARTER SEILTAG 2002

spiral strand on tensioning, causing loops (or hockies) to form in the spiral strand
when the tension is relaxed, The spiral strand cannot tolerate deformation of this kind
and must then be scrapped ,

The dynamic twisting of compound mooring lines

Another deep-water mooring example involves a three-part system with a long

ground chain from the anchor to a length of six-strand wire rope , then 10 a long
torque-balanced fibre rope, and finally via a further short length of chain to the
floating production system, In such a system , even without twist induced during
installation, the torsional equilibrium and corresponding state of twist are a function of
tension, As tension increases the wire rope generates torque; but to achieve
equilibrium all components must carry the same torque as weil as the same tension,
Sufficient twist is therefore transferred to achieve this state, The high stiffness of the
chain means liltle movement on the anchor side, but the very low stiffness of the fibre
rope resu lts in a high leve l of rotation. As the moored structure moves in response to
wave action the tension fluctuates and a correspond ing oscillating rotation takes
place which is greatest at the point of connection between wire and fibre rope ,

Fatigue testing of torsionally unrestrained (and partially restrained) six-strand wire

rope at Reading , as reported by Chaplin, Rebel & Ridge (2000), has identified a
"tension/torsion" fatigue mechanism which can redu ce endurance by over 95% from
that of the torsionally restrained rope when cycling between the same tension levels,
The preliminary results of these tests are shown in Figure 3, but work is currently in
hand to establish how the operating variables control this serious failure mode,
100 _,_
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ropa

Wire rope attach ed to

tape r roller bearing

",,1,.,

! ': -1-::r:~]F=·~:;f;~t~
o 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Cycllc rope twist range (O'm)

Figure 3: Tension/torsion fatigue test data for a 19 mm 6x19 RHO IWRC wire rope,
connected in series with 34 mm parallel twisted-strand polyester fibre rope
or thrust bearing ,

Seite 6
Prof. Eur. Ing. C. Richard Chaplin 1. INTERNATIONALER
Unive rsity of Reading, England STUTTGARTER SEILTAG 2002

As offshore operations move to ever deeper water torsional interactions between

components will become increasingly important. Even th e move to sea-bed
installations for oil wells which are tied back to production systems in shallower water
will not eliminate the problems since th e installation of such systems will require the
precise delivery of very heavy payloads to th e seabed.

A new method for torsional testing and analysis of ropes

Elastic modelling of rope cannot adequately predict torsional properti es of ropes.

Therefore to facilitate sufficiently accurate prediction of th e consequences of the
torsional behaviour of rope and associated components, in those applications where
torqu e and rotation are releva nt, appropriate testing is necessary. For the same
reason whilst small scale testing can give some quantitative indication of large scale
response, full scale testing at large scale is necessary for the following:

• to generate data on torsional characteristics of wire and fibre ropes for

qualifying extrapolation from smaller scale and theoreti ca l predictions, and
from which to analyse applications where larger components are employed;
• to perform tension/torsion fatigue te sts at full scale , and thus establish scale
effects in extrapolating from smaller scale;
• to establish the torsional characteristics of other components including chain
and swivels.

At th e Unive rsity of Reading the Rope Research group has recently completed th e
constru ction of a servo-hydraulic testing facility to meet the above requirements, and
with the following capability:

• sampie length up to 5 m;
• tensile loading to 3 MN static and 2 MN dynamic;
• tensile stroke 1 m;
• torsion to 15 kNm stati c and 12 kNm dynamic;
• rotation to ± 25 turn s.

The system operates with closed-Ioop digital control (and monitoring) of both tensile
force/actuator extension and torque/rotation . Thus any of the conventional tests
described above can be performed on larger ropes and with greater accuracy than
previousl y possible, but with the addition of:

• extension at constant torqu e (including zero torqu e), monitoring tension and
rotation;
• measuring "break-out" torqu e of swive ls under prescribed tension;
• cycling between combined limits of tension and torque (or tension and
rotation).

Not only will this new facility generate valuable information for predicting the torsional
response of rope systems, whether in mining , offshore or elsewhere, but will also

Seite 7
, '

Prof. Eur. Ing. C. Richard Chaplin 1. INTERNATIONALER

University of Reading , England STUTTGARTER SEILTAG 2002

facilitate an alternative characterisation based on constant torque testing considered

more directly applicable to the operating conditions of long suspended ropes.

References

Chaplin, C.R. (1998) "Torsional failure of wire rope mooring line during installation in
deep water" J. of Engineering Failure Analysis 6(1998) 67-82.
Chaplin, C.R., Rebel, G., & Ridge, I.M ,L. (2000) "Tension/Torsion Interactions in
Multi-component Mooring Lin es" Offshore Technology Conference Proceedings,
Paper 12173, Houston, Texas, May 2000.
Feyrer, K, & Schiffner, G. (1986/7) "Torque and torsional stiffness of wire rope" Parts
l and 11 Wire 36(1986)8 318-320 and 37(1987)1 23-27.
Gibson , P.T. (1998) "Torque and rotation considerations in the design of deep water
mooring lines" Marine Technology Society Annual Conference, November 1998.
Kollros, W. (1976) "The relationship between torque, tensile force and twist in ropes"
Wire, January 1976, 19-24.
Raoof, M. & Hobbs, R.E. (1989) "Torsional Stiffness and Hysteresis in Spiral
Strands" Proc Inst Civil Engrs part 2, 87(1989)12 501 -515 Paper 9455,
Structural Engineering Group.
Rebel, G. (1993) "Model of the torque-tension rotation behaviour of a 48 mm
triangular strand steel wire rope operating on a drum winder" B.Sc. Engineering
Dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, November 1993.
Rebel , G., Chaplin, C.R. and Borello, M. (2000) "Depth limitations in the use of
triangular strand ropes for mine hoisting" Proceedings of Mine Hoisting 2000,
SAIMM Johannesburg , September 2000, 117-125.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes 10 thank his associates (Dr. Ridge and Dr. Bradon) and the many
sponsors of the current work at Reading which this paper describes including
Amerada Hess , BP, Bridon, Haggie Wire Ropes, HEFCE, Pelrobras, Roell Amsler,
and Scanrope.

Seite 8