gradeup ELECRIAL MACHINES (Formula Notes)

TRANSFORMERS:

→ Gross cross sectional area = Area occupied by magnetic material + Insulation

material.
→ Net cross sectional area = Area occupied by only magnetic material excluding area
of insulation material.
→ Hence for all calculations, net cross sectional area is taken since ϕ (flux) majorly
flows in magnetic material.
ϕ = BAn

t
Weight of
→ Specific weight of t/f = f
t
KVA rating of
f

Net Cross Sectional area

→ Stacking/iron factor :- (k s ) = Gross Cross Sectional area

→ k s is always less than 1

→ Gross c.s Area = AG = length × breadth
→ Net c.s Area = An = k s × AG
Effective C.S.Area
→ Utilization factor of transformer core = Total C.S Area
U.F of cruciform core = 0.8 to
0.85
mmF
→ Flux = Reluctance = = ϕm sin ωt
dϕ d
→ According to faradays second law e1 = −N1 dt = −N1 dt �ϕm sin ωt�
Instantaneous value e1 = N1 ϕm ω sin�ωt − π�2�
of emf in primary

→ Transformer emf equations :-

E1 = 4.44 N1 Bmax An f  (1)
E2 = 4.44 N2 Bmax An f  (2)

E
→ Emf per turn in Iry = N1 = 4.44 Bmax An f
1
ry E2
→ Emf per turn in II = = 4.44 Bmax An f
N2

⟹ Emf per turn on both sides of the transformer is same

E1 E2
=
N1 N2
E1 N1 1
⟹ = =
E2 N2 k
E2 N2 1
Transformation ratio = K = = Turns ratio = K = N1 ∶ N2
E1 N1

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→ For an ideal two-winding transformer with primary voltage V1 applied
across N1 primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary
turns:
V1 / V2 = N1 / N2
→ The primary current I1 and secondary current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = V2 / V1
→ For an ideal step-down auto-transformer with primary voltage V1 applied
across (N1 + N2) primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing
across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = (N1 + N2) / N2
→ The primary (input) current I1 and secondary (output) current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / (N1 + N2) = V2 / V1.

→ For a single-phase transformer with rated primary voltage V1, rated primary
current I1, rated secondary voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the voltampere
rating S is:
S = V1I1 = V2I2

→ For a balanced m-phase transformer with rated primary phase voltage V1, rated
primary current I1, rated secondary phase voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2,
the voltampere rating S is:
S = mV1I1 = mV2I2

→ The primary circuit impedance Z1 referred to the secondary circuit for an ideal
transformer with N1 primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z12 = Z1(N2 / N1)2

→ During operation of transformer :-

E1 V1
Bm ∝ ∝
f f
V1
Bmax = constant ⟹ = constant
f

Equivalent ckt of t/f under N.L condition :-

N1 N2
I0

Iw Iµ
V1 R0 X0 E1 E2

No load /shunt branch.

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→ No load current = I0 = Iµ + Iw = I0 �−ϕ0
Iw = I0 cos ϕ0
Iµ = I0 sin ϕ0
→ No load power = v1 I0 cos ϕ0 = v1 Iw = Iron losses.
v1 v1 No load power
R0 = ; X0 = ⟹ Iw =
Iw1 Iµ V1
𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫
Transferring from 𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈 to 𝐈𝐈 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫:-
R1 R 21
I22 R 2 = I12 R 21
I 2
R 21 = R 2 � 2 �
I 1
R2
=
K2
∴ R
R 21 = K22

From 𝐈𝐈 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 to 𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 :-

I12 R1 = I22 . R11
I12
R11 = I22
. R1
R11 = R1 . K 2

→ Total resistance ref to primary = R1 + R 21

R 01 = R1 + R 2 /k 2
→ Total resistance ref to secondary = R 2 + R11
R 02 = R 2 + k 2 R1
→ Total Cu loss = I12 R 01
Or
2
I2 R 02

Per unit resistance drops :-

I1 R1
→ P.U primary resistance drop = E1
I R
→ P.U secondary resistance drop = 2E 2
2
I1 R01
→ Total P.U resistance drop ref to I ry = E1
ry I2 R02
→ Total P.U resistance drop ref to II = E
2
→ The P.U resistance drops on both sides of the t/f is same
I1 R01 I2 R02
E1
= E2

Losses present in transformer :-

t/f windings
1. Copper losses
major losses
2. Iron losses t/f core
cu parts
3. Stray load losses Iron parts
4. Dielectric losses minor losses
insulating materials.
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1. Cu losses in t/f:

Total Cu loss = I12 R1 + I22 R1

= I12 R 01
= I22 R 02
VA rating of t/f
→ Rated current on I ry =
E1
VA rating of t/f
Similarly current on II ry =
E2
→ Cu losses ∝ I12 or I22. Hence there are called as variable losses.
FL Cu loss in watts
→ P.U Full load Cu loss =
VA rating of t/f
I12 R01
= E1 I1
→ If VA rating of t/f is taken as base then P.U Cu loss ∝ I12 as remaining terms are constant.

→ P.U Cu loss at x of FL = x 2 × PU FL Cu loss

ry
→ P. U resistance drop ref to I � =
I1 R01 I1
×
or E1 I1
P. U resistance ref to Iry
I12 R01
= E1 I1

∴ P.U Resistance drop = P.U FL cu loss

% FL Cu loss = % R = % Resistance drop.

Iron (or) Core losses in t/f :-

1. Hysteresis loss :

Steinmetz formula :-

x
Wh = η Bmax . f . v Area under one hysteresis loop.

Where
η = stienmetz coefficient
Bmax = max. flux density in transformer core.
f = frequency of magnetic reversal = supply freq.
v = volume of core material
x = Hysteresis coeff (or) stienmetz exponent
= 1.6 (Si or CRGo steel)
2. Eddycurrent loss:
Eddy current loss ,(We ) ∝ R ce × Ie2
As area decreases in laminated core resistance increases as a result conductivity decreases.
2 2 2
We = K. Bma x f .t
thickness of laminations.
Supply freq
Constant
(it is a function of σ )
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During operation of transformer :- V1
Bm ∝
f

V1
Case (i) :-
f
= constant, Bmax = const.
we ∝ f 2

we = B f 2

Const.

∴ wi = wh + we When Bmax = const.

2
wi = Af + Bf

V1
Case (ii) :- ≠ constant, Bm ≠ const.
f
V 2
we ∝ � f1 � . f 2
we ∝ V1 2
wi = wh + we
A V11.6
wi =
f0.6
+ BV1 2

P.U iron loss :-

Iron loss in watts
→ P.U iron loss =
VA rating of t/f

→ As VA rating is choosen as base then the P.U iron loss are also constant at all load conditions.

To find out constant losses :-

 W0 = Losses in t/f under no load condition
= Iron losses + Dielectric loss + no load primary loss (I02 R1)
 Constant losses = W0 − I02 R1
Where , R1 = LV winding resistance.

To find out variable losses :-

 Wsc = Loss in t/f under S.C condition
= F.L Cu loss + stray load losses (Cu and Iron) + Iron losses in both wdgs
 Variable losses = WSC − Iron losses corresponding to VCC
O.C test :-
V1 rated → Wi
S.C test :-
VSC → (Wi )S.C
Wi ∝ V1 2
Wi V1 rated 2
(Wi )SC
= � �
VSC
VSC 2
(Wi )S.C = Wi × � �
V 1 rated
VSC 2
∴ Variable losses = WSC − (Wi )SC �V �
1 rated

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→ Under the assumption that small amount of iron losses corresponds to VSC and stray load
losses are neglected the wattmeter reading in S.C test can be approximately taken as F.L
Cu losses in the transformer.
→ Wse ≃ F.L Cu loss
≃ ISC2 . R 01
WSC
R 01 = 2
ISC

Efficiency :-

output power
 Efficiency of transformer is given by η =
input power
output power
=
output power+losses
E2 I2 cos ϕ2
=E
2 I2 cos ϕ2 + F.L cu losses+Iron losses
E2 I2 cos ϕ2
ηF.L = E2 I2 cos ϕ2 + I22 R02 + Wi

x (E2 I2 ) cos ϕ2
ηx of F.L =
x (E2 I2 ) cos ϕ2 + x 2 (I2 2 R 02 ) + Wi

S.C test O.C test

KVA × cos ϕ
→ Transformer efficiency =
KVA × cos ϕ + wi + Cu losses

→ Voltage drop in t/f at a Specific load p.f = I2 R 02 cos ϕ2 ± I2 X02 sin ϕ2

I2 R02 cos ϕ2 ± I2 X02 sin ϕ2

→ % Voltage regulation = ×100
V1′

I R02 I X02
=�2 � cos ϕ2 ± � 2 � sin ϕ2
V1′ V1′
↓ ↓
P.U resistance P.U reactance
% Regulation = �(P. U R) cos ϕ2 + (P. U X) sin ϕ2 � × 100

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AUTO TRANSFORMER:

→ Primary applied voltage, Vab = Secondary voltage V2 referred to primary + primary leakage impedance
drop + secondary leakage impedance drop ref. to primary.
N1 −N2 N1 − N2
Vab = �
N2
� V2 + I1 (r1 + jx1 ) + (I2 − I1 )(r2 + j x2 ) � N2
�

LV
→ K of auto transformer = HV
(KVA)induction = (V1 − V2 ) I1

I/P KVA = V1 I1

(KVA)induction (V1 − V2 ) I1
i/p KVA
= V1 I1
LV
=1–
HV
=1–K
∴ (KVA) induction = (1 – K) i/p KVA

(KVA) conduction = I/p KVA – (KVA)ind

(KVA)conduction = K × I/p KVA

→ Wt. of conductor in section AB of auto t/f ∝ (N1 − N2 ) I1

→ Wt of conductor in section BC of auto t/f ∝ (I2 − I1 )N2

∴ Total wt. of conductor in auto t/f is
∝ I1 (N1 − N2 ) + (I2 − I1 )N2
∝ 2 (N1 − N2 ) I1
→ Total wt. of conductor in 2 wdg transformer
∝ I1 N1 + I2 N2
∝ 2 I1 N1
wt.of conductor in an auto t/f 2(N1 −N2 )I1
→ =
wt.of conductor in 2 wdg t/f 2N1 I1
N
= 1 – N2
1

=1–K
Wt. of conductor in auto t/f = (1 – K) (wt. of conductor in 2 wdg t/f)
→ Thus saving of conductor material if auto – t/f is used} = K × {conductor wt in 2 wdg transformer.
→ (% FL losses)Auto t/f = (1 − K)(% FL losses)2 wdg t/f
→ (% Z)AT = (1 − K) (% Z)2 wdg t/f
1
→ (KVA)AT = (KVA)2 wdg t/f .
1−K

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DC MACHINES :

Lap Winding Wave Winding

(1) Coil Span : S S
Ycs = P Ycs = P
(2) Back Pitch Yb = U Ycs Yb = U Ycs
(3) Commutator Pitch Yc = 1 2 (c+1)
Yc = p
for Progressive winding
for Progressive winding
Yc = -1 2 (c+1)
for Retrogressive winding Yc = - p
for Restrogressive winding
(Yc Must be integer)
(4) Front Pitch Yf =Yb +2 Yf =2Yc - Yb
for Progressive winding
Yf =Yb -2
for Retrogressive winding

(5) Parallel Paths A=P A=2

(6) Conductor Current I I
Ic = Aa Ic = 2a
(7) No of brushes No of brushes = A = P No of brushes = 2

• S = No of commutator segments
• P = No of poles
2C
• U = No of coil sides / No of poles = S
• C = No of coils on the rotor
• A = No of armature parallel paths
• Ia = Armature current
phasor sum coil emf chord 2
→ Distribution factor (K d ) = = =π
arthematic sum of coil emf arc
elecrrical angle of coil
→ Pitch factor ( K p ) = 1800
*100%
P
→ θ0electrical = 2 θ0mechanical
ZI
→ Armature mmf/Pole (Peak) , ATa = 2AP
a

ZI pole arc
→ AT (Compensating Winding) = 2AP
a
* pole pitch
B
→ AT(Inter pole) = ATa + µ i lgi
0
Where Bi = Flux density in inter pole airgap

lgi = length of inter pole airgap , µ0 = 4π ∗ 10−7

AT(Inter pole)
→ No of turns in each interpole , Ninterpole = Ia
Z pole arc
→ The no of compensating conductor per pole, Ncw /pole = 2 A P (pole pitch )
→ The Mechanical power that is converted is given by Pconv = Tind ωm
Where T = Induced torque ω = Angular speed of the machines rotor
m

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→ The resulting electric power produced Pconv = EA IA

→ The power balance equation of the DC Machine is Tind ωm = EA IA
∅ZNP
→ The induced emf in the armature is Ea = 60A
PZ
→ Torque developed in Dc machine , Te = 2πA ∅ Ia
Where ∅ = Flux\pole , Z = No of armature conductors , P = No of poles , N = Speed in rpm ,
A = No of armature parallel paths, Ia = Armature current
→ The terminal voltage of the DC generator is given by Vt = Ea - Ia R a
→ The terminal voltage of the DC motor is given by Vt = Ea + Ia R a
ωnl− ωfl Nnl− Nfl
→ Speed regulation of dc machine is given by ,SR = ωfl
* 100 % = Nfl
* 100 %
Vnl− Vfl
→ Voltage regulation , VR = Vfl
* 100 %
Shunt Generator:
→ For a shunt generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - IaRa
→ The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
→ The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux Φ at angular
speed ω are:
Ea = k fΦω = kmω
T = k fΦIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a shunt generator:
- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.
→ The airgap power Pe for a shunt generator is:
Pe = ωT = EaIa = kmω Ia
Series Generator:

→ For a series generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia,
armature resistance Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - ( IaRa + IaR f )= Ea - Ia(Ra + R f)
The field current is equal to the armature current.
→ The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux Φ at angular
speed ω are:
Ea = k fΦω Ia = kmω Ia
T = k fΦIa2 = kmIa2
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a series generator:
- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant Ea

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→ The airgap power Pe for a series generator is:
Pe = ωT = EaIa = kmω Ia2
→ Cumulatively compounded DC generator : - ( long shunt)
(a) Ia = If + IL
(b) Vt = Ea - Ia (R a + R s )
V
(c) Isf = Rx = shunt field current
f
(d) The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by
Nse Armature reaction MMF
Isf =Isf + Ia - ( )
Nf Nf

Where Ns e = No of series field turns

Nf = = No of shunt field turns

→ Differentially compounded DC generator : - ( long shunt)

(a) Ia = If + IL
(b) Vt = Ea - Ia (R a + R s )
Vx
(c) Isf = = shunt field current
Rf
(d) The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by
Nse Armature reaction MMF
Isf =Isf - Nf
Ia - ( Nf
)

Where Ns e = No of series field turns , Nf = = No of shunt field turns

Shunt Motor:
→ For a shunt motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
→ The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux Φ at angular
speed ω are:
Ea = k fΦω = kmω
T = k fΦIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a shunt motor:
- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.
→ The airgap power Pe for a shunt motor is:
Pe = ωT = EaIa = kmω Ia
V Ra PZ
→ The speed of the shunt motor , ω = K∅ - (K∅)2T Where K =
2πA

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Series Motor :

→ For a series motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia,
armature resistance Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:

V = Ea + IaRa + IaR f = Ea + Ia(Ra + R f)

The field current is equal to the armature current.

→ The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux Φ at angular
speed ω are:
Ea = k fΦω Ia = kmω Ia
T = k fΦIa2 = kmIa2
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.

Note that for a series motor:

- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant Ea

→ The airgap power Pe for a series motor is:

Pe = ωT = EaIa = kmω Ia2
Losses:

→ constant losses (P k) = Pw f + Pi o

Where, Pio = No of load core loss

→ Pwf = Windage & friction loss

→ Variable losses (Pv ) = Pc + Ps t + Pb
2
where Pc = Copper losses = Ia R a

Ps t = Stray load loss = α I2

Pb = Brush Contact drop = Vb Ia , Where Vb = Brush voltage drop

→ The total machine losses , PL = Pk +Vb Ia + K v Ia 2

Efficiency

→ The per-unit efficiency η of an electrical machine with input power Pin, output
power Pout and power loss Ploss is:

η = Pout / Pin = Pout / (Pout + Ploss) = (Pin - Ploss) / Pin

→ Rearranging the efficiency equations:

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Pin = Pout + Ploss = Pout / η = Ploss / (1 - η)

Pout = Pin - Ploss = ηPin = ηPloss / (1 - η)

Ploss = Pin - Pout = (1 - η)Pin = (1 - η)Pout / η

Temperature Rise:

→ The resistance of copper and aluminium windings increases with temperature,

and the relationship is quite linear over the normal range of operating
temperatures. For a linear relationship, if the winding resistance is R1 at
temperature θ1 and R2 at temperature θ2, then:

R1 / (θ1 - θ0) = R2 / (θ2 - θ0) = (R2 - R1) / (θ2 - θ1)

where θ0 is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.

→ The ratio of resistances R2 and R1 is:

R2 / R1 = (θ2 - θ0) / (θ1 - θ0)

→ The average temperature rise ∆θ of a winding under load may be estimated from
measured values of the cold winding resistance R1 at temperature θ1 (usually
ambient temperature) and the hot winding resistance R2 at temperature θ2, using:
∆θ = θ2 - θ1 = (θ1 - θ0) (R2 - R1) / R1

→ Rearranging for per-unit change in resistance ∆Rpu relative to R1:

∆Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = (θ2 - θ1) / (θ1 - θ0) = ∆θ / (θ1 - θ0)

Copper Windings:

→ The value of θ0 for copper is - 234.5 °C, so that:

∆θ = θ2 - θ1 = (θ1 + 234.5) (R2 - R1) / R1

→ If θ1 is 20 °C and ∆θ is 1 degC:
∆Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = ∆θ / (θ1 - θ0) = 1 / 254.5 = 0.00393

→ The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 20 °C is 0.00393 per

degC.

Aluminium Windings:
→ The value of θ0 for aluminium is - 228 °C, so that:
∆θ = θ2 - θ1 = (θ1 + 228) (R2 - R1) / R1

→ If θ1 is 20 °C and ∆θ is 1 degC:
∆Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = ∆θ / (θ1 - θ0) = 1 / 248 = 0.00403
→ The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 20 °C is 0.00403 per
degC.

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Dielectric Dissipation Factor:

→ If an alternating voltage V of frequency f is applied across an insulation system

comprising capacitance C and equivalent series loss resistance RS, then the
voltage VR across RS and the voltage VC across C due to the resulting
current I are:
VR = IRS
VC = IXC
V = (VR2 + VC2)½

→ The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the
dielectric loss angle δ between VC and V:
tanδ = VR / VC = RS / XC = 2πfCRS
RS = XCtanδ = tanδ / 2πfC

→ The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power QC by:
P = I2RS = I2XCtanδ = QCtanδ

→ The power factor of the insulation system is the cosine of the phase
angle φ between VR and V:
cosφ = VR / V
so that δ and φ are related by:
δ + φ = 90°

→ tanδ and cosφ are related by:

tanδ = 1 / tanφ = cosφ / sinφ = cosφ / (1 - cos2φ)½
so that when cosφ is close to zero, tanδ ≈ cosφ

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SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES:

→ Principle of operation :-

Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in that conductor”

 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

→ Coil span (β) :- It is the distance between two sides of the coil. It is expressed in terms of
degrees, pole pitch, no. of slots / pole etc
→ Pole pitch :- It is the distance between two identical points on two adjacent poles.
Pole pitch is always 180° e = slots / pole.
P
→ θelec = θmech
2
→ Slot pitch or slot angle :- (T)Slot angle is the angle for each slot.
P(180°)
→ For a machine with ‘P’ poles and ‘s’ no. of slots, the slot angle = γ = d
180°
γ= s
� �
p

→ Pitch factor or coil span factor or chording factor :- (K P)

The emf induced | coil in short pitched winding

KP = The emf induced |coil in full pitched winding

The vector sum of induced emf | coil

=
Arithmetic sumof induced emf | coil

2E cos∝/2
KP =
2E

Kp = cos ∝/2
cos n ∝
→ Pitch factor for nth harmonic i.e, K pn = 2

180°
→ chording angle to eliminate nth harmonics (α)=
n
n−1
→ coil spam to eliminate nth harmonics ,(β) = 180 � �
n
→ Distribution factor | spread factor | belt factor | breadth factor(kd) :-

The emf induced when the winding is distributed

K d = The emf induced when the winding is concentrated

Vector sum of emf induced

Kd =
Arithmetic sum of emf induced

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mγ
sin
2
Kd = γ
m sin
2
→ The distribution factor for uniformly distributed winding is
mr
sim
kd4 = mr 2
π
×
2 180

mnγ
sin
For nth harmonic, kdn = 2
nγ
m sin
2

360°
→ To eliminate nth harmonics ,phase spread (mγ) =
n
→ Generally, KVA rating, power output ∝ kd and Eph (induce emf) ∝ k d . Tph .
60
KVA60 (3− ϕ) Pout60 (3 ϕ) kd60 sin m120 sin 30° 120
∴ KVA120 (3− ϕ)
= Pout120 (3ϕ)
=
kd120
= 2
120 ×
m60
=
sin 60°
×
60
= 1.15
sin
2

60
KVA60 (3ϕ) Pout60 (3ϕ) kd60 sin 90
KVA90 (2ϕ)
= Pout90° (2ϕ)
= kd90
= 2
90 × = 1.06
sin 60
2

60
KVA60 (3ϕ) Pout60 (3ϕ) kd60 sin 180
= = = 2
180 × = 1.5
KVA180 (1ϕ) Pout180 (1− ϕ) kd180 sin 60
2

KVA90 (2− ϕ) Pout90 kd90 sin90⁄2 180

KVA180 (1− ϕ)
= = = × = 1.414
Pout180 kd180 sin180⁄2 90

1
→ Speed of space harmonics of order (6k ± 1) is (6k . Ns
±1)

120 f
where Ns = synchronous speed = p

2S
The order of slot harmonics is � ± 1�
P

where S = no. of slots , P = no. of poles

→ Slot harmonics can be eliminated by skewing the armature slots and fractional slot winding.

The angle of skew = θs = γ (slot angle)

= 2 harmonic pole pitches

= 1 slot pitch.
2s
→ Distribution factor for slot harmonics, k d � ± 1�
p

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mγ
sin
Is kd1 = 2
γ i.e., same that of fundamental
m sin
2
2s
→ Pith factor for slot harmonics, k p � ± 1� = k p1 = cos ∝�2
p

→ The synchronous speed Ns and synchronous angular speed of a machine with p pole
pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:

ωs = 2πfs / p
NS − N
→ Slip S =
NS

120 f
Where NS = = synchronous speed
p
→ The magnitude of voltage induced in a given stator phase is Ea = √2 π Nc ∅ f = K∅ω
Where K = constant

→ The output power Pm for a load torque Tm is:

Pm = ωsTm

→ The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:

TM = PM / ωs = PM p/ 2πfs = 120PM / 2πNs

Synchronous Generator:

→ For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and
synchronous impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:

V = E - IsZs = Es - Is(Rs + jXs)

where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance

E = �(V cos ϕ + Ia R a )2 + (V sin ϕ ± Ia Xs )2

+ ⇒ lag p.f
− ⇒ leading p.f.

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Synchronous Motor:

→ For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and synchronous
impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:

V = Es + IsZs = Es + Is(Rs + jXs)

where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance

Voltage regulation :

|E|− |V|
→ % regulation = |V|
×100
E – V = Ia Zs
E−V
∴ % regulation =
V
Ia Zs
= × 100
V
∴ regulation ∝ Zs
∴ As Zs increases, voltages regulation increases.

Ia Zs
→ Condition for zero | min. voltage regulation is, Cos (θ + ϕ) = − 2V
→ Condition for max. Voltage regulation is, ϕ = θ
Ifm 1 1
→ Short circuit ratio (SCR) = Ifa
=
Zs (adjusted)|unit
=
Xs (adjusted)|unit

1 1
SCR ∝ ∝
Xa Armature reaction

Voltage regulation ∝ Armature reaction

1
∴ SCR ∝
Voltage regulation

∴ Small value of SCR represent poor regulation.

armature mmf
ϕa =
reluctance

But reluctance ∝ Air gap

armature mmf
∴ ϕa =
airgap

1
ϕa ∝
Air gap length
1
Armature reaction ∝ ϕa ∝
Airgap length

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1
∴ SCR ∝ ∝ Airgap length
Armature reaction

Air gap length ∝ SCR

∴ machine size ∝ SCR.

Cost ∝ SCR
EV
Power = sin δ
Xs

1
⇒P∝ ∝ SCR
Xs

Power ∝ SCR
∴ Large value of SCR represent more power output.
→ Synchronizing power coefficient or stability factor Psy is given as
dp d EV
Psy = = � sin δ�
dδ dδ Xs
EV
= cos δ
Xs
Psy is a measure of stability
∴ stability ∝ Psy
1
But Psy ∝ X ∝ SCR
s

∴ Stability ∝ SCR
Stability ∝ SCR ∝ Air gap length

∴ Stability ∝ Air gap length

→ When the stator mmf is aligned with the d – axis of field poles then flux ϕd perpole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is X d .

maximum Voltage (Vt )line (at min. Ia )

Xd = = = Direct axis reactance
minimum current √3 Ia (min )

→ When the stator mmf is aligned with the q – axis of field poles then flux ϕq per pole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is X q.

minimum voltge Vt line (at maximum Ia )

Xq = = = Quadrature axis reactance
maximum voltage √3 Ia (max )

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→ Cylindrical rotor Synchronous machine ,

Ef Vt
The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by P =
Xs
sin δ
→ Salient pole synchronous machine ,

The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by

Ef Vt Vt2 1 1
P= Xd
sin δ + 2
�X − � sin 2δ
q Xd

Condition for max. power:-

→ For cylindrical rotor machine :-
dp
At constant Vt and Ef , the condition for max. power is obtained by putting =0
dδ
dp Ef Vt
∴ = cos δ =0
dδ Xs
Cos δ = 0
δ = 90°
Hence maximum power occurs at δ = 90°
dp
→ For salient – pole synchronous machine :- =0
dδ
Vt Ef 1 1
⇒ cos δ + Vt 2 � − � cos 2δ =0
Xd Xq Xd

2
Ef Xq 1 E Xq
± � + �4V
f
Cos δ = − 4V �
t �Xd − Xq � 2 �X t d − Xq �

The value of load angle is seed to be less than 90°.

∴ max. power occurs at δ < 90°
→ Synchronizing power = Psy. ∆ δ.
EV
cos 𝛿𝛿 . ∆ 𝛿𝛿 .
=
Xs
Synchronizing power
→ Synchronizing torque = .
ω

Power flow in Alternator :-

EV V2
→ Complex power = S = P + jQ = VIa∗ Where Active power flow (P) = cos(θ − δ) − cos θ ;
Zs Zs

EV V2
Reactive power flow (Q) = sin(θ − δ) − sin θ ;
Z2 Zs
→ Condition for max. power output :-
EV V2
P= cos(θ − δ) − cos θ
Zs Z2
dp
= 0 for max power condition
dδ
ie θ – δ = 0
If R a = 0; θ = δ = 90° ; then max power is given by
θ=δ

EV V2
Pmax = − cos θ
Zs Zs

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INDUCTION MACHINES:

→ The power flow diagram of 3 – ϕ induction motor is

Power i/p to stator Mechanical power

Rotor i/p power
from mains
= airgap power Pg developed, Pm

Power of
rotor shaft

Stator Stator Rotor Rotor core loss Friction loss Windage

I2R core I2R (negligible for at bearings loss
loss loss loss small slips) and sliprings
of (if any)

ns − nr
The slip of induction machine is (S) = ns
Ns − Nr
= Ns
Where Ns is synchronous speed in rpm
ns is synchronous speed in rps
⇒ Nr = Ns (1 − s)
⇒ Ns − Nr = SNs
P . SNs PNs
∴ Rotor frequency, f2 = 120
=S 120
= Sf1

For an induction machine with rotor resistance Rr and locked rotor leakage reactance Xr, the
rotor impedance Zr at slip s is:Zr = Rr + jsXr
The stator circuit equivalent impedance Zrf for a rotor / stator frequency ratio s is:
Zrf = Rrs / s + jXrs

For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed ωs running at angular speed ωm and
slip s, the airgap transfer power Pt, rotor copper loss Pr and gross output power Pm for a
gross output torque Tm are related by:
Pt = ωsTm = Pr / s = Pm / (1 - s)
Pr = sPt = sPm / (1 - s)
Pm = ωmTm = (1 - s)Pt
The power ratios are:
Pt : Pr : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency ηm (neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:
ηm = Pm / Pt = 1 - s

Rotor emf, Current Power :-

At stand still, the relative speed between rotating magnetic field and rotor conductors is
synchronous speed Ns ; under this condition let the per phase generated emf in rotor circuit
be E2 .

∴ E2 /ph = 4.44 Nphr ϕ1 f1 K dr K pr

E2 /ph = 4.44 Nphr ϕ1 f1 K wr

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K wr = Rotor winding factor

→ But during running conditions the frequency of the rotor becomes, running with speed Nr

P(Ns − Nr ) P SNs
120
= 120
= Sf1
∴ fr = Sf1
∴ Emf under running conditions is
E = √2 π fr Kw2 Nphr ϕ1
= SE2

→ Rotor leakage reactance = 2π (Rotor frequency)

(Rotor leakage Inductance)
∴ Rotor leakage reactance at stand still = 2π f1 𝑙𝑙2
= x2 Ω
→ Rotor leakage reactance at any slips = 2π f2 𝑙𝑙2

= sx2 Ω

→ Rotor leakage impedance at stand still

= �r22 + x22

→ At any slip s, rotor

= �r22 + (sx2 )2

→ Per phase rotor current at stand still

E
=
�r22 + x22

→ Per phase rotor current at any slip s is given by

SE2 E2
I2 = =
�r22 + (sx2 )2 �(r1 /s)2 + x22

→ The rotor current I2 lags the rotor voltage E2 by rotor power factor angle θ2 given by
sx
θ2 = tan−1 2
r 2

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→ Perr phase power input to rotor is

Pg = F2 I2 cos θ2
Per phase rotor resistance
cos θ2 =
Per phase rotor impedance

r2 /s
=
�(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2

r2 /s
∴ Pg = E2 I2 ×
�(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2
`
E2 r2
= × I2
�(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2 s

r2
= I22 s
→ Pg is the power transferred from stator to rotor across the air gap. There fore Pg is called air
gap power
r
Pg = I22 2 s
2 1−S
= I2 r2 + I22 r2 � �
S

Pg = (Rotor ohmic loss) + Internal mechanical power developed in rotor (Pm )

= S Pg + (1 − S)Pg

1−S
∴ Pm = (1 − S) Pg = I22 r2 � �
S

S
Rotor ohmic loss = � � Pm = SPg
1−S

→ Internal (or gross) torque developed per phase is given by

Internal mechanical power developed inrotor

Te =
Rotor speed in mechanical radian per sec

Pm (1−S)Pg Pg
Te = ωr
= (1−S)ωs
= ωs

→ Electromagnetic torque Te can also be expressed as

Pg 1 I22 r2 Rotor ohmic loss

Te = ωs
= × =
ωs S (ωs ) slip
Rotor ohmic loss
∴ Te = (ωs ) slip

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→ Power available at the shaft can be obtained from Pg as follows.
Output or shaft power, Psh = Pm − Mechanical losses

→ Mechanical losses implies frication and windage losses

Psh = Pg − Rotor ohmic loss – Friction and windage losses

= Net mechanical power output or net power output
sh P Psh
Output or shaft torque Tsh = = (1−s) ωs
Rotor speed

→ If the stator input is known. Then air gap power Pg is given by

Pg = stator power input – stator I 2 R loss – stator core loss.

→ Ratio of Rotor input power, rotor copper losses and gross mechanical output is
1
Ir2 R 2 /s : Ir2 R 2 : Ir2 R 2 � − 1�
s
⇒ 1 : S : (1 – S)
∴ Rotor copper losses = S × Rotor input
Gross mechanical output =(1 – S) × Rotor input.
S
Rotor copper losses = (Gross Mechanical output) ×
1−S
Efficiency of the rotor is approximately
Gross mechanical power output
Equal to ηrotor = Rotor input
(1−S) Rotor input
=
Rotor input
=1–S
NS − N
=1−
NS
N
=
Ns
N
ηrotor ≃ Ns

Total torque is
m Ve2 r2
Te = × r2 2
× Nm
ωs �Re + � + (x2 + Xe )2 s
s
m is the number of stator phases.
Torque equation can be written as
m r
Te = × I22 × s2
ωs
m
Te = × rotor input per phase.
ωs

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Thus the slip SmT at which maximum torque occurs is given by
r2
SmT =
�Re2 + X2

Substituting the value of maximum slip in the torque equation, gives maximum torque
m Ve2
Tem = ×
ωs
2�Re + �Re2 + X22 �

r2
If stator parameters are neglected then applying maximum transfer theorem to r2 /s then
s
=x2

Slip corresponding to maximum torque is

r2
Sm = x2 (Breakdown slip)

Nm = Ns (1 − Sm )
⇒ Nm = Ns (1 − R 2 /x2 )

Nm is the stalling speed at the maximum torque

Starting torque:-
At starting, slip S = 1.00, starting torque is given by
m Ve2 r2
Test = ωs
× (Re + r2 )2 + X2

Motor torque in terms of 𝐓𝐓𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 :

→ The torque expression of an induction motor can also be expressed in terms of maximum
S
torque Tem and dimension less ratio . In order to get a simple and approximate
Sm,T
expression, stator resistance r1 , or the stator equivalent resistance R e , is neglected.
2�Re + �Re2 + X2 �
T r2
∴Te = r 2
× s
em �Re + 2� + X2
s

→ Since r1 or Re is neglected
Te 2X r2
Tem
= r 2
× s
� 2� + X2
s

→ The slip at which maximum torque occurs is

r
SmT = 2 ∴ r2 = SmT X
X
Te 2X SmT X
∴ = X 2
×
Tem S
� mT � + X2 s
s
T 2
⇒Te = SmT S
em +
S SmT

2Tem
Te = SmT S
+
S SmT

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Losses and efficiency :-
There are three cases in iron losses.
Case (i) : If the ratio of voltage to frequency is constant and flux is also constant then
Iron loss = Hysteresis loss + eddy current loss

Ph = K h + Bm1.6 Pe = K e f 2 Bm2
V V
Given is constant. As Bm ∝
f f
⇒ Bm is constant
∴ Ph ∝ f and Pe ∝ f 2
Case (ii) : If the ratio of voltage to frequency is not constant and flux is also not constant
v
⇒ ≠ const ϕ ≠ const
f

Ph = K h f Bm1.6 Pe = K e f 2 Bm
2

∴ Ph ∝ v1.6 f −0.6 Pe ∝ v 2

Case (iii) : If frequency is constant and voltage is variable then

1.6
Ph = K h f Bm Pe = K h f 2 Bm
2

v 1.6
= Kh f � �
f

Ph ∝ v1.6 Pe ∝ v12

→ Short circuit current with normal voltage applied to stator is

V
I = Ibr × Vbr

I = short circuit current with normal voltage

Ibr = short circuit current with voltage Vbr .
→ Power factor on short circuit is found from
Pbr = √3 Vbr Ibr cos ϕbr
Pbr
⇒ Cos ϕbr =
√3 Vbr Ibr

→ As Pbr is approximately equal to full load copper losses

Pbr
R br = Ibr2

The blocked rotor impedance is

Vbr
Zbr =
Ibr
∴ Blocked rotor reactance = X br = �Zbr 2 − R br2
Efficiency of Induction machines :-
output power
Generally efficiency = input power
Net mechanical output Net electrical output
∴ Efficiency of Induction motor = ∴ Efficiency of Induction generator =
Electrical power input mechanical power input

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GD Psc − 3 Isc2 r1
∴ = 3 Isc2 r1
GF

Wound rotor
GD I22 r2 r2 I 2
= I12 r1
= �I2 �
GF r1 1

Direct – on line (across the line) starting :-

→ The relation between starting torque and full load torque is
1 r2
Te = × I22
ωs s
r
Te.st I22.st 2
∴ = 1
r2
Te.fl I22.ft
Sfl

I 2
= � 2 st � × Sfl
I2 fl
The above equation valids of rotor resistance remains constant.
Te.st I 2
Te.fl
= � Ist� × Sfl
fl

Ist (Effective rotor to stator turns ratio) I2 st

Where Ifl
= (Effective rotor to stator turns ratio) I2 fl
→ Per phase short – circuit current at stand still (or at starting) is,
V1
Isc =
Zsc

Where Zsc = (r1 + r2 ) + j(x1 + x2 )

Here shunt branch parameters of equivalent circuit are neglected.
→ Therefore, for direct switching,
V1
Ist = Isc =
Zsc

Test I 2
∴
Tesf
= � Isc � Sfl .
fl

Stator resistor (or reactor) starting :-

Since per phase voltage is reduced to xv, the per phase starting current Ist is given by
xv
Ist = 1 = xIsc
Z sc
Te.st I 2
As be fore
Te.fl
= � Ist� × Sfl
fl
xI 2
= � I sc � × Sfl
fl

→ In an induction motor, torque ∝ (voltage)2

starting torque with reactor starting xv 2

∴ = � v 1� = x2
starting torque with direct switching 1

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Auto transformer starting :-

→ Per phase starting current from the supply mains is Ist = x 2 Isc

Te.st Per phase starting current in motor winding

= × Sfl
Te fl Per−phase motor full load current

Te.st Ist Isc

Te.fl
= Ifl2
× Sfl

Test with an autotransformer xv 2

= � v 1� = x2
Test with direct switching 1

Star – delta method of starting :

starting torque with star delta starter
→
starting torque with direct switching in delta
V 2
� L� 1
√3
= [V 2 =
L] 3
∴ star delta starter also reduces the starting torque to one – third of that produced by direct switching
in delta.
→ With star – delta starter, a motor behaves as if it were started by an auto transformer starter with x =
1
= 0.58 i.e with 58% tapping.
√3
1 2r 1 2
Starting torque with star delta starter Te .st �I
ws st .y
� 12 � I � 1 I d 2
√3 st .d
→ = 1 r = (Ifl .d )2
× Sfl = �I sc . d� × Sfl
Full load torque with startor winding in delta,Tefld (I )2 2 3 fl .
ws fl d Sfl

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