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ELECTRICAL MACHINES (FORMULA NOTES)

1. Transformer:
• Gross cross-sectional area = Area occupied by magnetic material + Insulation material.
• Net cross sectional area = Area occupied by only magnetic material excluding area of
insulation material.
• Hence for all calculations, net cross-sectional area is taken since majority  ( flux ) flows in

magnetic material.
 = BAn

Weight of Transformer
• Specific weight of t/f =
KVA rating of Transformer
• Staking/iron factor:
Net cross sectional area
(ks ) = Gross cross sectional area
• ks is always less than 1
• Gross CS area = AG = Length × Breadth
• Net CS area = An = ks × AG
• Utilization factor of transformer core
Effective CS area
= U.F. of cruciform core = 0.8 to 0.85.
Total CS area

mmF
• Flux = = m sin t
Reluc tan ce
• According to faradays second law,
d d
e1 = −N1
dt
= −N1 (  sin t )
dt m
Instantaneous value of emf in primary

 
e1 = N1m sin  t − 
 2

• Transformer emf equations:

E1 = 4.44 N1 Bmax Anf … (i)
E2 = 4.44 N2 Bmax Anf … (ii)
• Emf per turn in Primary:
E1
Iry = = 4.44Bmax Anf
N1

• Emf per turn in Secondary:

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E V1
IIry = 2 = 4.44Bmax Anf Bmax = Constant  = Cons tan t
N2 f

• Emf per turn on both sides of the transformer is same Equivalent circuit of Transformer under No-Load condition:

E1 E E N 1
= 2  1 = 1 =
N1 N2 E2 N2 k

E2 N2
Transformation ratio = K = =
E1 N1

1
Turn ratio = = N1 : N2
K
• For an ideal two-winding transformer with primary voltage V 1 applied across N1 primary turns
and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary turns:
V1 N1
=
V2 N2
• No load current = I0 = I + Iw = I0  − 0
• The primary current I1 and secondary current I2 are related by:
Iw = I0 cos 0
I1 N2 V
= = 2 I = I0 sin 0
I2 N1 V1

• For an ideal step-down autotransformer with primary voltage V1 applied across (N1 + N2) • No load power = V1I0 cos 0 = V1Iw = Iron losses

primary turns and secondary voltage V 2 appearing across N2 secondary turns. V1 V No load power
R0 = ;X0 = 1  Iw =
Iw1 I V1
V1
=
(N1 + N2 )
V2 N2 Transferring from Secondary to Primary:

• The primary (input) current I1 and secondary (output) current I2 are related by:
I1 N2 V
= = 2.
I2 (N1 + N2 ) V1
• For a single-phase transformer with rated primary voltage V1, rated primary current I1, rated
I22R2 = I12R21
secondary voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the volt ampere rating S is: 2
I  R R2
S = V1I1 = V2I2 R21 = R1  2  = 22 R12 =
 I1  K K2
• For a balanced m-phase with rated primary phase voltage V1 rated primary current I1, rated
From Primary to Secondary:
secondary phase voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the volt ampere rating S is:
I12R1 = I22R11
S = mV1I1 = mV2I2
I12
R11 =  R1 = R1K2
• The primary circuit impedance Z 1 referred to the secondary circuit for an ideal transformer I22
with N1 primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
• Total resistance ref to primary = R 1 + R21
2
N  R2
Z12 = Z1  2  R01 = R1 +
 N1  k2
• During operation of transformer: • Total resistance ref to secondary = R2+R11
E1 V R02 = R2 + k2R1
Bm   1
f f • Total Cu loss = I12 R01 or I22 R02

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Per unit resistance drops: Wh = η Bmaxx f V

IR Area under one hysteresis loop
• P.U. primary resistance drop = 1 1
E1 where,
IR η = Stienmetz coefficient
• P.U. secondary resistance drop = 2 2
E2 Bmax = Maximum flux density in transformer core.
I1R 01 f = Frequency of magnetic reversal = supply frequency.
• Total P.U. resistance drop ref to Iry =
E1 V = Volume of core material
IR x = Hysteresis coefficient (or) stienmetz exponent = 1.6 (Si or CRGO steel)
• Total P.U. resistance drop ref to II ry
= 2 02
E2 2. Eddy current loss:
• The P.U resistance drops on both sides of the t/f is same Eddy current loss, We  R ce  I2e
I1R 01 IR As area decreases in laminated core resistance as a result conductivity decrease.
= 2 02
E1 E2
We = K (Cons tan t ) Bmax
2
f 2 (Supply freq.)  t2 (Thickness of lamination)
Losses present in transformer:
(It is a function of σ)
1. Copper losses: Transformer windings major losses
During operation of transformer:
2. Iron losses: Transformer core
V1
3. Stray load losses: Cu parts and Iron parts minor losses Bm 
f
4. Dielectric losses: Insulating materials.
V1
Case(i): = Constant, Bmax = Constant
1. Cu losses in transformer: f
Total Cu loss = I12R1 + I22R1 = I12R 01 = I22R 02 We  f 2
VA rating of t / f We = Bf 2
• Rated current on Iry =
E1
Wi = Wh + We 
  When Bmax = Constant
VA rating of t / f Wi = Af + Bf 2 
• Similarly, current on IIry =
E2
V1
Case(ii):  Constant, Bmax ≠ Constant
• Cu losses  I12 or I22. Hence these are called as variable losses. f
2 2
FL Cu loss in watts I1R 01 V 
• P.U. full load Cu loss = = We   1  f 2
VA rating of t / f E1I1  f 
• If VA rating of transformer is taken as base then P.U Cu loss  I12 as remaining terms are We  V12

constant. Wi = Wh + We

• P.U. Cu loss at x(Loading factor) of FL = x2 × PU FL Cu loss AV11.6

Wi = + BV12
f 0.6
PU resis tan ce drop ref to I 
 I1R 01 I1
ry
I R 01 2

• =  = 1
P.U. iron loss:
PU resis tan ce ref to Iry 
 E1 I1 E1I1
Iron loss in watts
 PU resistance drop = PU Full Load Cu loss • P.U. iron loss =
VA rating of t / f
% FL Cu loss = %R = %Resistance drop.
• As VA rating is chosen as base then the P.U. iron loss are also constant at all load conditions.
Iron (or) Core losses in Transformer:
To find out constant losses:
1. Hysteresis loss:
• W0 = Losses in t/f under no-load condition = Iron losses + Dielectric loss + no-load primary loss
Steinmetz formula:
(I02R1)

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• Constant losses = W0 – I022 R1 KVA  cos 

• Transformer efficiency =
Where, R1 = LV winding resistance. KVA  cos  + Wi + Cu losses

To find out variable losses: • Voltage drop in t/f at a specific load, p.f. = I2R 02 cos 2  I2 X02 sin 2
• Wsc = Loss in transformer under SC condition = Full Load Cu loss + stray load losses (Cu and
I2R 02 cos 2  I2 X02 sin 2 I R  I R 
• % Voltage regulation =  100 =  2 02  cos 2   2 02  sin 2
Iron) + Iron losses in both windings. V2  V1   V1 
• Variable losses = Wsc – Iron losses corresponding to VSC.
% Regulation = (RPU ) cos 2 + ( XPU ) sin 2   100
OC Test:
Auto Transformer:
V1 rated → Wi
LV
SC Test: • K of auto transformer =
HV
Vsc → ( Wi )sc (KVA) induction = (V1 – V2) I1
Wi  V12 Input KVA = V1I1

Wi  V rated 
2
(KVA )induction ( V1 − V2 ) I1 LV
= 1  = =1− =1−K
( Wi )sc  Vsc  input KVA V1I1 HV
2  (KVA)induction = (1 – K) input KVA
 Vsc 
( Wi )sc = Wi   (KVA)induction = Input KVA – (KVA)ind
 V1 rated 
2
(KVA)conduction = K × input KVA
 Vsc 
 Variable losses = Wsc − ( Wi )sc   • Wt. of conductor in section AB of auto t / f  (N1 − N2 ) I1
 V1 rated 
• Wt. of conductor in section BC of auto t / f  ( I1 − I2 ) N1
• Under the assumption that small amount of iron losses corresponds to V sc and stray load losses
are neglected the wattmeter reading in SC test can be approximately taken as FL Cu losses in  Total Wt. of conductor in auto t/f is
the transformer.  I1 (N1 − N2 ) N1 + (N2 − N1 ) N2

• Wsc FL Cu loss I2sc  R 01  2 (N1 − N2 ) I1

Wsc • Total Wt. of conductor in 2 wdg transformer

R 01 =
I2sc  I1N1 + I2N2  2I1N1

Efficiency: Wt. of conductor in an auto t / f 2 (N1 − N2 ) I1 N

• = =1− 2 =1−K
• Efficiency of transformer is given by Wt. of conductor in 2 wdg t / f 2N1I1 N1

=
output power
=
output power Wt. of conductor in auto t/f = (1 – K) (Wt. of conductor in 2 wdg t/f)
input power input power + losses
• Thus, saving of conductor material if auto-transformer is used} = K × (Conductor wt. in 2
E2I2 cos 2 wdg transformer)
=
E2I2 cos 2 + FL Cu losses + Iron losses
• (% FL losses)AT = (1 – K)(% FL losses)2wdg t/f
E2I2 cos 2 • (%Z)AT = (1 – K)(%Z)2wdg t/f
FL =
E2I2 cos 2 + I22R 02 + Wi
1
• (KVA)AT =
1−K
(KVA )2wdg t /f
x (E2I2 ) cos 2
x of FL =
(
x (E2I2 ) cos 2 + x2 I22R 02 + Wi )

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2. DC Machines: zIa Pole arc

• AT (compensating winding) = 
S.No. Lap winding Wave winding 2AP Pole pitch

1. Coil span: Ycs = s/p Ycs = s/p Bi

• At (Inter pole) = ATa + I
o gi
2. Back pitch Yb = UYcs Yb = UYcs
3. Commutator Yc = 1 for progressive 2 ( c + 1) where Bi = flux density in inter pole air gap
Yc = for progressive winding
pitch winding p Igi = Length of inter pole air gap,

Yc = –1 for 2 ( c + 1) µ0 = 4π × 10–7
Yc = for retrogressive winding
retrogressive winding p • No of turns in each interpole,

(Yc must be integer) AT ( Inter pole )

Ninterpole =
Ia
4. Front pitch Yf = Yb + 2 Yf = 2Yb – Yb
for progressive winding Ncw Z  Pole arc 
• The no. of compensating conductor per pole, =  
Pole AP  Pole pitch 
Yf = Yb – 2
for retrogressive • The mechanical power that is converted is given by Pconv = Tind ωm

winding Where, T = Induced torque

5. Parallel paths A=P A=2 ωm = Angular speed of the machine rotor

6. Conductor Ia Ia • The resulting electric power produced Pconv = EAIA

Ic = Ic =
current A A • The power balance equation of the DC machine is Tind ωm = EAIA

7. No. of No. of brushes = A = P No. of brushes = 2 ZNP

• The induced emf in the armature is Ea = .
60A
brushes
PZ
• Torque developed in DC machine, Te = I .
2A a
S = No. of commutator segments
Flux
P = No. of poles Where  = , Z = Number of armature conductors, P = No. of poles, N = Speed in rpm,
Pole
2c
U = No. of coil sides/No. of poles = A = No. of armature parallel paths Ia = Armature current
s
• The terminal voltage of the DC generator is given by Vt = Ea – Ia Ra
C = No. of coils on the rotor
• The terminal voltage of the DC motor is given by Vt = Ea + Ia Ra
A = No. of armature parallel paths
n1 − f1 N − Nf1
Ia = Armature current • Speed regulation of DC machine is given by, SR =  100% = n1  100%
f1 Nf1
• Distribution factor
Vn1 − Vf1
Phasor sum coil emf Chord 2 • Voltage regulation, VR =  100%
(Kd ) = Arthematic sum of coil emf
=
arc
=

Vf1

Shunt Generator:
• Pitch factor
• For a shunt generator with armature induced voltage E a, armature current Ia and armature
(K ) = Electrical180
p
angle of coil

 100% resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea – IaRa
P 0
• 0electrical = mechanical
2 V
• The field current If for a field resistance Rf is: If =
Rf
zIa
• Armature mmf/Pole(Peak), ATa =
2AP • The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux  at angular speed ω are:

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Ea = k f  = km T = k f Ia = kmIa Vx

(c) Isf = = Shunt field current
Rf
Where, kf and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a shunt generator: (d) The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by

- Induced voltage is proportional to speed. Nse  Armature reaction MMF 

Isf = Isf − I − 
Nf a  Nf 
- Torque is proportional to armature current.
• The airgap power Pe for shunt generator is: Where, Nse = No. of series field turns

Pe = T = EaIa = k m Ia Nf = No of shunt field turns

Shunt Motor:
Series Generator:
• For a shunt generator with armature induced voltage E a, armature current Ia and armature
• For a series generator with armature induced voltage E a, armature current Ia, armature
resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
resistance Ra and field resistance Rf, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa
V = Ea – (IaRa + IaRf) = Ea – Ia(Ra + Rf)
V
The field current is equal to the armature current. The field current If for a field resistance Rf is: If =
Rf
• The armature induced voltage E a and torque T with magnetic flux  at angular speed ω are:
• The armature induced voltage E a and torque T with magnetic flux  at angular speed ω are:
Ea = k f Ia = kmIa
Ea = k f  = k m
T = k f I2a = k mI2a T = k f Ia = k mIa
Where kf and km are design coefficient of the machine. Where, kf and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a series generator: Note that for a shunt motor:
- Induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current, - Induced voltage is proportional to speed.
- Torque is proportional to the square of armature current. - Torque is proportional to armature current.
- Armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant E a • The airgap power Pe for shunt generator is:
• The airgaps power Pe for a series generator is:
Pe = T = EaIa = k m Ia
Pe = T = EaIa = k mI2a
V Ra PZ
• The speed of the shunt motor,  = − where, K =
• Cumulatively compounded DC generator: (long shunt) k (K )2 T 2A
(a) Ia = If + IL
Series Motor:
(b) Vt = Ea – Ia (Ra + Rs)
• For a series motor with armature induced voltage E a, armature current Ia, armature
Vx
(c) Isf = = Shunt field current resistance Ra and field resistance Rf, the terminal voltage V is:
Rf
V = Ea + (IaRa + IaRf) = Ea + Ia(Ra + Rf)
(d) The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by
The field current is equal to the armature current.
Nse  Armature reaction MMF 
Isf = Isf + I −  • The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux  at angular speed ω are:
Nf a  Nf 
Ea = k f Ia = k mIa T = k f I2a = k mI2a
Where, Nse = No. of series field turns
Where kf and km are design coefficient of the machine.
Nf = No of shunt field turns
Note that for a series motor:
• Differentially compounded DC generator: (long shunt)
- Induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current.
(a) Ia = I f + I L
- Torque is proportional to the square of armature current.
(b) Vt = Ea – Ia (Ra + Rs)
- Armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant E a

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• The airgaps power Pe for a series motor is:

 = 2 − 1 =
( 1 − 0 ) (R2 − R1 )
Pe = T = EaIa = k mI2a R1

Losses: • Rearranging for per-unit change in resistance ∆Rpu relative to R1:

• Constant losses (Pk) = Pwf + Pio

Rpu =
(R2 − R1 ) = ( 2 − 1 ) = 
where, Pio = No of load core loss R1 ( 1 − 0 ) ( 1 − 0 )
• Variables losses (Pv) = Pc + Pst + Pb Copper Windings:

Where, Pc = Copper losses = I2aR a • The value of θ0 for copper is –234.5°C, so that:

Pst = Stray load loss = αI2 ∆θ = θ2 – θ1 = (θ1 + 234.5)

(R 2 − R 1 )
R1
Pb = Brush contact drop = Vb Ia, where, Vb = Brush voltage drop
• The total machine losses, PL = Pk + VbIa + Kv Ia 2 • If θ1 is 20°C and ∆θ is 1 degC:

Efficiency: (R 2 − R 1 )
∆Rpu=
R1
• The per unit efficiency η of an electrical machine with input power P in, output power Pout and
power loss Ploss is:  1
= = = 0.00393
P Pout (P − Ploss ) ( 1 − 0 ) 254.5
 = out = = in
Pin (Pout + Ploss ) Pin • The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 20°C is 0.00393 per degC.

• Rearranging the efficiency equations: Aluminium Windings:

• The value of θ0 for aluminium is - 228°C, so that:
Pout P
Pin = Pout + Ploss = = loss
 (1 − ) (R 2 − R 1 )
∆θ = θ2 – θ1 = (θ1 + 228)
R1
Ploss
Pout = Pin − Ploss = Pin =
(1 − ) • If θ1 is 20°C and ∆θ is 1 deg C:

(1 − ) Pout (R 2 − R 1 )  1
∆Rpu = = = = 0.00403
Ploss = Pin − Pout = (1 − ) Pin = R1 ( 1 − 0 ) 248


Temperature Rise: • The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 20°C is 0.00403 per deg C.

• The resistance of copper and aluminum windings increases with temperature, and the Dielectric Dissipation Factor:

relationship is quite linear over the normal range of operating temperatures. For a linear • If an alternating voltage V of frequency f is applied across an insulation system comprising

relationship, if the winding resistance is R1 at temperature θ1 and R2 at temperature θ2, then: capacitance C and equivalent series loss resistance R S, then the voltage VR across RS and the

R1
=
R2
=
(R2 − R1 ) voltage VC across C due to the resulting current I are:

( 1 − 0 ) ( 2 − 0 ) ( 2 − 1 ) VR = IRS
VC = IXC
where θ0 is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.
V = (VR2 + VC2)½
• The ratio of resistances R2 and R1 is:
• The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the dielectric loss
R2 ( 2 − 0 )
= angle δ between VC and V:
R1 ( 1 − 0 )
VR R
• The average temperature rise ∆θ of a winding under load may be estimated from measured tanδ = = S = 2fCR S
VC XC
values of the cold winding resistance R 1 at temperature θ1 (usually ambient temperature)
tan 
and the hot winding resistance R2 at temperature θ2, using: RS = XC tan  =
2fC
• The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power Q C by:

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P = I2RS = I2XCtanδ = QCtanδ 180

() = n
.
• The power factor of the insulation system is the cosine of the phase angle  between VR and
n − 1
V: • Coil spam to eliminate nth harmonics, (  ) = 180  .
 n 
VR
cos  =
V • Distribution factor | Spread factor | belt factor | breadth factor (kd):

So that δ and  are related by: Kd =

The emf induced when the winding is distributed
The emf induced when the winding is concentrated
δ +  = 90°
Vector sum of emf induced
• tanδ and cos  are related by: =
Arithmetic sum of emf induced
1 cos  cos 
tan  = = = mY
( )
tan  sin  1/2 sin
1 − cos2  Kd = 2
Y
m sin
So that when cos  is close to zero, 2
tanδ ≈ cos  • The distribution factor for uniformly distributed winding is

3. Synchronous Machines: mr
sin
kd4 = 2
• Principle of operation: mr 

Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in that conductor” 2 180

-Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. mnr

sin
2
• Coil span (β): It is the distance between two sides of the coil. It is expressed in terms of For nth harmonic, kdn =
ny
m sin
degrees, pole pitch, no. of slots / pole etc. 2
• Pole pitch: It is the distance between two identical points on two adjacent poles. 360
• To eliminate nth harmonics phase spread (my) =
Pole pitch is always 180° e = slots / pole. n

P • Generally, KVA rating, power output  kd and Eph (induced emf)  k d  Tph
• elec = 
2 mech
KVA60 (3 −  ) Pout60 (3 ) kd60
• Slot pitch or slot angle: (T) Slot angle is the angle for each slot.  = =
KVA120 (3 −  ) Pout120 (3 ) kd120
P (180 )
• For a machine with ‘P’ poles and ‘s’ no. of slots, the slot angle = Y = 60
d sin
= 2  m120 = sin30  120 = 1.15

Y=
(180) sin
120 m60 sin 60 60
(s / p) 2
60
• Pitch factor or coil span factor or chording factor :- (KP) KVA60 (3 ) Pout60 (3 ) kd60 sin
2  90 = 1.06
= = =
The emf induced | Coil in short pitched winding KVA120 (2 ) Pout90 (2 ) kd90 90 60
KP = sin
The emf induced | Coil in full pitched winding 2
60
=
The vector sum of indeed emf | Coil KVA60 (3 ) Pout60 (3 ) kd60 sin
2  180 = 1.5
Arithmetic sum of induced emf | Coil = = =
KVA180 (1 ) Pout180 (1 −  ) kd180 180 60
sin
2E cos  /2  2
Kp = = cos
2E 2 90
KVA90 (2 −  ) Pout90 kd90 sin
2  180 = 1.414
cos n  = = =
• Pitch factor for nth harmonic i.e., Kpn = KVA180 (1 −  ) Pout180 kd180 180 90
2 sin
2
• Chording angle to eliminate nth harmonics

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• Speed of space harmonics of order ( 6k  1) is

1
( V cos  + IaR a ) + ( V sin   IaXs )
2 2
N E=
(6k  1) s
+  lag p.f.
120f −  leading p.f.
where Ns = Synchronous speed =
p
Synchronous Motor:
 2s  • For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage E s, stator current Is and synchronous
The order of slot harmonics is   1
p 
impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
where S = No. of slots, P = No. of poles
V = Es + IsZs = Es + Is(Rs + jXs)
• Slot harmonics can be eliminated by skewing the armature slots and fractional slot winding.
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance
The angle of skew = θs = γ (slot angle) = 2 harmonic pole pitches = 1 slot pitch.
Voltage regulation:
• Distribution factor for slot harmonics,
E − V
• % regulation =  100
 2s  V
kd   1
p 
E – V = IaZs
my
sin E − V IaZs
Is kd1 = 2 i.e., same that of fundamental ∴ % regulation = =  100
y V V
m sin
2 ∴ regulation ∝ Zs
 2s   ∴ As Zs increases, voltages regulation increases.
• Pitch factor for slot harmonics, kp   1  = kp1 = cos
p  2
IaZs
• Condition for zero | min. voltage regulation is, cos(θ + ϕ) = −
• The synchronous speed Ns and synchronous angular speed of a machine with p pole pairs 2V
running on a supply of frequency fs are: • Condition for max. Voltage regulation is, ϕ = θ
2fs • Short circuit ratio (SCR)
ωs =
p Ifm 1 1
= =
N −N Ifa Zs ( adjusted) Xs ( adjusted)
• Slip S = S unit unit
NS
1 1
SCR ∝ 
120f Xa Armature reaction
Where NS = = synchronous speed
p
Voltage regulation ∝ Armature reaction
• The magnitude of voltage induced in a given stator phase is Ea = 2Ncf = K Where K = 1
∴ SCR ∝
constant Voltage reaction

• The output power Pm for a load torque Tm is: ∴ Small value of SCR represents poor regulation.
Pm = ωsTm Armature mmf
ϕa =
• The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is: Reluc tan ce

PM P p 120PM But reluctance ∝ Air gap

TM = = M =
s 2fs 2Ns Armature mmf
∴ ϕa =
Airgap
Synchronous Generator:
• For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage E s, stator current Is and synchronous 1
ϕa ∝
Airgap length
impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = E – IsZs = Es – Is(Rs + jXs)
1
Armature reaction ∝ ϕa ∝
Airgap length
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance

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1 dp
 SCR   Airgap length At constant Vt and Ef, the condition for max. power is obtained by putting =0
Armature reaction d
Air gap length  SCR dp Ef Vt
 = cod = 0
 Machine size  SCR Cost  SCR d Xs

EV 1 cosδ = 0
Power = sin   P   SCR
Xa Xs δ = 90°

Power  SCR Hence maximum power occurs at δ = 90°

 Large value of SCR represents more power output. • For salient – pole synchronous machine:

• Synchronizing power coefficient or stability factor Psy is given as dp

=0
d
dp d  EV  EV
Psy = =  sin   = cos 
d d  Xs VtEf 1 1 
 Xs  cod + Vt2  −  cos 2 = 0
Xd x x 
Psy is a measure of stability  q d 

 Stability  Psy
2
Ef Xq 1  Ef Xq 
cos  = −  +  The value of load angle is seed to be less
But, Psy 
1
 SCR
(
4Vt Xd − Xq )  (
2  4Vt Xd − Xq ) 
Xs
than 90°.
 Stability  SCR
 Maximum power occurs at δ < 90°
Stability  SCR  air gap length EV
• Synchronizing power = Psy.∆δ. = cod
 Stability  air gap length Xs
• When the stator mmf is aligned with the d – axis of field poles then flux ϕd per pole is set up Synchronizing power
• Synchronizing torque =
and effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xd. 

Maximum voltage ( Vt ) line ( at min, Ia ) Power flow in Alternator:

Xd = = = Direct axis reactance
Minimum current 3Ia (min) • Complex power = S = P + jQ = VIa∗
EV V2
• When the stator mmf is aligned with the q – axis of field poles then flux ϕq per pole is set up Where Active power flow (P) = cos (  −  ) − cos ;
Zs Zs
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xq.
V2
Minimum voltage ( Vt ) line ( at min, Ia )
EV
Reactive power flow (Q) = sin (  −  ) − sin ;
Xq = = = Quadrature axis reactance Z2 Zs
Maximum current 3Ia (max )
• Condition for max. power output:
• Cylindrical rotor Synchronous machine,
EV V2
Ef Vt P= cos (  −  ) − cos 
The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by P = sin  Zs Z2
Xs
dp
• Salient pole synchronous machine, = 0 for max power condition
d
The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by
i.e. θ – δ = 0
Ef Vt V2  1 1 θ=δ
P= sin  + t  −  sin2
Xd 2  Xq Xd 
If Ra = 0; θ = δ = 90°; then max power is given by
Condition for max. power: EV V2
Pmax = − cos 
• For cylindrical rotor machine: Zs Zs

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4. Induction Machines: Pm
ηm = =1–s
Pt
• The power flow diagram of 3 −  induction motor is
Rotor emf, Current Power:
At stand still, the relative speed between rotating magnetic field and rotor conductors is
synchronous speed Ns; under this condition let the per phase generated emf in rotor circuit be
E2.
E2
∴ = 4.44 Nphr ϕ1 f1 Kdr Kpr
ph

E2
= 4.44 Nphr ϕ1 f1 Kwr
ph

Kwr = Rotor winding factor

• But during running conditions the frequency of the rotor becomes, running with speed N r
The slip of induction machine is
P (Ns − Nr ) PsNs
ns − nr Ns − Nr = = sf1
(S) = ns
=
Ns 120 120
 fr = sf1
Where Ns is synchronous speed in rpm ns is synchronous speed in rps
 Emf under running conditions is
⇒ Nr= Ns(1− s)
⇒ Ns − Nr = sNs E= 2frKw2Nphr 1 = sE2

∴ Rotor frequency, • Rotor leakage reactance = 2  (Rotor frequency) (Rotor leakage Inductance)
P  SNs PNs ∴ Rotor leakage reactance at stand still = 2  f1𝑙2 = x2Ω
f2 = =S = Sf1
120 120
• Rotor leakage reactance at any slips = 2  f2𝑙2 =s x2Ω
For an induction machine with rotor resistance Rr and locked rotor leakage reactance Xr, the
• Rotor leakage impedance at stand still = r22 + x22
rotor impedance Zr at slip s is:
Zr = Rr + jsXr • At any slip s, rotor = r22 + x22
The stator circuit equivalent impedance Zrf for a rotor/stator frequency ratio s is: • Per phase rotor current at any slip s is given by
Rrs sE2 E2
Zrf = I2 = =
s + jXrs
( ) (r1 / s)
2 2
r22 + sx2 + x22
For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed ω s running at angular speed ωm and
• The rotor current I2 lags the rotor voltage E2 by rotor power factor angle θ2 given by
slip s, the airgap transfer power Pt, rotor copper loss Pr and gross output power Pm for a gross
sx2
output torque Tm are related by: 2 = tan−1
r2
Pr Pm
Pt = ωsTm = = • Per phase power input to rotor is
s (1 − s )
Pg = E2I2 cos 2
sPm
Pr = sPt =
(1 − s ) cos 2 =
Per phase rotor resis tan ce
=
r2 / s
Per phase rotor impedance
(r2 / s ) + ( x2 )
2 2
Pm = ωmTm = (1 – s)Pt
The power ratios are: r2 / s E2 r2 r
 Pg = E2I2  =  Is = I22 2
(r2 / s ) + ( x2 ) (r2 / s ) + ( x2 ) s s
2 2 2 2
Pt : Pr : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency ηm (neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:

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• Pg is the power transferred from stator to rotor across the air gap. Therefore, P g is called air Gross mechanical power output
ηrotor =
gap power Rotor input

r2 1 − s  (1 − s ) Rotor input =1−s =1−

NS − N
=
N
Pg = I22 = I22r2 + I22r2  
s  s  Rotor input NS Ns

Pg = (Rotor ohmic loss) + Internal mechanical power developed in rotor (P m) = sPg +(1 – s)Pg N
rotor
Ns
1 − s 
 Pm = (1 − s ) Pg = I22r2  
 s  Total torque is

 s  m Ve2 r
Rotor ohmic loss =   Pm = sPg Te =   2 Nm
1 − s  s  r2 
2
s
( 2 e)
2
R +
 e s + x + X
• Internal (or gross) torque developed per phase is given by  

Internal mechanical power developed in rotor m is the number of stator phases. Torque equation can be written as
Te =
Rotor speed in mechanical radian per sec m 2 r2 m
Te =  I2  =  rotor input per phase.
s s
P
Te = m =
(1 − S) Pg = Pg s

r (1 − S) s s Thus, the slip smT at which maximum torque occurs is given by

• Electromagnetic torque Te can also be expressed as r2

SmT =
R 2e + x2
Pg 1 I22r2 Rotor ohmic loss
Te = =  =
s s s ( s ) slip Substituting the value of maximum slip in the torque equation, gives maximum torque

Rotor ohmic loss m V2

 Te = Tem =  e
( s ) slip s 2X2

• Power available at the shaft can be obtained from Pg as follows. Output or shaft power, r2 r
If stator parameters are neglected then applying maximum transfer theorem to then 2 = x2
Psh = Pm − Mechanical losses s s

• Mechanical losses imply frication and windage losses. Slip corresponding to maximum torque is

Psh = Pg − Rotor ohmic loss – Friction and windage losses = Net mechanical power output or r2
Sm = (Breakdown slip)
x2
net power output output or shaft torque
Psh Psh Nm = Ns(1 − Sm)
Tsh = =
Rotor speed (1 − s ) s  R 
⇒ Nm = Ns 1 − 2 
 x2 
• If the stator input is known. Then air gap power Pg is given by Pg = stator power input – stator
I2R loss – stator core loss. Nm is the stalling speed at the maximum torque.

• Ratio of Rotor input power, rotor copper losses and gross mechanical output is Starting Torque:
At starting, slip S = 1.00, starting torque is given by
Ir2R 2 2 1 
: Ir R2 : Ir2R 2  − 1
s s  mVe2 r2
Test = 
 1 : s : (1 − s) s (R e + r2 ) + x2
2

 Rotor copper losses = s × Rotor input Motor Torque in terms of Tem:

Gross Mechanical output = (1–s) × Rotor input. • The torque expression of an induction motor can also be expressed in terms of maximum
s S
Rotor copper losses = (Gross mechanical output) × torque Tem and dimension less ratio . In order to get a simple and approximate expression,
1−s SmT
Efficiency of the rotor is approximately equal to
stator resistance r1, or the stator equivalent resistance R e, is neglected.

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T 2X r Ph  v1.6 Pe  v12
 e =  2
Tem  r 2 s
  +X
2 2 • Short circuit current with normal voltage applied to stator is
s
V
I = Ibr 
• Since r1 or Re is neglected vbr
Te 2X r I = Short circuit current with normal voltage
=  2
Tem  r 2 s
  +X Ibr = Short circuit current with voltage Vb,
2 2

s
• Power factor on short circuit is found from
• The slip at which maximum torque occurs is
Pbr = 3Vbr Ibr cos br
r2
SmT =  r2 = SmT X
X Pbr
 cos br =
3Vbr Ibr
T 2X S X
 e =  mT
•
2
Tem  SmT X  s As Pbr is approximately equal to full load cooper losses
 s  +X
2

  Pbr
Rbr =
T 2 Ibr
 e =
Tem SmT S The blocked rotor impedance is
+
s smT
Vbr
Zbr =
2Tem Ibr
Te =
SmT S
+
s smT  Blocked rotor reactance = Xbr = Zbr
2
− Rbr
2

Losses and Efficiency: Efficiency of induction machines:

There are three cases in iron losses. Output power

Generally, efficiency =
Input power
Case (i): If the ratio of voltage to frequency is constant and flux is also constant then:
Iron loss = Hysteresis loss + eddy current loss Net mechanical output
 Efficiency of induction motor =
Electrical power input
Ph = Kh + Bm1.6, Pe = Kef2 Bm2
Net electrical output
Given:
v
is constant. As Bm 
v  Efficiency of induction generator =
f f Mechanical power input

 Bm is constant. GD Psc − 3Iscr1

2
 =
GF 3I2scr1
 Ph  f and Pe  f 2

2
Case (ii): If the ratio of voltage to frequency is not constant and flux is also not constant GD I22r2 r2  I2 
Wound rotor: = =  
GF I12r1 r1  I1 
v
  const   const
f Direct-on line (across the line) starting:
1.6
Ph = Khf Bm Pe = Kef2Bm2 • The relation between starting torque and full load torque is
 Ph  v1.6 f −0.6 Pe  v2 1 r
Te =  I22 2
s s
Case (iii): If frequency is constant and voltage is variable then:
Ph = Khf Bm1.6 Pe = Khf2Bm2 r2
I22,st 2
Te,st r1 I 
v
1.6
 = =  2,st   Sf1
= Khf   Te,f1 r2  I2,f1 
I22,ft
f sr1

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The above equation valid for rotor resistance remains constant.  VL 

2

 
= 
Te,st I 
2
Starting torque with star delta starter 3 1
=  st   Sf1 • 2
=
Te,f1 Starting torque with direct switching in delta  VL  3
 Ifl 
Where,  Star delta starter also reduces the starting torque to one-third of that produce by direct

Ist
=
(Effective rotor to stator turns ratio ) I2,st switching in delta.
If1 (Effective rotor to stator turns ratio ) I2,s1 • With star – delta starter, a motor behaves as if it were started by an auto transformer starter

• Per phase short – circuit current at stand still (or at starting) is, 1
with x = = 0.58 i.e. with 58% tapping.
3
v
Isc = 1
( )
zsc 1 2 r
2
I
Starting torque with star delta starter, Te,st ws st,y 1
Where, Zsc = (r1 + r2) + j(x1 + x2) • =
Starting torque with direct switching in delta, Tef1d 1
(I ) r2
2

Here shunt branch parameters of equivalent circuit are neglected. ws st,d Sf1
• Therefore, for direct switching. 2
 1 
v  Ist,d  2
Ist = Isc = 1
= 
3   S = 1  Isc d   S
zsc  
(If1,d )
2 f1 f1
3  If1d 
2
Test  Isc 
 =   Sf1 ***
Tesf  If1 
Stator resistor (or reactor) starting:
Since per phase voltage is reduced to xv, the per phase starting current I st is given by
xv1
Ist = = xIsc
zsc
2 2
Test  Isc   xI 
As be fore  =   Sf1 =  sc  Sf1
Tesf  If1   If1 

In an induction motor, torque  ( Voltage )

2
•
2
Starting torque with reactor starting  xv1 
 =  =x
2

Starting torque with direct switching  v1 

Auto transformer starting:

• Per phase starting current from the supply mains is I st = x2Isc
Te,st Per phase starrting current in motor windin g
=  Sf1
Te,f1 Per phase motor full load current

Te,st Ist Isc

=  Sf1
Te,f1 I2f1
2
Te,st with an auto transformer  xv 
=  1  = x2
Te,st with direct switching  v1 
Star – Delta method of Starting:

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