Optical Fibre Communication

Fibre-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another by

sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that
is modulated to carry information. Fibre is preferred over electrical cabling when high bandwidth,
long distance, or immunity to electromagnetic interference are required.

First developed in the 1970s, fibre-optics have revolutionised the telecommunications industry and
have played a major role in the advent of the Information Age. Because of its advantages over
electrical transmission, optical fibres have largely replaced copper wire communications in core
networks in the developed world.
The process of communicating using fibre-optics involves the following basic steps:
1. creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter,` usually from an electrical
signal
2. relaying the signal along the fibre, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or
weak
3. receiving the optical signal
4. converting it into an electrical signal

Advantages of Optical Fibres

1. Wider bandwidth
2. Low transmission loss
3. Dielectric waveguide
4. Signal security
5. Small size and weight

Block Diagram of Basic Optical Fibre System

Optical Fibre

Optical Fibre Cable

Working of Optical Fibre

Types of Optical Fibre

Can be classified in three ways:

1. Step Index Multimode Fibre : Step Index Fibre has a large core, up to 100 microns in diameter.
As a result, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route,
whereas others zigzag as they bounce off the cladding.

2. Graded - Index Multimode Fibre : It contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes
gradually from the centre axis out toward the cladding. The higher refractive index at the centre
makes the light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding.
3. Single Mode Fibre : It has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the index of refraction
between the core and the cladding changes less than it does for multimode fibres. Light thus
travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Telephone and cable television
networks install millions of kilometres of this fibre every year.

Multiplexing

The technique used to provide a number of circuits using a single transmission link is called
Multiplexing.

Types of Multiplexing

• Frequency Division Multiplexing - FDM : Process of translating individual speech circuits (300 -
3400 Hz) into pre-assigned frequency slots wishing the bandwidth of the transmission medium.

• Time Division Multiplexing - TDM : It is basically sharing a transmission medium by a number

circuits in time domain by establishing a sequence of time slots during which individual channels
can be transmitted. Thus the periodically available to each channel.

Pulse Code Modulation

Digital scheme for transmitting analog data. It involves five steps :

1. Filtering
2. Sampling
3. Quantisation
4. Encoding
5. Line Coding

SDH

SDH stands for Synchronous Digital Hierarchy. This is the information structure used to support
information pay load and overhead information. SDH are standardised protocols that transfer
multiple digital bit streams synchronously over optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent light
from light-emitting diodes (LEDs). The frame structure contains 9 rows and number of columns
depending upon synchronous transfer mode level (STM).

DWDM

DWDM stands for Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing. The existing SDH network
architecture is best suited for voice traffic rather than today’s high-speed data traffic. To meet the
requirement needs to develop an intelligent all-optical network. So WDM was developed. By the
late 1990s DWDM systems had evolved to the point where they were capable of 64 to 160 parallel
channels, densely packed at 50 or even 25 GHz intervals.
FTTH

Today, fibre networks come in many varieties, depending on the termination point: building
(FTTB), home (FTTH), curb (FTTC) etc. For simplicity, most people have begun to refer to the
fibre network as FTTx, in which x stands for the termination point. As telecommunications
providers consider the best method for delivering fibre to their subscribers, they have a variety of
FTTx architectures to consider. FTTH, FTTB, and FTTC each have different configurations and
characteristics.

FTTH is now a cost-effective alternative to the traditional copper loop. “Fiber to the Home” is
defined as a telecommunications architecture in which a communications path is provided over
optical fiber cables extending from an Optical Line Terminal (OLT) unit located in central office
(CO) connects to an Optical Network Terminal (ONT) at each premise. Both OLTs and ONTs are
active devices. This communications path is provided for the purpose of carrying
telecommunications traffic to one or more subscribers and for one or more services (for example
Internet Access, Telephony and/or Video-Television). FTTH consists of a single optical fiber cable
from the base station to the home. The optical/electrical signals are converted and connection to the
user’s PC via an Ethernet card. FTTH is the final configuration of access networks using optical
fiber cable.
 Mobile Communication

Objectives :

• Low cost

• Flexibility

• Innovative services

• Standard Interfaces

• Anytime Anywhere

• Mobility and Roaming

• High capacity and subs. density

• Efficient use of radio spectrum

• Seamless Network Architecture

GSM

Global system for mobile communication (GSM) is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular
communication. GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a
common European mobile telephone standard that would formulate specifications for a pan-
European mobile cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz. It is estimated that many countries
outside of Europe will join the GSM partnership.

The Switching System

The switching system (SS) is responsible for performing call processing and subscriber-related
functions. The switching system includes the following functional units:

• Home Location Register (HLR)—The HLR is a database used for storage and management
of subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most important database, as it stores permanent
data about subscribers, including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and
activity status. When an individual buys a subscription from one of the PCS operators, he or
she is registered in the HLR of that operator.
 • Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSC)—The MSC performs the telephony switching
functions of the system. It controls calls to and from other telephone and data systems. It
also performs such functions as toll ticketing, network interfacing, common channel
signalling, and others.

• Visitor Location Register (VLR)—The VLR is a database that contains temporary

information about subscribers that is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting
subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into
a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station
from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR will have the information
needed for call setup without having to interrogate the HLR each time.

• Authentication Centre (AUC)—A unit called the AUC provides authentication and
encryption parameters that verify the user's identity and ensure the confidentiality of each
call. The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud found in today's
cellular world.

• Equipment Identity Register (EIR)—The EIR is a database that contains information about
the identity of mobile equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorised, or defective
mobile stations. The AUC and EIR are implemented as stand-alone nodes or as a combined
AUC/EIR node.

The Base Station System (BSS) 


All radio-related functions are performed in the BSS, which consists of base station controllers
(BSCs) and the base transceiver stations (BTSs).

• BSC—The BSC provides all the control functions and physical links between the MSC and
BTS. It is a high-capacity switch that provides functions such as handover, cell
configuration data, and control of radio frequency (RF) power levels in base transceiver
stations. A number of BSCs are served by an MSC.

• BTS—The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. The BTS is the radio
equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to service each cell in the network. A group of
BTSs are controlled by a BSC.
GSM Specifications

Specifications for different personal communication services (PCS) systems vary among the
different PCS networks. Listed below is a description of the specifications and characteristics for
GSM.

• frequency band—The frequency range specified for GSM is 1,850 to 1,990 MHz (mobile
station to base station).

• duplex distance—The duplex distance is 80 MHz. Duplex distance is the distance between
the uplink and downlink frequencies. A channel has two frequencies, 80 MHz apart.

• channel separation—The separation between adjacent carrier frequencies. In GSM, this is

200 kHz.

• modulation—Modulation is the process of sending a signal by changing the characteristics

of a carrier frequency. This is done in GSM via Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK).

• transmission rate—GSM is a digital system with an over-the-air bit rate of 270 kbps.

• access method—GSM utilizes the time division multiple access (TDMA) concept. TDMA
is a technique in which several different calls may share the same carrier. Each call is
assigned a particular time slot.

• speech coder—GSM uses linear predictive coding (LPC). The purpose of LPC is to reduce
the bit rate. The LPC provides parameters for a filter that mimics the vocal tract. The signal
passes through this filter, leaving behind a residual signal. Speech is encoded at 13 kbps. 

GSM Architecture
 Mobile Phone Generations

2nd Generation

2G (or 2-G) provides three primary benefits over their predecessors: phone conversations are
digitally encrypted; 2G systems are significantly more efficient on the spectrum allowing for far
greater mobile phone penetration levels; and 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with
SMS (Short Message Service) plain text-based messages. 2G technologies enable the various
mobile phone networks to provide the services such as text messages, picture messages and MMS
(Multimedia Message Service). It has 3 main services: Bearer services is one of them which is also
known as data services and communication. 2nd generations technologies were mainly :
CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access) and GSM(Global System for Mobile).

3rd Generation

3rd generation was established standardisation of mobile technology. An organisation named 3GPP
(3rd Generation Partnership Project) was established to decide all the standards of the mobile
technology. CDMA2000 is a family of 3G mobile technology standards for sending voice, data, and
signalling data between mobile phones and cell sites. It is a backwards-compatible successor to
second-generation cdmaOne (IS-95) set of standards. Different technologies of 3rd generation were
HSPA(High Speed Packet Access) and HSPA+.

4th Generation

4G provides, in addition to the usual voice and other services of 3G, mobile broadband Internet
access, for example to laptops with wireless modems, to smartphones, and to other mobile devices.
Potential and current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming
services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, 3D television, and cloud computing.
LTE(Long Term Evolution) is a mobile Internet technology standard. Since we hold a tradition of
representing mobile technology in generations, we call it as 4th generation Mobile technology. 4G
is just a common name given to LTE. This is primarily designed only for data . Theoretically, LTE
supports download speed of 100 Mbps and upload speed of 50 Mbps. One more variant of LTE is
LTE-Advanced, which supports download speed of 1 Gbps and upload speed of 500Mbps. VoLTE
(Voice over LTE) VoLTE is a technology where simultaneously you can send voice and data over
the network. So, we can say this is designed for both voice and data traffic. In LTE, if you make a
voice call and you also keep your data connection on, the quality of voice will reduce. So, in order
to make a good quality voice call, you will have to switch off data. In 3G, while you are making
phone call, to preserve voice quality some phones will automatically stop data services.
But in case of VoLTE, the voice quality will not reduce even if your data connection is on. With
VoLTE it is very easy to transmit telephone conversation over the data network. Compared to
LTE ,VoLte has better advantages.

5th Generation

5G is a generation currently under development. It denotes the next major phase of

mobile telecommunications standards beyond the current 4G/IMT-Advanced
standards.