1 a) Test tube

 A common piece of laboratory glass ware consisting of a finger like length open at the top and
closed at the bottom
 Used in chemical reaction
 Made from expansion – resistant glasses i.e., Borosilicate glass/ fused quartz can with stand high
temperature upto several hundred degree Celsius.
 They are typically from 10 to 20 mm wide and 50 to 200 mm long.

1 b) Boiling tube

 A small cylindrical vessel used to strongly heat substances in the flame of a Bunsen flame.
 It is about 50% larger and looks like a test tube.
 It is made from Borosilicate glass.
 It can withstand high temperature.

1 c) Conical flask/ Erlen meyer flask / Titration flask:

 It is named after German Chemist “Emil Erlen Meyer” created in 1909.

 A laboratory flask which features a flat bottom, a conical body and a cylinder neck.
 It is used to mix by swirling without risk of spillage during titrations.
 It is also used in microbiology for the preparation of microbial cultures.

1 d) Beaker:

 Glassware with cylindrical in shape and flat bottom

 These are available in a wide range of sizes from 1ml to several litres
 It is made of Borosilicate glass

These are used for

 Preparing solutions
 Decanting supernatant liquid
 Also used for titrations

1 e) Flat bottomed flask:

 A type of flask with tubular section and spherical or flat bottoms used as laboratory glassware
mostly for chemical or biochemical work
 It is made up of heat resistant Borosilicate

These are used for

 Heating/boiling of liquid
 Distillation
  Storage the culture media.

1 f) Glass rod/Glass stirring rod/ Stirring rod/ stir rod:

 A lab equipment which is slightly longer than a drinking straw with rounded ends.
 It is used to mix chemicals and liquids.
 It is made of solid glass
 It is also used in crystallization.

1 g) Funnel

 A funnel is a pipe with a wide (often conical) mouth and a narrow stem.
 It is used to send liquid or fine-grained substances into containers with a small
opening with out spillage.
 Funnels are usually made of stainless steel, aluminium, glass, or plastic.
 stainless steel or glass are useful in transferring diesel
 plastic funnels are useful in the kitchen.

2a) Test tube stand:

 Test tube rack is laboratory equipment that is used to keep multiple test tubes at the same
time.

It is used for safety reasons like

 Safety storage of test tubes

 Easy to transport of multiple tubes

2b) test tube holder:

 A kind of iron tong provided with wooden or plastic handle.

 It is used for holding test tube, when a substance is being heated.

2c) iron stand:

 It is used for holding glass apparatus generally a round or flat bottomed flask in a specific
position.

2d) tripod stand:

 It is a triangular hollow frame provided with 3 legs.

 It is used for supporting glass apparatus during heating

2 e) spirit lamp / alcohol burner:

 Laboratory equipment used to produce an open flame.

 It can be made from brass, glass, stainless steel or aluminium
  Their flame is limited to approximately two inches (5 centimeters) in height,
 It gives a comparatively lower temperature than the gas flame of the Bunsen burner.
 It is filled with denatured alcohol ( methylated spirit, methanol or isopropanol.
 A cap is used as a snuffer for extinguishing the flame
 It is preferred for safety purposes and where natural gas is not available.

2 f) Bunsen burner:

 A Bunsen burner, named after Robert Bunsen

 it is a common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas flame
 it is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion.
 The gas can be natural gas (which is mainly methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas, such
as propane, butane, or a mixture of both.

2 g) Wire Gauze:

 It is an iron wire mesh provided with a thin sheet of asbestos in the middle.
 It distributes heat from the burner evenly to the glass apparatus
 It prevents the cracking during heating.

3a) Pipette:

 It is a long narrow tube provided with a nozzle at one end and bulb in the middle.
 A circular mark is made in its neck which signifies the volume of liquid, it can measure.
 It is used in chemistry, biology and medicine as a media dispenser
 It is used for measuring fixed volume of liquid chemicals.
 It is also used for transferring the liquids to another vessel.

3 b) Burette:

 A burette (also buret) is a laboratory equipment used in analytical chemistry

 It is used for the dispensing of variable amount of a chemical solution .
 It is a long, graduated glass tube, with a stopcock at its lower end.
 The flow of liquid from the tube to the burette tip is controlled by the stopcock valve.

3 c) graduated cylinder / measuring cylinder / mixing cylinder:

 A piece of laboratory equipment which has cylindrical glass vessel provided with a flat base
and a lip near the top.
 It is used for measuring and pouring a fixed volume into another vessel.
 Each marked line on the graduated cylinder represents the amount of liquid that has been
measured.

3 d) china dish/ evaporating dish / watch glass:

 It is made from porcelain or Borosilicate glass

 It is used for evaporating chemicals in the form of solutions by heating.
 It is also used to evaporate excess solvents - most commonly water - to produce a
concentrated solution or a solid precipitate of the dissolved substance.

3 e) Pestle and mortar:

 It is made from glazed porcelain.

 A kitchen device used since ancient times to prepare ingredients or substances by
crushing and grinding them into a fine paste or powder
 The solid substances are placed in mortar and then gently grinded with pestle to become
powder.
Antacid:

 An antacid is a substance which neutralizes stomach acidity.

 It is used to relieve heartburn, indigestion or an upset stomach.

Cause of acidity:

 When excessive amounts of acids are produced in the stomach the natural mucous barrier
that protects the lining of the stomach can damage the esophagus in people with acid reflux

Symptoms of acid reflux include

 The taste of acid in the back of the mouth,

 heartburn,
 bad breath,
 chest pain,
 Vomiting
 breathing problems
 Wearing away of the teeth.

Mechanism of action:

Antacids contain alkaline ions that chemically neutralize stomach gastric acid, reducing damage and
relieving pain.

Formulations:

Antacids may be formulated with other active ingredients such as simethicone to

control gas or alginic acid to act as a physical barrier to acid.

Examples of antacids include:

Natural antacid:
Baking soda:

Mix between 1/2 and 1 teaspoon of baking soda with a glass of water to neutralize acid
and temporarily alleviate heartburn caused by acid reflux.
  If you have heartburn regularly, avoid using this remedy.
 It is high in salt and could cause side effects like swelling and nausea.

Juices:

 Aloe Vera Juice

 Pineapple Juice
 Vegetable Juice

Fruits:

 Apples
 Bananas
 Grapes

Herbs and spices:

Basil (Tulasi):

 Basil leaves also help in relieving heartburn, as well as combating nausea and gas.
 Chewing 2 to 3 basil leaves minimizes stomach acid

Chamomile tea (chamanthi ):

 Chamomile tea has been used to help neutralize stomach acid.

 It is also used by people as a stress reliever

Cinnamon (dalchina chekka)

 We can also make teas made of crushed cinnamon or cardamom to cool the heat of
heartburn.
 Add 1 teaspoon of either crushed or powdered herb to 1 cup boiling water, steep, strain and
drink

Fennel ( saunf) :

 According to herbalists, tea made from fennel seed can ease the burn of heartburn.
 Add 2 teaspoons of any of them to 1 cup of boiling water, steep for 10 minutes, strain and
drink

Garlic (velluli):

 Fresh ginger is one of the oldest remedies for heartburn.

 It is also used to help treat nausea.
 Ginger can be added to food when it’s cooked, eaten raw, or consumed as ginger tea.
Combine 1 tbsp. of ginger and lemon juice with 2 tbsp. of honey in 8 oz. of warm water.
 Drink when you begin to feel the effects of indigestion.

Peppermint Oil:
  Peppermint oil is a regular ingredient in over-the-counter heartburn medicines and a great
cure for heartburn.

Turmeric:

 Turmeric helps stimulate digestion and prevent acid build-up, and is commonly found in
curried foods
 If you don’t want to use turmeric in your cooking, it is available in capsule form and can be
taken before meals.

 Alka-Seltzer.
 Milk of Magnesia.
 Alternagel
 Amphojel.
 Gaviscon
 Gelusil
 Maalox
 Mylanta
 Rolaids.
 Pepto-Bismol.
 Tums.
 Eno
Identifying the nature of soil
Aim: To identify the nature of the soil in the surrounding regions of ongole
Materials required: beaker, soil samples from different regions , water, funnel , conical
flask,